Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of chemical reactions. It enables the prediction of amounts of products formed from given amounts of reactants. Industrial stoichiometry applies this to macro-scale chemical processes. Material balances account for all mass entering and leaving an industrial process based on the law of conservation of mass. They can be written for total mass, individual compounds, or atomic elements. Material balances are useful for process design, development, evaluation, and daily operation.
This document provides information about the training received at National Fertilizers Limited (NFL) in Vijaipur, Guna, Madhya Pradesh, India. It discusses NFL's urea production process, including the key reactions, parameters, and equipment involved. It also provides specifications for the prilling tower and categories of urea produced. NFL is one of India's largest nitrogenous fertilizer producers and the first permitted to make neem-coated urea. It has four production units with a total daily urea production capacity of 5740 tons.
Manufacturing of sodium carbonate using solvay processrita martin
The Solvay process is the major industrial process for producing sodium carbonate. It involves purifying salt brine, dissolving ammonia in the brine, absorbing carbon dioxide in a reactor tower to form sodium bicarbonate, and heating the bicarbonate to produce sodium carbonate. The key reactions are: 1) NH3 + H2O + CO2 → NaHCO3, 2) 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2. The process recovers and recycles the ammonia.
Nahco3 and na2co3 manufacturing by solvay process Usama Pervaiz
The document describes the production process of sodium carbonate (soda ash) through the Solvay process. Key raw materials include salt, limestone, coal, ammonia, and deionized water. The 7-step process involves ammonia absorption, burning limestone to produce carbon dioxide, carbonation in a Solvay tower, separation of sodium bicarbonate, thermal decomposition to sodium carbonate, production of milk lime, and regeneration of ammonia. Sodium carbonate can be classified as heavy or light forms with different properties and uses such as in glass and detergents.
The production of ammonia involves the Haber-Bosch process, which was first developed in 1908 by Fritz Haber and industrialized in 1910 by Carl Bosch. This process involves the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressures and temperatures over a catalyst to produce ammonia. Modern ammonia plants first produce hydrogen from methane and then combine the hydrogen with nitrogen in the ammonia synthesis loop to produce liquid ammonia. The multi-step modern process removes impurities and achieves the necessary pressure and temperature conditions for the ammonia synthesis reaction.
Basic Thermal Power Plant Chemistry, for Operational Staff.Syed Aqeel Ahmed
The document provides an overview of water chemistry training for power plant operators. It discusses the importance of controlling water quality to prevent scale, corrosion, and biological growth in power plant systems. It covers external water treatment processes like clarification, filtration, and desalination. It also summarizes internal water treatment including oxygen scavenging, pH control, and use of chemicals like hydrazine. Key water quality parameters that are monitored like conductivity, pH, chlorides, and sodium are explained. The document provides troubleshooting guidance and emphasizes the importance of detecting condenser leakage to prevent contamination of boiler water.
The chlor-alkali process is an industrial process that uses electrolysis to produce chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen from salt water. It involves passing an electric current through a brine solution to drive the following reaction: 2NaCl + 2H2O → 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2. The process was first developed in the 1850s but improved in the 1890s with the mercury cell. Today, membrane and diaphragm cells are more commonly used, accounting for 60% and 14% of European production respectively. The main uses of the products are in polymers, pesticides, antiseptics, acid production, metallurgy, and the paper industry.
Excess property introduction
▪ Excess volume
▪ Excess gibbs free energy
▪ Entropy of mixing
▪ what is use of Residual property and Excess property
in thermodynamics
▪ Case study
▪ Thermo-calc demo
▪ conclusion
This document provides information about the training received at National Fertilizers Limited (NFL) in Vijaipur, Guna, Madhya Pradesh, India. It discusses NFL's urea production process, including the key reactions, parameters, and equipment involved. It also provides specifications for the prilling tower and categories of urea produced. NFL is one of India's largest nitrogenous fertilizer producers and the first permitted to make neem-coated urea. It has four production units with a total daily urea production capacity of 5740 tons.
Manufacturing of sodium carbonate using solvay processrita martin
The Solvay process is the major industrial process for producing sodium carbonate. It involves purifying salt brine, dissolving ammonia in the brine, absorbing carbon dioxide in a reactor tower to form sodium bicarbonate, and heating the bicarbonate to produce sodium carbonate. The key reactions are: 1) NH3 + H2O + CO2 → NaHCO3, 2) 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2. The process recovers and recycles the ammonia.
Nahco3 and na2co3 manufacturing by solvay process Usama Pervaiz
The document describes the production process of sodium carbonate (soda ash) through the Solvay process. Key raw materials include salt, limestone, coal, ammonia, and deionized water. The 7-step process involves ammonia absorption, burning limestone to produce carbon dioxide, carbonation in a Solvay tower, separation of sodium bicarbonate, thermal decomposition to sodium carbonate, production of milk lime, and regeneration of ammonia. Sodium carbonate can be classified as heavy or light forms with different properties and uses such as in glass and detergents.
The production of ammonia involves the Haber-Bosch process, which was first developed in 1908 by Fritz Haber and industrialized in 1910 by Carl Bosch. This process involves the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressures and temperatures over a catalyst to produce ammonia. Modern ammonia plants first produce hydrogen from methane and then combine the hydrogen with nitrogen in the ammonia synthesis loop to produce liquid ammonia. The multi-step modern process removes impurities and achieves the necessary pressure and temperature conditions for the ammonia synthesis reaction.
Basic Thermal Power Plant Chemistry, for Operational Staff.Syed Aqeel Ahmed
The document provides an overview of water chemistry training for power plant operators. It discusses the importance of controlling water quality to prevent scale, corrosion, and biological growth in power plant systems. It covers external water treatment processes like clarification, filtration, and desalination. It also summarizes internal water treatment including oxygen scavenging, pH control, and use of chemicals like hydrazine. Key water quality parameters that are monitored like conductivity, pH, chlorides, and sodium are explained. The document provides troubleshooting guidance and emphasizes the importance of detecting condenser leakage to prevent contamination of boiler water.
The chlor-alkali process is an industrial process that uses electrolysis to produce chlorine, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen from salt water. It involves passing an electric current through a brine solution to drive the following reaction: 2NaCl + 2H2O → 2NaOH + Cl2 + H2. The process was first developed in the 1850s but improved in the 1890s with the mercury cell. Today, membrane and diaphragm cells are more commonly used, accounting for 60% and 14% of European production respectively. The main uses of the products are in polymers, pesticides, antiseptics, acid production, metallurgy, and the paper industry.
Excess property introduction
▪ Excess volume
▪ Excess gibbs free energy
▪ Entropy of mixing
▪ what is use of Residual property and Excess property
in thermodynamics
▪ Case study
▪ Thermo-calc demo
▪ conclusion
Van Laar & NRTL Equation in Chemical Engineering ThermodynamicasSatish Movaliya
The document discusses various thermodynamic equations used to model liquid mixtures, including the Van Laar equation, Margules equation, and non-random two-liquid (NRTL) equation. The Van Laar equation relates activity coefficients to effective volume fractions and can be used for vapor-liquid equilibrium calculations. The Margules equation is a simplified case of the Van Laar equation when its constants A and B are equal. The NRTL equation is based on local composition concepts and adjustable parameters to model non-ideal and partially miscible systems.
it is a mass transfer operation use in chemical industries
it is a simple diffusion of solid to liquid phase and foam a new concentrate liquid solution
it is base on simple diffusion how to work in industries this operation
it is use for pharma, seeds and oil industries.
The document summarizes the extraction process of zirconium. Zircon sand is mined and purified to extract zirconium minerals. Zirconium chloride is produced via chlorination of zirconia and then reduced with magnesium using the Kroll process to produce zirconium sponge. The sponge is further purified using vacuum treatment to remove magnesium chloride and excess magnesium, producing ductile zirconium. Zirconium has applications in the nuclear industry as a cladding material due to its low neutron absorption cross-section and corrosion resistance at high temperatures in water. It is also used in alloys for aircraft applications due to strength retention at elevated temperatures.
The document discusses the refining and purification process of zinc. It begins with an introduction to zinc including its chemical formula, atomic number, and color. It then discusses the history of zinc discovery and production. The main uses of zinc are then outlined, followed by global zinc production and reserve statistics. The key steps in the zinc refining and purification process are then described in detail, including roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, melting and casting. Gas cleaning and sulfuric acid production are also summarized. Finally, the main applications of zinc in automotive, construction, hot dip galvanizing, and zinc castings are briefly outlined.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a clear, colorless, highly pungent solution of hydrogen chloride in water. It is an extremely important product of the chemical industry and used in many industrial processes
This document introduces unit operations in chemical engineering. It defines unit operations as physical treatment steps that make raw materials suitable for chemical reactions. The five main classes of unit operations are discussed: fluid flow processes, heat transfer processes, mass transfer processes, thermodynamic processes, and mechanical processes. Examples of common unit operations are provided like drying, mixing, filtration, and heat exchange. Important concepts in unit operations like heat capacity, driving forces, and resistance are outlined. Finally, sample conversion problems are presented between different unit systems for properties like energy, temperature, pressure and flowrates.
Soda ash manufacturing and process flow diagramUsama Pervaiz
The document discusses the production of sodium carbonate and baking soda via the Solvay process. It begins with an overview of the uses of sodium carbonate and its raw materials. It then provides the overall reaction and a process flow diagram depicting the major steps. These steps include: 1) ammonia absorption into salt water, 2) production of carbon dioxide from limestone, 3) carbonation to form sodium bicarbonate, 4) thermal decomposition to produce sodium carbonate, 5) regeneration of ammonia. The document concludes with some questions about the process.
The document discusses the basics of distillation column design. It explains that column design begins with building a model of how the chemicals will separate based on their properties like vapor pressure and boiling point. The model is used to identify the minimum number of theoretical stages or trays needed for effective separation. Key design considerations include parameters like flood ratio, weeping point, efficiency, reflux ratio, and HETP. The document also outlines the basic components of a distillation column like the condenser, reboiler, and trays or packing material. It notes the inputs needed from the client and outputs provided by an expert column designer.
Ammonia is produced industrially via the Haber-Bosch process. It involves reacting nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas at high pressures between 100-1000 atm and temperatures around 450°C with an iron catalyst. The process was developed in 1909 and allows ammonia to be synthesized from nitrogen in the air and hydrogen from methane. It is widely used to produce fertilizers and explosives. Other processes like the ICI process and Braun purifier process are also used but the Haber-Bosch process dominates due to its efficiency. Ammonia finds applications as a fertilizer, refrigerant, and in other industries.
Chemical Process Industry (Production of Caustic Soda & Chlorine)Dharisinee Dharsh
This document summarizes the process of electrolysis of salt water to produce chlorine and caustic soda. It describes how salt water is purified and passed through an electrolytic cell where an electric current splits it into sodium, chlorine, and hydrogen gas/hydroxide. The specific reactions and production processes vary depending on whether mercury, diaphragm, or membrane cells are used, but all utilize electricity to drive the decomposition of brine into its constituent elements.
The document discusses adsorption, which is the process by which a substance accumulates at the interface between a solid and liquid or gas phase. It defines key terms like adsorbate, adsorbent, and driving force. The document notes that activated carbon is commonly used as an adsorbent in wastewater treatment due to its high surface area. Factors affecting adsorption include surface area, particle size, contact time, and affinity between solute and adsorbent. Adsorption follows either a Langmuir, BET, or Freundlich isotherm model depending on the system. The Langmuir model assumes monolayer adsorption onto specific sites and can be derived using rate equations
The ammonia manufacturing process involves 6 key steps:
1) Hydrogen is produced from natural gas through steam reforming.
2) Nitrogen from air is added to the synthesis gas.
3) Carbon monoxide is removed through a water gas shift reaction.
4) Water is removed by condensation.
5) Carbon dioxide is removed using an MDEA solution.
6) The purified gas mixture is compressed and catalyzed over iron to produce ammonia.
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane ReformingSAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane Reforming
History of Synthesis Gas
In 1780, Felice Fontana discovered that combustible gas develops if water vapor is passed over carbon at temperatures over 500 °C. This CO and H2 containing gas was called water gas and mainly used for lighting purposes in the19th century.
As of the beginning of the 20th century, H2/CO-mixtures were used for syntheses of hydrocarbons and then, as a consequence, also called synthesis gas.
Haber and Bosch discovered the synthesis of ammonia from H2 and N2 in 1910 and the first industrial ammonia synthesis plant was commissioned in 1913.
The production of liquid hydrocarbons and oxygenates from syngas conversion over iron catalysts was discovered in 1923 by Fischer and Tropsch.
Much of the syngas conversion processes were being developed in Germany during the first and second world wars at a time when natural resources were becoming scare and alternative routes for hydrogen production, ammonia synthesis, and transportation fuels were a necessity.
In 1943/44, this was applied for large-scale production of artificial fuels from synthesis gas in Germany.
Chemistry related damage of components in thermal power plantSHIVAJI CHOUDHURY
This document discusses various types of chemical damage that can occur to components in a thermal power plant. It outlines corrosion mechanisms that affect the turbine, steam pipes, condenser tubes, feedwater heaters and boiler components. Some key corrosion issues mentioned include stress corrosion cracking, deposition, pitting, erosion and flow accelerated corrosion. The document also provides recommendations to reduce deposition through improved water treatment and chemistry optimization.
The document discusses various thermal cracking and catalytic cracking processes used in the oil refining industry to break down heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter products such as gasoline. It describes processes such as steam cracking, catalytic cracking, hydrocracking, thermal cracking, visbreaking, and coking. It provides details on the operating conditions, reactions, equipment used, and products of each process. The goal of these cracking processes is to produce more valuable and widely used products from heavy oil fractions.
sufficient method of hydrogen production by water gas shift reactions MUKULsethi5
today energy production in big race, because population and technology increasing rate is very fast,
we discussed hydrogen as good energy source and some synthesis method of hydrogen gas and major focus on water gas shift reaction
#water, #watergasshiftreaction,
#energy
#nanoparticle
#property_of_nanopartical
HCl manufacturing salt sulphuric acid processjmrobert987
This document discusses the production and manufacturing of hydrochloric acid (HCl). HCl exists as a solution of hydrogen chloride gas in water and can exist in solid, liquid, and gas states. It has been produced since the 15th century through various methods. Today, the most common method is absorbing the hydrogen chloride by-product from other chemical manufacturing processes, such as chlorinating hydrocarbons. HCl is manufactured through processes like reacting salt and sulfuric acid, synthesizing from hydrogen and chlorine gas, absorbing by-products, and more. When produced from salt and sulfuric acid, the reactants are heated in a furnace to produce HCl gas and sodium sulfate as a byproduct. The hot H
Co-production of allyl chloride & 1,3-dichloropropene (soil fumigant)Jae Cho
This document presents a conceptual design for the co-production of allyl chloride (AC) and 1,3-dichloropropene (13DE) via the chlorination of propylene. Key aspects of the proposed process include:
- Reaction of propylene and chlorine in a plug flow reactor (PFR) at 400°C and 15 bar to selectively produce AC and 13DE.
- Use of a series of heat exchangers (HEX), absorbers, and distillation columns to separate and purify the products from byproducts like 1,2-dichloropropane (12DA).
- Economic analysis showing a payback time of 4.7 years,
Leaching process (solid-liquid extraction)Asim Farooq
This document defines and provides examples of the leaching process. Leaching involves extracting a substance from a solid material by contact with a liquid. A simple example given is making green tea, where steeping a green tea bag in hot water extracts the green flavor from the solid bag into the liquid water. The principle of leaching is that it can be done in batches, semi-batches, or continuously at an elevated temperature to increase solubility. Common uses of leaching include extracting minerals from ores in the metals industry, sugar from beets in the sugar industry, and oil from seeds in the oilseeds industry.
1. Ammonia is produced through the Haber process where nitrogen and hydrogen react over an iron catalyst at high temperatures and pressures.
2. Hydrogen is produced from natural gas through steam reforming, and nitrogen is obtained from air.
3. The synthesis gas undergoes several purification steps including desulfurization, shift conversion and CO2 removal before being compressed and fed into the ammonia reactor.
4. In the ammonia reactor, only 10-20% of the gases react to form ammonia, with the unreacted gases recycled and fresh gases added to maintain equilibrium.
Introduction to Carbon Footprint Calculation and the Importance Janathakshan Gte Ltd
A presentation by Janathakshan on GHG, its impact, climate change and global warming, carbon footprint and global situation and the importance of measuring it.
Thermal utilization (treatment) of plastic waste.Om Prakash Rajak
The document summarizes research on a thermal utilization installation for treating plastic waste. Tests were conducted on an industrial scale plant that manufactures plastic tape. The system utilized a rotating kiln and heat recovery boiler. Testing evaluated energy efficiency, environmental emissions, and economic viability. Results found high combustion temperatures, efficient heat recovery, emissions below standards, and favorable economics with payback of 4.5 years. The system demonstrated an effective approach for plastic waste treatment with energy recovery.
Van Laar & NRTL Equation in Chemical Engineering ThermodynamicasSatish Movaliya
The document discusses various thermodynamic equations used to model liquid mixtures, including the Van Laar equation, Margules equation, and non-random two-liquid (NRTL) equation. The Van Laar equation relates activity coefficients to effective volume fractions and can be used for vapor-liquid equilibrium calculations. The Margules equation is a simplified case of the Van Laar equation when its constants A and B are equal. The NRTL equation is based on local composition concepts and adjustable parameters to model non-ideal and partially miscible systems.
it is a mass transfer operation use in chemical industries
it is a simple diffusion of solid to liquid phase and foam a new concentrate liquid solution
it is base on simple diffusion how to work in industries this operation
it is use for pharma, seeds and oil industries.
The document summarizes the extraction process of zirconium. Zircon sand is mined and purified to extract zirconium minerals. Zirconium chloride is produced via chlorination of zirconia and then reduced with magnesium using the Kroll process to produce zirconium sponge. The sponge is further purified using vacuum treatment to remove magnesium chloride and excess magnesium, producing ductile zirconium. Zirconium has applications in the nuclear industry as a cladding material due to its low neutron absorption cross-section and corrosion resistance at high temperatures in water. It is also used in alloys for aircraft applications due to strength retention at elevated temperatures.
The document discusses the refining and purification process of zinc. It begins with an introduction to zinc including its chemical formula, atomic number, and color. It then discusses the history of zinc discovery and production. The main uses of zinc are then outlined, followed by global zinc production and reserve statistics. The key steps in the zinc refining and purification process are then described in detail, including roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, melting and casting. Gas cleaning and sulfuric acid production are also summarized. Finally, the main applications of zinc in automotive, construction, hot dip galvanizing, and zinc castings are briefly outlined.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a clear, colorless, highly pungent solution of hydrogen chloride in water. It is an extremely important product of the chemical industry and used in many industrial processes
This document introduces unit operations in chemical engineering. It defines unit operations as physical treatment steps that make raw materials suitable for chemical reactions. The five main classes of unit operations are discussed: fluid flow processes, heat transfer processes, mass transfer processes, thermodynamic processes, and mechanical processes. Examples of common unit operations are provided like drying, mixing, filtration, and heat exchange. Important concepts in unit operations like heat capacity, driving forces, and resistance are outlined. Finally, sample conversion problems are presented between different unit systems for properties like energy, temperature, pressure and flowrates.
Soda ash manufacturing and process flow diagramUsama Pervaiz
The document discusses the production of sodium carbonate and baking soda via the Solvay process. It begins with an overview of the uses of sodium carbonate and its raw materials. It then provides the overall reaction and a process flow diagram depicting the major steps. These steps include: 1) ammonia absorption into salt water, 2) production of carbon dioxide from limestone, 3) carbonation to form sodium bicarbonate, 4) thermal decomposition to produce sodium carbonate, 5) regeneration of ammonia. The document concludes with some questions about the process.
The document discusses the basics of distillation column design. It explains that column design begins with building a model of how the chemicals will separate based on their properties like vapor pressure and boiling point. The model is used to identify the minimum number of theoretical stages or trays needed for effective separation. Key design considerations include parameters like flood ratio, weeping point, efficiency, reflux ratio, and HETP. The document also outlines the basic components of a distillation column like the condenser, reboiler, and trays or packing material. It notes the inputs needed from the client and outputs provided by an expert column designer.
Ammonia is produced industrially via the Haber-Bosch process. It involves reacting nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas at high pressures between 100-1000 atm and temperatures around 450°C with an iron catalyst. The process was developed in 1909 and allows ammonia to be synthesized from nitrogen in the air and hydrogen from methane. It is widely used to produce fertilizers and explosives. Other processes like the ICI process and Braun purifier process are also used but the Haber-Bosch process dominates due to its efficiency. Ammonia finds applications as a fertilizer, refrigerant, and in other industries.
Chemical Process Industry (Production of Caustic Soda & Chlorine)Dharisinee Dharsh
This document summarizes the process of electrolysis of salt water to produce chlorine and caustic soda. It describes how salt water is purified and passed through an electrolytic cell where an electric current splits it into sodium, chlorine, and hydrogen gas/hydroxide. The specific reactions and production processes vary depending on whether mercury, diaphragm, or membrane cells are used, but all utilize electricity to drive the decomposition of brine into its constituent elements.
The document discusses adsorption, which is the process by which a substance accumulates at the interface between a solid and liquid or gas phase. It defines key terms like adsorbate, adsorbent, and driving force. The document notes that activated carbon is commonly used as an adsorbent in wastewater treatment due to its high surface area. Factors affecting adsorption include surface area, particle size, contact time, and affinity between solute and adsorbent. Adsorption follows either a Langmuir, BET, or Freundlich isotherm model depending on the system. The Langmuir model assumes monolayer adsorption onto specific sites and can be derived using rate equations
The ammonia manufacturing process involves 6 key steps:
1) Hydrogen is produced from natural gas through steam reforming.
2) Nitrogen from air is added to the synthesis gas.
3) Carbon monoxide is removed through a water gas shift reaction.
4) Water is removed by condensation.
5) Carbon dioxide is removed using an MDEA solution.
6) The purified gas mixture is compressed and catalyzed over iron to produce ammonia.
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane ReformingSAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane Reforming
History of Synthesis Gas
In 1780, Felice Fontana discovered that combustible gas develops if water vapor is passed over carbon at temperatures over 500 °C. This CO and H2 containing gas was called water gas and mainly used for lighting purposes in the19th century.
As of the beginning of the 20th century, H2/CO-mixtures were used for syntheses of hydrocarbons and then, as a consequence, also called synthesis gas.
Haber and Bosch discovered the synthesis of ammonia from H2 and N2 in 1910 and the first industrial ammonia synthesis plant was commissioned in 1913.
The production of liquid hydrocarbons and oxygenates from syngas conversion over iron catalysts was discovered in 1923 by Fischer and Tropsch.
Much of the syngas conversion processes were being developed in Germany during the first and second world wars at a time when natural resources were becoming scare and alternative routes for hydrogen production, ammonia synthesis, and transportation fuels were a necessity.
In 1943/44, this was applied for large-scale production of artificial fuels from synthesis gas in Germany.
Chemistry related damage of components in thermal power plantSHIVAJI CHOUDHURY
This document discusses various types of chemical damage that can occur to components in a thermal power plant. It outlines corrosion mechanisms that affect the turbine, steam pipes, condenser tubes, feedwater heaters and boiler components. Some key corrosion issues mentioned include stress corrosion cracking, deposition, pitting, erosion and flow accelerated corrosion. The document also provides recommendations to reduce deposition through improved water treatment and chemistry optimization.
The document discusses various thermal cracking and catalytic cracking processes used in the oil refining industry to break down heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter products such as gasoline. It describes processes such as steam cracking, catalytic cracking, hydrocracking, thermal cracking, visbreaking, and coking. It provides details on the operating conditions, reactions, equipment used, and products of each process. The goal of these cracking processes is to produce more valuable and widely used products from heavy oil fractions.
sufficient method of hydrogen production by water gas shift reactions MUKULsethi5
today energy production in big race, because population and technology increasing rate is very fast,
we discussed hydrogen as good energy source and some synthesis method of hydrogen gas and major focus on water gas shift reaction
#water, #watergasshiftreaction,
#energy
#nanoparticle
#property_of_nanopartical
HCl manufacturing salt sulphuric acid processjmrobert987
This document discusses the production and manufacturing of hydrochloric acid (HCl). HCl exists as a solution of hydrogen chloride gas in water and can exist in solid, liquid, and gas states. It has been produced since the 15th century through various methods. Today, the most common method is absorbing the hydrogen chloride by-product from other chemical manufacturing processes, such as chlorinating hydrocarbons. HCl is manufactured through processes like reacting salt and sulfuric acid, synthesizing from hydrogen and chlorine gas, absorbing by-products, and more. When produced from salt and sulfuric acid, the reactants are heated in a furnace to produce HCl gas and sodium sulfate as a byproduct. The hot H
Co-production of allyl chloride & 1,3-dichloropropene (soil fumigant)Jae Cho
This document presents a conceptual design for the co-production of allyl chloride (AC) and 1,3-dichloropropene (13DE) via the chlorination of propylene. Key aspects of the proposed process include:
- Reaction of propylene and chlorine in a plug flow reactor (PFR) at 400°C and 15 bar to selectively produce AC and 13DE.
- Use of a series of heat exchangers (HEX), absorbers, and distillation columns to separate and purify the products from byproducts like 1,2-dichloropropane (12DA).
- Economic analysis showing a payback time of 4.7 years,
Leaching process (solid-liquid extraction)Asim Farooq
This document defines and provides examples of the leaching process. Leaching involves extracting a substance from a solid material by contact with a liquid. A simple example given is making green tea, where steeping a green tea bag in hot water extracts the green flavor from the solid bag into the liquid water. The principle of leaching is that it can be done in batches, semi-batches, or continuously at an elevated temperature to increase solubility. Common uses of leaching include extracting minerals from ores in the metals industry, sugar from beets in the sugar industry, and oil from seeds in the oilseeds industry.
1. Ammonia is produced through the Haber process where nitrogen and hydrogen react over an iron catalyst at high temperatures and pressures.
2. Hydrogen is produced from natural gas through steam reforming, and nitrogen is obtained from air.
3. The synthesis gas undergoes several purification steps including desulfurization, shift conversion and CO2 removal before being compressed and fed into the ammonia reactor.
4. In the ammonia reactor, only 10-20% of the gases react to form ammonia, with the unreacted gases recycled and fresh gases added to maintain equilibrium.
Introduction to Carbon Footprint Calculation and the Importance Janathakshan Gte Ltd
A presentation by Janathakshan on GHG, its impact, climate change and global warming, carbon footprint and global situation and the importance of measuring it.
Thermal utilization (treatment) of plastic waste.Om Prakash Rajak
The document summarizes research on a thermal utilization installation for treating plastic waste. Tests were conducted on an industrial scale plant that manufactures plastic tape. The system utilized a rotating kiln and heat recovery boiler. Testing evaluated energy efficiency, environmental emissions, and economic viability. Results found high combustion temperatures, efficient heat recovery, emissions below standards, and favorable economics with payback of 4.5 years. The system demonstrated an effective approach for plastic waste treatment with energy recovery.
This document discusses evaporative cooling technologies for mitigating the urban heat island effect. It reviews literature showing that water features like ponds and fountains can lower air temperatures by around 2.5°C. Small-scale interventions using water spraying were found to have the highest local impact. The study aims to investigate how blue technologies interact with microclimate and urban environments under climate change. It describes a structure with nozzles and shields that reduced air temperatures by 20% through evaporative cooling. Basic HVAC processes are outlined, including sensible heating/cooling and latent humidifying/dehumidifying. Figures show the test location and aluminum support structure used.
Currently, in Pakistan, there are six major producers of fertilizers which include Fauji Fertilizer, Engro Fertilizer Company, Dawood Hercules, and Fatima Fertilizers. Media reports suggest that the Chinese government is keenly looking for avenues to enter Pakistan's agriculture and fertilizer sector.
The two types of fertilizers - inorganic and organic. In the broadest sense, all types of fertilizers include any substance, living, or inorganic which aids in plant growth and health. We exclude water, CO2, and sunlight.
The document discusses energy balances for open systems. It begins by outlining the key concepts to be covered, including energy balances for open unsteady and steady state systems, and their application to heat exchangers. For unsteady systems, the accumulation term is non-zero due to changing mass or energy within the system. For steady systems, accumulation is zero. The document then provides examples and homework problems to illustrate these concepts and energy balance equations for different open systems.
This document proposes designing an anaerobic digestion system to process food waste from Clemson University's dining halls. Over 300 tons of food waste is produced annually. An anaerobic digester would allow the waste to be converted into biogas, primarily methane, which could be used to generate electricity and reduce Clemson's reliance on non-renewable energy. The proposed design involves sizing a continuous stirred-tank reactor to handle food waste and paper inputs. Calculations are shown to determine reactor volume, mixing requirements, heating needs, and estimated biogas and energy yields from the system. Safety measures for the reactor are also outlined.
This document discusses heat stress and heat-related illnesses that can affect workers. It describes how heat from the environment and physical activity can overload the body's ability to regulate temperature. Factors like temperature, humidity, air movement, clothing and metabolic heat from work influence heat stress levels. When the body can no longer maintain a stable core temperature, heat-related disorders may develop like heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat stroke and heat rash. The document outlines various workplaces and jobs with high heat exposure risks. It also discusses heat stress indices used to assess risk and guidelines for controlling heat exposure to protect worker health and safety.
Week 2 SD lecture 2-Ecological dimension of sustainability.pptxssuser42728d2
The document provides information on ecological economics and sustainability. It discusses how ecological economics studies the relationship between human and natural systems. It outlines the evolution of economics from Adam Smith's classical economics to modern neoclassical economics and the development of ecological economics. The document also discusses key concepts from the Brundtland Report on sustainability, including the need for a new kind of economic growth that reduces environmental impacts.
This document discusses sustainable solutions for cooling towers at power stations. It reviews literature on corporate social responsibility and sustainability practices at Eskom power stations. The cooling towers are identified as important components that influence sustainability, as irregular maintenance can negatively impact profits through loss of income, increase carbon emissions, waste water, and endanger health. Current maintenance is only done during outages and leads to higher operating temperatures, losses, and legionella growth. Online sustainable maintenance is proposed as an alternative that could increase production, lower emissions, save water, and improve safety. The impacts of maintenance approaches on the triple bottom line of profits, planet, and people will be analyzed using data from Kriel power station.
This document presents a proposal for an anaerobic digestion system to process food waste from Clemson University's dining halls. It estimates that 262.5 tons of food waste is produced annually that could be used to produce biogas through anaerobic digestion. The goals of the project are to destroy 60% of volatile solids and produce 70% of the theoretical methane yield from the food waste. The document discusses governing equations, preliminary data collection, system design considerations, energy output estimates, and sustainability measures for the proposed anaerobic digestion system.
This document discusses transport and separation processes. It begins by classifying transport processes into three categories: momentum, heat, and mass transfer. These fundamental transport processes form the basis for various separation processes (unit operations) like evaporation, drying, distillation, absorption, and others. The document then discusses different systems of units - SI, English, and cgs systems. It also covers expressing temperatures, compositions using mole and mass fractions. Transport processes are covered extensively in the first part of the text, while separation processes are covered in the second part.
The document discusses energy and thermodynamics concepts including:
1) It defines different forms of energy such as potential, kinetic, internal, chemical, and thermal energy. Heat and work are also defined.
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Centrifugation is a powerful technique used in laboratories to separate components of a heterogeneous mixture based on their density. This process utilizes centrifugal force to rapidly spin samples, causing denser particles to migrate outward more quickly than lighter ones. As a result, distinct layers form within the sample tube, allowing for easy isolation and purification of target substances.
2. • Stoichiometry (from the Greek stoikeion - element) is the
practical application of the law of multiple proportions.
• It is the study of the quantitative relationships between
the reactants and products formed by a chemical reaction
• Based on one of the basic laws of conservation i.e.
conservation of mass.
• The general conservation equation for any process system
is written as:
• Material out = Material in + Generation - Consumption –
Accumulation10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 2
3. • For a steady-state process the accumulation term will be zero.
• Except in nuclear processes, mass is neither created nor
consumed; but if a chemical reaction takes place a particular
chemical species may be formed or consumed in the process.
• If there is no chemical reaction the steady-state balance
reduces to:
• Material out = Material in
• Industrial Stoichiometry therefore is the industrial
application of this law
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 3
4. Stoichiometry enables to us to account for the quantities
of material converted to products in a chemical change
Need the knowledge of chemical equations
Proper Balancing of these equations is key in Material
Balances at the macro/industrial level
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 4
5. The Chemical reaction
• Chemical reactions stop when one of the reactants in used
up
• Mole ratio
• The ratio between the number of moles of two substances in
the balanced chemical equation is indicated by the
coefficients in equation
• So in stoichiometry:
• We can predict the amount of grams of product that will be
formed in the reaction
i.e. Knowing no. of grams of reactants one can predict the
grams of products that would be produced
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 5
6. Balancing Chemical Equations
• With simple reactions it is usually possible to balance the
stoichiometric equation by inspection, or by trial and error
calculations.
• If difficulty is experienced in balancing complex equations,
the problem can always be solved by writing a balance for
each element present.
• E.gs:
1. Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen
2. Combination of carbon with Oxygen to give carbon dioxide
3. Combustion of Ethane
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 6
7. • H2 + O2 = H2O
• C + O2 = CO2
• C2H6 + O2 = CO2 + H2O
• C2H4 + Cl2 + O2 = C2H3Cl + H2O
• Solution:
• aC2H4 + bCl2 + cO2 = dC2H3Cl + eH2O
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 7
8. 10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 8
Balance on(i) carbon
2a = 2d, a = d
(ii) hydrogen
4a = 3d + 2e
substituting d = a gives e =
a
2
(iii) chlorine
2b = d, hence b =
a
2
(iv) oxygen
2c = e, C =
e
2
=
a
4
putting a = 1, the equation becomes
C2H4 +
1
2
Cl2 +
1
4
O2 = C2H3Cl +
1
2
H2O
multiplying through by the largest denominator to remove fractions
4 C2H4 + 2Cl2 + O2 = 4C2H3Cl + 2 H2O
9. CONSERVATION OF MASS & ERNEGY
• Law of nature that states that Mass & energy cannot be
created or destroyed
• Mass & energy are very important when considering process
plants, operations analyzing plants and process units for
inventory & economic activities
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 9
11. MATERIAL BALANCES
Defn
• The accounting of all mass in a chemical/pharmaceutical
process
• also referred to as mass balances.
• Two types of processes
a) Physical – No reaction
b) Chemical – Chemical change
• MB can be written in terms of:
i. Total Mass(number of moles)
ii. Mass(moles) of a chemical compound
iii. Mass(moles) on atomic particles
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 11
12. 10/29/2019 12
CONSERVATION OF MASS
Distillation
Heat
Exchanger
Reactor
Separator
1
2
6
7
8
13
14
12
11
10
4
53
9
Mass is neither created nor destroyed
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
13. M I L T O N A W E S U T A
Application(s)
• ‘day to day’ operation of process for monitoring operating
efficiency
• Making calculations for
1. design and development of a process
2. Evaluating the existing process
i.e. quantities required, sizing equipment, number of items of
equipment
10/29/2019 13
14. Types of
balances
IntegralDifferential
– balances that indicate what is
happening in a system at an
instant time.
– balance equation is a rate (rate
of input, rate of generation,
etc.) and has units of the
balanced quantity unit divided
by a time unit (people/yr, g
SO2/s).
– usually applied to a
CONTINUOUS process.
– Balances that describe what happens
between two instants of time.
– balance equation is an amount of the
balanced quantity and has the
corresponding unit (people, g SO2).
– usually applied to a BATCH process,
with the two instants of time being
the moment after the input takes
place and the moment before the
product is withdrawn.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 14
16. Systems
• System – the PART of the universe that is under
consideration. It is separated from the rest of the
universe by it’s boundaries
– Open system when matter CAN cross the boundary
– Closed system when matter CANNOT cross the
boundary
– Isolated Boundary seals matter and heat from
exchange with another system
open closed isolated↔↔matter
heat
heat
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 16
17. 10/29/2019 17
SYSTEMS
Systems
OPEN or CLOSED
Any arbitrary portion of or a whole process that you want to
consider for analysis
Reactor, the cell, mitochondria, human body, section of a pipe
Closed System
Material neither enters nor leaves the system
Changes can take place inside the system
Open System
Material can enter or leave the system across the boundaries
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
18. 10/29/2019 18
STEADY/UNSTEADY-STATE PROCESSES
Steady-State
Nothing is changing with time
@ steady-state accumulation = 0
Rate of addition = Rate of removal
Unsteady-State (transient system)
{Input} ≠ {Output}
500 kg
H2O
100 kg/min
H2O
100 kg/min
H2O
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
CLASSICATION OF PROCESSES
19. Operation of
Continuous
Process
Unsteady
state
Steady
state
– All the variables (i.e.
temperatures,
pressure, volume,
flow rate, etc) do not
change with time
– Minor fluctuation can
be acceptable
– Process variable
change with
time, in
particular mass
flow rate.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 19
20. 10/29/2019 20
Batch Process
No material is transferred into/out of the system over the
period of interest.
E.g. heating a vessel of water
Continuous Process
Input and outputs flow continuously throughout the duration
of process
E.g. Pumping liquid into a distillation column & removing the
product stream from the top & bottom of the column.
Semibatch Process
Any process neither batch nor continuousslowly in a tank
E.g. blending 2 liquids
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
21. Process
Classification
SemibatchBatch
Continuous
– Feed is charge to the
process and product is
removed when the process
is completed
– No mass is fed or removed
from the process during
the operation
– Used for small scale
production (pharmaceutical
products)
– Input and output
is continuously
red and remove
from the process
– Used for large
scale production
– Neither batch nor
continuous
– During the process
a part of reactant
can be fed or a
part of product
can be removed.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 21
22. Define type and operation of process given below
• A balloon is filled with air at steady rate of 2 g/min
• A bottle of milk is taken from the refrigerator and left on
the kitchen
• Water is boiled in open flask
Answer
• Semibatch and unsteady state
• Batch and unsteady state
• Semibatch and unsteady state
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 22
23. Classify the following:
1. A balloon is filled with air at a steady rate of 2g/minute
2. A bottle of soda is taken from a refrigerator and left on a table
3. Water is boiled in an open pan
4. Carbon monoxide and steam are fed into a tubular reactor at a
steady-rate and react to
form carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Products and unused reactants
are withdrawn at the other
end. The reactor contains air when the process is started up. The
temperature of the reactor is
also constant, and the composition and flow rate of the entering
reactant stream are also
independent of time. Classify the process (a) initially and (b) after a
long period of time has elapsed.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 23
24. • Suppose a cpd C is fed into a system at MCin & it is withdrawn
from the system at MCout & the amount of C in the system is
MCs.
• the process unit has no losses
• If MCin ≠ MCout then,
i. either
a) MCin > MCout C is consumed in the process unit as a reactant
b) MCin < MCout C is generated as product
ii. Or
a) C is accumulated in the system and MCs increases; MCin < MCout
b) C (or Mcs) is reduced;MCin > MCout
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 24
25. • The general balanced eqn is represented as
• Accumulation in the system is equal to inflow into system thru
the boundary plus generation within the system minus
consumption in the system minus outflow out of system
• INPUT – added materials to the system (FEED)
• OUTPUT – materials withdrawn from system (PRODUCTS)
• GENERATION / CONSUMPTION – products
formed/reactants consumed within a given system
• ACCUMULATION – increase in quantity of material within
the system with time i.e.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 25
{Input} + {Genn} - {Consumption} – {Output} = {Accumulation}
26. Examples
• Population in the Mbarara
• Each year a total of 100,000 people move into Mbarara,
75,000 people move out of the city, 55,000 are born while
45,000 die,
• Qn?
• Calculate the yearly population change in Mbarara?
• Soln
• 100,000 + 55,000 – 45,000 – 75,000 = 35,000
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 26
{Input} + {Genn} - {Consumption} – {Output} = {Accumulation}
27. Key points on solving Material Balances
1. Draw a flow chart & indicate the input and output
streams/materials & compositions
2. Write a balanced equation if a chemical reaction is involved
3. List the terms to be determined, organize them in a table if
they are many.
4. Choose the basis of the calculation
5. Find the quantitative relationships when setting up a balanced
equation
6. Solve the unknowns by beginning with those of fewest/easiest
unknown variables
7. Use the right formula when necessary
8. Check the results10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 27
28. 10/29/2019 28
Balances on Continuous Steady-state Processes
Input + Generation = Output + Consumption
If the balance is on a nonreactive species, the generation and
consumption will be 0.
Thus, Input = Output
Example
Distillation
1000 kg /h
Benzene + Toluene
%50 Benzene by mass
475 kg Toluene/h
M2 kg Benzene/h
m1 kg Toluene/h
450 kg Benzene/h
Input of 1000 kg/h of benzene+toluene containing 50% B by mass is
separated by distillation column into two fractions.
B: the mass flow rate of top stream=450 kg/h
T: the mass flow rate of bottom stream=475 kg/h
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
29. 500 kg B/h
500 kg T/h
450 kg B/h
(kg T/h)
(kg B/h)
475 kg T/h
1m
2m
Steady state accumulation = 0
Since no chemical reactions occur generation & consumption = 0
INPUT = OUTPUT
Benzene Balance
500 kg B/h = 450 kg B/h + 2m
Toluene Balance
500 kg T/h = + 475 kg T/h1m
2m = 50 kg B/h
1m = 25 kg T/h
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 29
30. 10/29/2019 30
Solution of the example Input = Output
Benzene balance
1000 kg/h · 0.5 = 450 kg/h + m2
m2 = 50 kg/h Benzene
Toluene balance
1000 kg/h · 0.5 = 475 kg/h + m1
m1 = 25 kg/h Toluene
Balances on Continuous Steady-state Processes
.
.
.
.
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
31. 10/29/2019 31
BALANCES ON BATCH PROCESSES
Initial Input + Generation = Final Output + Consumption
Objective: generate as many independent equations as the
number of unknowns in the problem
F
(W+A)
B
D F = B + D
F.xF = D.xD + B.xB
F.yF = D.yD + B.xB
x: mole fraction of W
y: mole fraction of A
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
32. 10/29/2019 32
EXAMPLE (Batch Process)
Centrifuges are used to seperate particles in the range of 0.1 to 100 µm
in diameter from a liquid using centrifugal force. Yeast cells are
recovered from a broth ( a mix with cells) using tubular centrifuge.
Determine the amount of the cell-free discharge per hour if 1000 L/hr is
fed to the centrifuge, the feed contains 500 mg cells/L, and the product
stream contains 50 wt% cells. Assume that the feed has a density of 1
g/cm3.
Centrifuge
Feed (broth) 1000 L/hr
500 mg cells/L feed
( d= 1 g/cm3)
Concentrated cells P(g/hr)
50 % by weight cells
Cell-free discahrge D(g/hr)
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
33. 10/29/2019 33
EXAMPLE (Batch Process)
Cell balance
Fluid balance
Input: (106 – 500) g/h fluid
Output 1: 1000g/h . 0.5 = 500 g/h fluid
Output 2: D(g/h) = (106 – 500)g/h – 500 g/h = (106 -103)g/h fluid
g/hr1000P
P[g/hr].
Pg1
cellsg0.5
mg1000
g1
.
feedL1
cellsmg500
.feedL1000
h
g
L
dm
dm
cm
cm
g
h
L 6
3
3
3
10
1
)
1
10
(
1
1000
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
34. • When you are given process information and asked to
determine something about the process, ORGANIZE
the by drawing a flowchart
Represent
INPUTS
Represent
OUTPUTS
Represent
PROCESS UNIT
(Reactor, mixer,
separation units,
etc)
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 34
35. • Write the values and units of all known stream variables at
the locations of the streams on the flowchart.
Example
• A stream containing 21 mole% O2 and 79% N2 at 320˚C and
1.4 atm flowing at a rate of 400 mol/h might be labeled as:
400 mol/h
0.21 mol O2/mol
0.79 mol N2/mol
T = 320˚C, P = 1.4 atm
Usually we write
of the stream!
,,, nmnm
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 35
36. • Process stream can be given in two ways:
60 kmol N2/min
40 kmol O2/min
0.6 kmol N2/kmol
0.4 kmol O2/kmol
100 kmol/min
3.0 lbm CH4
4.0 lbm C2H4
3.0 lbm C2H6
0.3 lbm CH4/lbm
0.4 lbm C2H4/lbm
0.3 lbm C2H6/lbm
10 lbm
As the total amount or
flow rate of the stream
and the fractions of each
component
Directly as the amount
or flow rate of each
component.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 36
37. • Assign algebraic symbols to unknown stream variables
[such as m (kg solution/min), x (lbm N2/lbm), and n
(kmol C3H8)] and write these variable names and their
associated units on the flowchart.
mol/h
0.21 mol O2/mol
0.79 mol N2/mol
T = 320˚C, P = 1.4 atm
n 400 mol/h
y mol O2/mol
(1-y) mol N2/mol
T = 320˚C, P = 1.4 atm
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 37
38. If the mass of stream 1 is half that of stream 2, label the
masses of these streams as m and 2m rather than m1 and m2.
m
2m
m1
m2
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 38
39. If you know that the mass fraction of nitrogen is 3 times than
oxygen, label the mass fraction as y g O2/g and 3y g N2/g rather
than y1 and y2.
y g O2/g
3y g N2/g
y1 O2/g
y2 g N2/g
When labeling component mass fraction or mole fraction, the
last one must be 1 minus the sum of the others
y mol O2/mol
(1-y) mol N2/mol
y1 mol O2/mol
y2 mol N2/mol
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 39
41. 10/29/2019 41
COMBUSTION OF ETHANE
Ethane is burnt in a combustion reactor. The gas is fed into
the reactor which contains 7.5% ethane, 30% oxygen and
62.5% N2. If the C2H6 is completely burnt to CO2 and H2O
and the reactor is operating at a steady state, determine the
composition in mol% of the product gas exiting the reactor?
Combustion
Chamber
7.5% C2H6
M I L T O N A W E S U T A
30% O2
62.5% N2
Product gas
? Mole composition
42. Establish a balanced equation of combustion
• aC2H6 + bO2 cCO2 + dH2O
• Balance on (i) Carbon
• 2a = c a = ……………………………………………………………(1)
(ii) oxygen
2b = 2c + d …………………………………………………..(2)
(iii) hydrogen
6a =2d 3a = d =d…………………………(3)
Substituting for d in (2)
2b = 2c + = b =
• If c = 1 then a = ; b = & d =10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 42
43. 10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 43
C2H6
O2
N2
CO2
H2O
Equation of combustion is:
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O
44. Solution
Assuming the feed enters at 100% mol and also taken out at
steady state.
Quantities of materials in the reactor do not change
{Accumulation} = 0
C2H6
O2
N2
CO2
H2O
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 44
7.5 7.5
30
62.5
0
0
26.25
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
15
22.5
0
3.75
62.5
15
22.5
103.75
0
3.61
60.24
14.46
21.69
100
45. A Chemical plant produces an aqueous solution of sodium
hydroxide of 8% by mass by diluting a stream of 20%
solution by mass using a stream of pure water. What flow
rates of the pure water and 20% NaOH will produce
3,000Kgm/min of the 8% solution?
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 45
46. 1. Read the problem a few more times to clearly
understand it
2. On reading it is established that it is a mixing
problem
3. In the mixing we have two streams to be mixed.
4. Draw a mixer with all the streams
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 46
48. NaOH Balance
0.2 KgmNaOH
KgT
X S1
Kgm
min
= 0.08KgmNaOH
KgT
X 3,000Kgm
min
S1 = (0.08) X 3,000
(0.2)
= 1,200Kgm
min
But S1 + S2 = 3,000Kgm/min
Therefore S2 = 3,000- S1
= 3,000 – 1,200
= 1,800Kgm/min
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 48
49. An aqueous solution of NaOH contains 45% NaOH by mass. It is
desired to produce an 20 % NaOH solution by diluting a stream
of the 45 % solution with a stream of pure water.
Calculate the ratios (liters H2O/kg feed solution) and (kg
product solution/ kg feed solution).
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 49
50. Total Mass Balance
Nonreactive steady-state process input = output
= 225 kg NaOH
0.45 kg NaOH/kg
0.55 kg H2O/kg
0.20 kg NaOH/kg
0.80 kg H2O/kg
100 (kg) 2m (kg)
kg H2O
liters H2O
1m
1V
NaOH Balance
2m
(0.45 kg NaOH/kg)(100 kg)=(0.20 kg NaOH/kg) 2m
= 125 kg NaOH100 kg + = 2m
1m 1m
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 50
51. 1V
125 kg 1.00 liter
kg
= = 125 liters1V
100 kg
= 1.25 liters H2O/kg feed solution
1V
Diluted water volume
Ratios requested in problem statement
100 kg
=2.25 kg product solution/kg feed solution
2m
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 51
52. An experiment on the growth rate of certain organism
requires an environment of humid air enriched in oxygen.
Three input streams are fed into an evaporation chamber to
produce an output stream with the desired composition.
A: Liquid water fed at rate of 20 cm3/min
B: Air (21% O2 and 79% N2)
C: Pure O2 with a molar flow rate one-fifth of the molar flow
rate of stream B
The output gas is analyzed and is found to contain 1.5 mole%
water. Draw and label the flowchart of the process, and
calculate all unknown stream variables.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 52
53. An experiment on the growth rate of certain organism requires an environment of humid air enriched in oxygen. Three
input streams are fed into an evaporation chamber to produce an output stream with the desired composition.
A: Liquid water fed at rate of 20 cm3/min
B: Air (21% O2 and 79% N2)
C: Pure O2 with a molar flow rate one-fifth of the molar flow rate of stream B
The output gas is analyzed and is found to contain 1.5 mole% water. Draw and label the flowchart of the process, and
calculate all unknown stream variables.
0.21 mol O2/mol
0.79 mol N2/mol
0.015 mol H2O/mol
y (mol O2/mol)
(0.985 – y)(mol N2/mol)
20.0 cm3 H2O (l)/min
(mol H2O/min)
1n0.2 (mol O2/min)
1n (mol air/min)
3n (mol/min)
2n
Evaporator
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 53
54. 0.21 mol O2/mol
0.79 mol N2/mol
0.015 mol H2O/mol
y (mol O2/mol)
(0.985 – y)(mol N2/mol)
20.0 cm3 H2O (l)/min
(mol H2O/min)
1n0.2 (mol O2/min)
1n (mol air/min)
3n (mol/min)
2n
2n
20.0 cm3 H2O 1.00 g H2O 1 mol
min cm3 18.02 g
=
H2O Balance
= 1.11 mol/min
Nonreactive steady-state process input = output
2n (mol/min) =
(mol) 0.015 mol H2O
(min) mol
3n
2n
3n = 74.1 mol/min
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 54
Evaporator
55. 0.21 mol O2/mol
0.79 mol N2/mol
0.015 mol H2O/mol
y (mol O2/mol)
(0.985 – y)(mol N2/mol)
20.0 cm3 H2O (l)/min
(mol H2O/min)
1n0.2 (mol O2/min)
1n (mol air/min)
3n (mol/min)
2n
N2 Balance
1n (mol) 0.79 mol N2
=
(mol) (0.985-y) (mol N2)
(min) mol (min) (mol)
3n y = 0.337 mol O2/mol
Total Mole Balance
0.2 + + =2n 3n1n 1n 3n = 60.8 mol/min
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 55
Evaporator
56. Flowchart scaling
If final stream quantities
are larger than the
original quantities.
Scaling down What?
Procedure of changing the values of
all stream amounts or flow rates by
a proportional amount while leaving
the stream compositions unchanged.
Scaling up
if final stream quantities
are smaller than the
original quantities.
Suppose you have balanced a
process and the amount or flow
rate of one of the process
streams is n1.You can scale the
flow chart to make the amount
or flow rate of this stream n2 by
multiplying all stream amounts or
flow rate by the ratio n2/n1.
You cannot, however, scale
masses or mass flow rates to
molar quantities or vice versa by
simple multiplication; conversions
of this type must be carried out
using the methods as discussed in
mass fraction and mol fraction
section.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 56
57. 1 kg C6H6
300 lbm/h
1 kg C7H8
300 kg C6H6
300 kg C7H8
300 lbm/h
2 kg
0.5 kg C6H6/kg
0.5 kg C7H8/kg
600 kg
0.5 kg C6H6/kg
0.5 kg C7H8/kg
600 lbm/h
0.5 lbm C6H6/lbm
0.5 lbm C7H8/lbm
x 300
kg kg/h
Replace kg with lbm
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 57
58. 3.0 kg/min of benzene and 1.0 kg/min of toluene are mixed
•Two unknown quantities – m and x, associated with process, so two equations are needed to
calculate them.
•For NONREACTIVE STEADY STATE process input = output.
•3 possible balance can be written – Balance on total mass, benzene, and toluene – any two of
which provide the equations needed to determine m and x.
For example,
Total Mass Balance:
3.0 kg/min + 1.0 kg/min = m kg/min = 4.0 kg/min
Benzene Balance:
3.0 kg C6H6/min = 4.0 kg/min (x kg C6H6/kg)
x = 0.75 kg C6H6/kg
m (kg/min)
x (kg C6H6/kg)
(1-x) (kg C7H8/kg)
3 kg C6H6/min
1 kg C7H8/min
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 58
59. Rules of thumb for NONREACTIVE process
1. The maximum number of independent equations that can
be derived by writing balances on a nonreactive system
equals the number of chemical species in the input and
output streams.
2. Write balances first that involve the fewest unknown
variables.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 59
60. General Procedure for Single Unit Process
Material Balance Calculation
1. Choose as basis of calculation an amount or flow rate of one of the process streams.
2. Draw a flowchart and fill in all unknown variables values, including the basis of
calculation. Then label unknown stream variables on the chart.
3. Express what the problem statement asks you to determine in terms of the labeled
variables.
4. If you are given mixed mass and mole units for a stream (such as a total mass flow
rate and component mole fractions or vice versa), convert all quantities to one basis.
5. Do the degree-of-freedom analysis.
6. If the number of unknowns equals the number of equations relating them (i.e., if the
system has zero degree of freedom), write the equations in an efficient order
(minimizing simultaneous equations) and circle the variables for which you will solve.
7. Solve the equations.
8. Calculate the quantities requested in the problem statement if they have not
already been calculated.
9. If a stream quantity or flow rate ng was given in the problem statement and another
value nc was either chosen as a basis or calculated for this stream, scale the
balanced process by the ratio ng/nc to obtain the final result.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 60
61. light
an amount (mass or moles) of flow rate (mass
or molar) of one stream or stream component
in a process. All unknown variables are
determined to be consistent with the basis.
If a stream amount or flow rate is
given in problem, choose this
quantity as a basis
If no stream amount or flow rate are
known, assume one stream with known
composition. If mass fraction is
known, choose total mass or mass flow
rate as basis. If mole fraction is
known, choose a total moles or molar
flow rate as basis
Basis of
calculation
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 61
62. light
A process used to determine if a material balance problem has
sufficient specifications to be solved.
It is an accounting of the number of unknowns in a problem and the
number of independent equations that can be written.
Procedure:-
1. draw and completely label the flowchart
2. count the unknown variables on the chart(n unknowns)
3. count the independent equations relating these variables
(n indep. eq.)
4. calculate degrees of freedom by subtracting step (3)
from step (2)(ndf)
Degree of
freedom
Independent equations Equations are independent if none of
them can be derived from the others. For example, not one of the set of
equations can be obtained by adding or subtracting multiples of the others.
ndf= n unknowns - n indep. eq.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 62
63. light
– n df = 0, there are n independent equations
and n unknowns. The problem can be solved.
– n df > 0, there are more unknowns that
independent equations. The problem is
underspecified. n df more independent
equations or specifications are needed to
solve the problem.
– n df < 0, there are more independent equations
than unknowns. The problem is over-specified
with redundant and possibly inconsistent
relations.
Possible
outcome
s of a
DFA:
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 63
64. 1.Material balances.
– For a nonreactive process, the number of independent
equation can be written is not more than number of molecules
species (nms) of the process
– If benzene and toluene is involved in stream, we can write
balance on benzene, toluene, total mass, atomic carbon and
etc., but only TWO INDEPENDENT balance equation exist
2.An energy balance.
– If the amount of energy exchanged between the system and
its surroundings is specified or if it is one of the unknown
process variables, an energy balance provides a relationship
between inlet and outlet material flows and temperatures.
– To be discussed later
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 64
65. 3. Process specifications
– The problem statement may specify how several process
are related.
– i.e: Outlet flow rate is two times than flow rate stream 1
or etc.
4. Physical properties and laws
– Two of the unknown variables may be the mass and
volume of a stream material,
– a tabulated specific gravity for liquids and solids or an
equation of state for gases would provide an equation
relating the variables.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 65
66. 5. Physical constraints
– For example, if the mole fractions of the three
components A,B & C of a stream labeled are xA, xB, and
xC, then the relation among these variables is
– xA + xB + xC = 1.
– Instead label as xc, the last fraction should be 1-xA-xB
6. Stoichiometric relations
– If chemical reactions occur in a system, stoichiometric
equation provide a relationship between the quantities
of reactant and the product
– To be discussed later
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 66
67. A stream of humid air enters a condenser in which 95 % of the
water vapor in the air is condensed. The flow rate of the
condensate (the liquid leaving the condenser) is measured and
found to be 225 L/h. Dry air may be taken to contain 21 mole %
oxygen, with the balance nitrogen. The entering air contains 10.0
mole % water. Calculate the flow rate of the gas stream leaving
the condenser and the mole fractions of oxygen, nitrogen, and
water in this stream.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 67
68. Degree of freedom analysis:
5 unknowns
3 material balances ( since there are 3 molecular species in this nonreactive process)
1 density relationship (relating the mole flow rate to the given volumetric flow rate of the
condensate
1 the fractional condensation
0 degrees of freedom
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 68
69. ( mol O2/hr)
(mol N2/hr)
(mol H2O/hr)
225.0 L H2O(l) /min
(mol H2O(l)/min)
(95% of water in feed)
1n (mol/hr)
3n
2n
Condenser
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 69
0.100 mol H2O/mol
0.900(mol dry air/mol)
0.21 mol O2/mol
0.79 mol N2/mol
Solvable since ndf = 0
70. ( mol O2/hr)
(mol N2/hr)
(mol H2O/hr)
225.0 L H2O(l) /min
(mol H2O(l)/min)
(95% of water in feed)
1n
(mol/hr)
3n
2n
Condenser
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 70
0.100 mol H2O/mol
0.900(mol dry air/mol)
0.21 mol O2/mol
0.79 mol N2/mol
Density relationship = (225
( )
)(1.00
( )
)( ⁄ ) = 12500 mol H2O/h = 12.5Kmol H2O/h2n
= (0.95)0.1 ;2n 1n
71. 1. Absorption
– A phenomenon in which components in a mixture in one
phase contacts another bulky phase and some of the
components get dissolved
– This takes place in column or absorption tower
(absorber).
– A Scrubber is an absorption column designed to
remove undesirable components from a gas stream
– The bulky phase may be solid or liquid
– The two streams are better arranged to cause
countercurrent flow
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 71
72. 2. Water Boiler
– Process Unit in which a set of tubes is passed through
combustion fumes.
– The boiler feed water that is made to pass in the tubes is
heated by the hot combustion fumes to produce steam,
used predominantly in different heat exchange operations
in industry
– To be considered under Unit Operations
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 72
73. • 3. Distillation
—An operation/process in which a liquid mixture of at least two
components is fed into a vertical column with a series of
vertically spaced horizontal plates of a solid packing through
which the mixtures flow in a counter current manner.
— The liquid feed mixture flows down the column while mixture
of the vapors formed flows upwards
—There is partial condensation of the rising vapors as there is
partial vaporization of the liquid phase
—As the vapor flow upwards there is progressive enrichment of
the vapor phase with the more volatile component of the feed
mixture
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 73
74. – The liquid flowing down the column is progressively enriched
with the less volatile of the feed mixture
– The vapor leaving the top of the column is condensed
– Part of the condensate is taken of as the overhead product
and the rest is recycled in the column and refluxed
becoming the liquid stream
– The liquid leaving the bottom of the distillation unit is
partially vaporized. The vapors formed are recycled in the
column to form the vapor stream that flows upwards
– The residual is taken off at the bottom
– So the distillation unit comprises a column, Still and a
condenser
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 74
75. 4. Heat exchange(rs)
– Heat is made to flow from one region to another of
lower temperature through a specific medium
– Medium could be solid, Liquid or gas
– In most industrial processes, Liquid and/ or solid
media are commonly encountered
– Heat exchangers are the units in which heat
exchange takes place
– They are constructed in different designs
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 75
76. 5. Crystallization
– A process in which a liquid solution is cooled or solvent is
evaporated to an extent of formation of solid crystals
– The unit is called a crystallizer
– A slurry (suspension of solids in a liquid) leaves the
crystallizer
– The crystals may be separated from the slurry by filtration
or centrifugation
6. Evaporation/vaporization
– A unit operation in which a liquid or solid mixture is vaporize
to obtain a more concentrated phase
– The unit is called an evaporator- may be one or more, hence
single effect or Multieffect evaporation
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 76
77. 7. Extraction
– An operation in which a solid/Liquid mixture (solid/liquid +
feed carrier) is contacted with a third phase(commonly liquid
solvent) that is immiscible with the feed carrier but
preferentially dissolves the solid/liquid
– This is done in an extractor unit
– Soluble component is transferred to the solvent to form a
solution.
– The mixture of the solution and the exhausted inert feed
carrier are separated by for e.g. Settling by gravity in a
decanter or by other mechanical separation techniques
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 77
78. 8. Filtration
– A slurry of solid particles suspended in a liquid is passed
through a porous medium to separate the solids from the
liquid
– The liquid that passes through is the filtrate
– The solids and some entrained liquid remain as residue to form
a filter cake
– The unit is called a filter
– There are different types of filters depending the principle
applied and mode of operation
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 78
79. 9. Drying
– An operation in which liquid wetting a solid is made to
evaporate by either heating or a combination of heating and
cooling etc
– The vapor and gas evaporates into the outlet stream while the
solid and remaining liquid residue emerge as the second outlet
stream of the Drier
– The ideal aim of drying is to form a completely dry solid
10.Condensation
– An operation in which an incoming gas or compressed gas in to
a condenser is/are caused to liquefy
– The uncondensed gas and liquid leave the condenser as
separate streams
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 79
80. 11.Flash evaporation/distillation
– A special method of evaporation/ distillation in which a liquid
feed mixture at high pressure is suddenly exposed to lower
pressure causing evaporation
– The vapour product is richer in the more volatile component
and the residual liquid is rich in the less volatile component
12.Pumps
– Devices used to propel fluids from one location to another
through and enclosed channel
– May be pipes or tubes
13.Membranes
– Thin solid or liquid film through which one or more components
of a process stream can permeate10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 80
81. 14. Mixing
In industrial process engineering, mixing is a unit
operation that involves manipulation of
a heterogeneous physical system with the intent to make it
more homogeneous.
Mixing is performed to allow heat or mass transfer
to occur between one or more streams, components
or phases.
The opposite of mixing is segregation.
82. • In real chemical industries, more than one unit processes
exist such as a separation unit after reactor and so on.
• Need to know term called SYSTEM in order to solve
material problem
• SYSTEM:
– Any portion of process that can be enclosed within a
hypothetical box (or boundary)
– It can be the entire process, an interconnected of
process unit, a single unit, a point which two or more
stream come together into one stream or etc.
– The inputs and outputs to a system are the process
streams that are intersect to the system boundary
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 82
83. FEED 1
FEED 2
PRODUCT 1 PRODUCT 2 FEED 3
PRODUCT 3
UNIT 2UNIT 1
A
B
C
D
E
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 83
84. • Solving material balances in multiple unit process is basically
the same as single unit processes
• In multiple unit, must isolate and write balance on several
subsystems to obtain enough equation to determine all
unknowns stream variables
• Always perform degree-of-freedom analysis before solving a
material balance of system.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 84
85. Recycling situation
• Normally in chemical reaction, some of unreacted reactant
also found in the product.
• This unreacted reactant can be separated and recycled back
to the reactor
Product
Recycle Stream
Fresh
Feed Reactor Separator
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 85
86. Purpose of Recycle
1. Recovery of catalyst – catalyst is very expensive
2. Dilution of process stream – typically for slurry solution
3. Control of process variables – especially for the reaction that
release heat, heat can be reduce by lowering the feed
concentration
4. Circulation of working fluid - such as in refrigerator system
5. For chemical processes – improving the yield
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 86
87. Bypass
• Fraction of the feed to a process unit is diverted around the unit
and combined with the output stream from the unit
• Used to control the composition of a final exit stream from a unit
by mixing the bypass stream & the unit exit stream in suitable
proportions to obtain desired final composition.
Product
Bypass Stream
Fresh
Feed
Process Unit
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 87
88. Limiting Reactant, Excess Reactant and percentage Excess
To ensure complete conversion of a specific reactant, the
other reactant(s) is(are) fed in excess of the stoichiometric
quantities.
In stoichiometric reactions the reactant that would run out if
a reaction proceeded to completion is called the limiting
reactant, and the other reactants fed in excess are termed
excess reactants.
A reactant is limiting if it is present in less than its
stoichiometric proportion relative to every other reactant.
If all reactants are present in stoichiometric proportion, then
no reactant is limiting.
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 88
89. Limiting Reactant & Excess Reactant
%100
n
n-n
ExcessPercentage
n
n-n
ExcessFractional
stoich
stoichfeed
stoich
stoichfeed
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 89
90. Example
C2H2 + 2H2 ------> C2H6
Inlet condition: 20 kmol/h C2H2 and 50 kmol/h H2
What is limiting reactant and fractional excess?
(H2:C2H2) o = 2.5 : 1
(H2:C2H2) stoich = 2 : 1
H2 is excess reactant and C2H2 is limiting reactant
Fractional excess of H2 = (50-40)/40 = 0.25
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 90
91. Fractional Conversion
• Fractional Conversion (f)
%100
fedmole
reactedmoles
f,ConversionPercentage
fedmole
reactedmoles
f,ConversionFractional
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 91
92. Extent of Reaction
• Extent of Reaction, ξ
ξ = extent of reaction
ni = moles of species i present in the system after the
reaction occurred
nio = moles of species i in the system when the reaction starts
vi = stoichiometry coefficient for species i in the particular
chemical reaction equation
iioi
iioi
vnn
vnn
or
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 92
93. Extent of Reaction for Multiple Reaction
Concept of extent of reaction can also be applied
for multiple reaction
Only now each independent reaction has its own
extent.
ijj
jiioi vnn
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 93
94. Multiples Reaction, Yield & Selectivity
Some of the chemical reactions have side reactions which formed
undesired products- multiple reactions occur.
Effects of this side reaction might be:
1. Economic loss
2. Less of desired product is obtained for a given quantity of raw materials
3. Greater quantity of raw materials must be fed to the reactor to obtain a specified
product yield.
selectivity =
moles of desired product
moles of undesired product
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 94
95. Yield
3 definitions of yield with different working definition
Yield =
Moles of desired product formed
Moles that would have been formed if there were no side
reaction and the limiting reactant had reacted completely
Yield =
Moles of desired product formed
Moles of reactant fed
Yield =
Moles of desired product formed
Moles of reactant consumed
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 95
96. 1. Forty-five hundred kilograms per hour of a solution that is one-third
K2CrO4 by mass is joined by a recycled stream containing 36.4% K2CrO4
, and the combined stream is fed into an evaporator. The concentrated
stream leaving the evaporator contains 49.4% K2CrO4 , this stream is
fed into a crystallizer in which is cooled (causing crystals K2CrO4 to
come out solution) and then filtered. The filter cake consist of K2CrO4
crystals and a solution that contains 36.4% K2CrO4 by mass; the crystal
account for 95% of the total mass of the filter cake. The solution that
passes through the filter, also 36.4% K2CrO4, is the recycle stream.
Calculate the rate evaporation, the rate of production of crystalline
K2CrO4, the feed rates that evaporator and the crystallizer must be
designed to handle, and the recycle ratio (mass of recycle)/(mass of
fresh feed)
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 96
EXERCISES
97. Limiting Reactant & Excess Reactant
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 97
Consider the complete combustion of heptane by
the balanced reaction below
C7H16 + 11O2 7CO2 + 8H2O
• For the reactant side it is desired that heptane is
completely converted or used up
• This happens when Oxygen is fed in excess of the
stoichiometric quantities
• Oxygen is the excess reactant and Heptane, the
limiting reactant
• The reaction stoichiometrically indicates that 11Kmol of
O2 is required to completely react with 1Kmol of heptane
98. 2.Acrylonitrile is produced in the reaction of propylene,
ammonia, and oxygen
C3H6 + NH3 +3/2 O2 C3H3N + 3H2O
The feed contains 10.0 mole % propylene, 12.0% ammonia, and
78.0% air. A fractional conversion of 30.0 % of the limiting
reactant is achieved. Taking 100 mol of feed as basis,
determine which reactant is limiting, the percentage by which
each of the other reactants is in excess, and the molar
amounts of all product gas constituents for a 30% conversion
of the limiting reactant (Assume basis 100 mol)
10/29/2019 M I L T O N A W E S U T A 98