2. FIELD RESEARCH STRATEGIES
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Sampling Reconnaissance Survey Ethnography
Excavation
Documentation:
Field notes,
Photographs and
Videos
Ethical
Considerations
3. Sampling Strategies
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
• Adopting sample coverage in survey means that the archaeologist
covers sections of the site and not the entire site.
• Note that a true sample size should be a true representation of the
entire site.
• There are two basic decisions to consider when employing sample
coverage in survey:
(whether to employ non-probabilistic or probabilistic sampling).
• Example of non-probabilistic is Judgmental Sampling where all the areas of
the site have no equal chance of being surveyed.
4. Judgment Sampling Strategy
• The advantage of judgment sampling strategy is that it is the
fastest and easiest means of conducting surface survey.
• It results in less expenditure of research funds.
• There is also a high likelihood of conducting survey at
productive areas.
• There is also a disadvantage:
• Such surveys are biased, runs the risk of creating a self-fulfilling
study.
5. Probabilistic Sampling
• With probabilistic sampling, all areas within the site have equal
chance of being surveyed
• There are two main types: random sampling strategy and
systematic sampling strategy.
• Random Sampling Strategy
• With this strategy, no area is given preference over any other and
all areas have equal chance of being selected.
• The researcher can therefore not impose preconceived ideas on
the investigations.
6. Random Sampling Strategy
• There are two types of random sampling strategy:
• Simple random sampling and Stratified random sampling.
• In Simple random sampling, random spots on the landscape
are selected for survey, usually through imposing an imaginary
grid over the study area and then selecting areas to survey
within that grid based on random numbers generated from a
table or computer program.
7. Cont’d
• With stratified random sampling, the study area is divided into
geographical zones and then sampled randomly within each
zone, as you would do for a simple random sample survey.
• Both stratified sampling (judgment sampling) and stratified
random sampling involves the division of sites into
geographical zones.
•One problem with a truly random sample is that some areas
or sites are likely to be over-represented or missed entirely.
8. Systematic Sampling Strategy
• Two types: Systematic random sampling and systematic
unaligned sampling.
• With systematic random sampling, the first sample unit or
area is selected at random and all other areas are chosen in
relation to this.
• In the case of systematic unaligned sampling, the total area is
divided into large blocks and then one smaller block within
each larger block is chosen at random
9.
10. Reconnaissance survey
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
Archaeological
reconnaissance survey is
the systematic attempt to
identify, discover/locate
and describe
archaeological sites, and
sometimes,
testing of an area to
assess the number and
extent of archaeological
DISCOVERY OF SITES
Consciously
1. documentary sources
and oral traditions; egs,
Kumbi saleh, Begho.
2. Use of old maps can
be used to locate old site
/ abandoned settlement
Unconsciously
1. Human activities
2. Natural phenomenon
BASIC METHODS:
1. Ground (walking, horseback,
car, etc)
2. Remote sensing:
a. Aerial (aircraft, spacecraft, or
satellite, drone)
b. Sub-surface detection
techniques (Bowsing, coring,
augering, shovel testing,
magnetometer, resistivity survey,
pulse radar, metal detector, etc)
11. Aerial photography
• Aerial photography has proven to be one of the most
successful methods of discovering archaeological sites.
• Large areas of ground can be covered quickly, and the
ground plan of a new site can be plotted from the
photographs.
• Features can be revealed in extraordinary detail by these
means.
• However, it is not able to identify archaeological sites in
dense forest areas.
• Differences in elevation may be imperceptible to aerial
photography which may be obvious to ground observer.
12. Ethnography
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
“WITHOUT ETHNOGRAPHY, ARCHAEOLOGY IS BLIND IN ONE EYE AND SHORT-
SIGHTED IN THE OTHER”. DISCUSS
METHODS
1. Interviews
2. Focus group
interview/discussion
3. Participant observation
4. Direct observation
5. Photo/videography
13. Excavation
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
The aim of excavation is to identify, define, uncover, date, and - by understanding
transformation processes -interpret each archaeological context on a site.
Excavation is the principal means by which archaeologists gather data about the
past.
A context refers to any discrete archaeological entity on site, and so could refer to
a layer, a pit or a posthole.
Contexts is known as layers and features in Britain, and in USA the term
stratigraphic unit is used.
14. • The research design is the main
factor that determines the types of
excavation methods to be
employed by the archaeologist.
• Sites are selected for excavation
based on their easy access, date to
the period the researcher is
interested in, as well as the depth
and richness of the archaeological
deposits.
• There are two main types of
excavation:
1. Total excavation
2. Selective excavation
METHODS OF EXCAVATION
There are two basic
kinds:
Clearing and
Penetrating
excavations.
15. Clearing/Area/ Open-area Excavation
• It is the best method of excavation to
expose, as much as possible, the three-
dimensional patterns and relationships
of features, artefacts and other data
within the site.
• They are used for large expanses of
overlying matrix to reveal uninterrupted
spatial distribution of data, such as
foundations of large buildings,
remnants of entire settlements and other
extensive remains.
• They are employed on small sites
such as hunting camps, burial
mounds, isolated huts, etc.
• Measurements become easy with the
help of balks, which are soils of about
50cm thick in between the excavated
area.
• Area excavation is very useful to
uncover town plans, building plans,
entire settlement features,
fortification, etc
17. Penetrating/ Vertical/ Trench Excavation
• It is widely employed in rescue programmes to uncover artifacts
before major constructions take place. E.g. Bui Dam, Marine
Drive Project.
• It is used to seek information on stratigraphy and chronology of a
site.
• It is used to gain a cross-section view of the site’s depositional
history.
• It provides information on the sequence and composition of
archaeological remains.
Penetrating excavations cut through sequential or adjacent deposits
18.
19. Isolated Block Method
• This entails digging a square trench to isolate a block of deposit.
• The stratification exposes all 4-sides of the block.
• The block is then carefully pealed layer by layer and recorded.
20. Step trenching
• Also known as step trenching, it is useful in digging large mounds, refuse
dumps, etc.
• Instead of maintain a single vertical face from surface to bottom, a series of
vertical faces are maintained throughout.
• Loose soils are not likely to cave in if deep vertical excavations are opened.
•
21. Tunnel Excavation
• Archaeological tunnel resembles test pits that have been rotated to
horizontal plane.
• Tunnels are essentially one-dimensional excavations, but that dimension is
a horizontal one.
• Unless supplemented by test pits or trenches, tunnels do not reveal the
vertical dimension of a feature or deposit.
• Tunnels are best suited for testing within features or site areas that are too
deeply buried to be reached by other means of excavation.
• They are useful and efficient means of exploring, because they reach deeply
buried features without destroying overlying features.
22.
23. Site Gridding
• Grids are arbitrary division of an area to be
investigated into equal sized squares.
• An excavation trench can be any multiple or
fraction of these grid units, which are related to
each other through a universal numbering
system
• Grids are very important to help control
provenience information.
• It is easier to plot or record the location of
artefacts, features or ecofacts that are
uncovered.
32. Documentation:
Field notes, Photographs and Videos
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
These include
1.labelling and
provenience control(site
name and yr, unit number, level, artefact
type, name of excavator)
2. Drawing, sketching
3. Photography,
Videography
4. written records.
33. Ethical Considerations
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
ETHNOGRAPHY
Permission before
taking photographs.
Room settings, artefacts
for exhibitions, etc
Drinks sharing at the
palace
Eating with
community folks
Greetings, etc
All in the interest of
confidence building to
have the needed
information
EXCAVATION ETIQUETTE
Don’t sit on the edge of the trench
Don’t pull artefacts from the unit
Never walk on newly excavated
surface
When excavating, always move
backwards to avoid kneeling on
freshly excavated surface
Don’t leave rubbish behind-
PRECAUTIONS IN
TAKING SAMPLES FOR
DATING
For C14 dating, don’t
pick samples with
hands,
No introduction of new
carbon
TL Dating precautions
