Professional Issues in Computing

PROFESSIONAL ISSUES
IN COMPUTING
Syed Zaid Irshad
CS4220

Unwrapping the Gift
Unwrapping the Gift is the
first chapter of Sara Baase
book for A Gift of Fire:
Social, Legal, and Ethical
Issues for Computing
Technology
Here we will cover
following topics:
The Pace of Change
Change and Unexpected
Developments
Themes

The Pace of Change
1940s
The first computer is built
1956
First hard-disk drive weighed
a ton and stored five
megabytes
1991
Space shuttle had a one-
megahertz computer
2006
Pocket devices hold a
terabyte (one trillion bytes)
of data
2006
Automobiles can have 100-
megahertz computers

The Pace of Change (2)
From 1939 to 1944, Harvard Mark I. The machine, like Babbage’s, was more than 50 feet (15 meters) long,
weighing five tons, and consisting of about 750,000 separate parts, it was mostly mechanical.
In September 1956, IBM launched the first computer with magnetic disc storage, or what is more well-known
as a hard disc drive (HDD). The 305 RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) weighed
over 2000 pounds, cost $35,000 a year to operate, and only stored 5 MB (mega-bytes) of data.
Designed by John Blankenbaker, the Kenbak-1 is widely regarded as the first true 'personal computer'. Priced
at $750, only 40 units were ever produced. It operated at a clock speed of 1 MHz

Change and Unexpected Developments
Cell Phone Kill Switches
Social
Networking
Communication
and the Web
E-Commerce
Free stuff
Artificial
Intelligence
Robots
Sensors and
Motion
Tools for
disabled Person

Themes
• Crime
• Violent fiction and games
• Copyright issues
Old problems in New Context like:
Adopting new technology made us think differently
Communication has made distant obsolete
Different view according to personal, political, professional and law

Law
◦ The system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions
of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties.
◦ Parliament will pass the legal document for certain situation or area.
◦ Law can be passed in two forms:
◦ As an Act
◦ NA, Senate, President
◦ As an Ordinance
◦ Through Presidential Order

Rule
◦ A statement that tells you what is or is not allowed in a particular game, situation, etc.
◦ Explanation (procedure of application) of certain law is provided through rules.
◦ Regulatory Body will issue explanations time to time if needed.

Government
◦ The system or form by which a community, etc., is ruled.
◦ There are four types of government:
◦ Oligarchy (Russia, China, USA, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, etc.)
◦ Society is ruled by a few people, usually the rich
◦ Aristocracy (Before 19th century, Russia, France, UK)
◦ Society ruled by the upper class, or nobility
◦ Monarchy (Bahrain, Qatar, Bahamas, Bhutan, Brunei, Japan, etc.)
◦ Society is ruled by a king or queen
◦ Democracy
◦ Society is ruled by the people themselves or by representatives of the people

Government of Pakistan
◦ Type: Federal Government
◦ Branches: 3 (Executive, Legislative, and Judicial)
◦ Executive
◦ State Bureaucracy
◦ Cabinet
◦ Prime Minister
◦ President
◦ Legislative
◦ National Assembly
◦ Senate
◦ Judicial
◦ Supreme Judicial Council

What is Government Law?
◦ Government laws are those laws that are enacted and enforced by the federal government.
◦ These laws can be broken down to:
◦ Administrative law: Regulations from government agencies
◦ Common law: Law established by past court decisions
◦ Statutory law: Law written by Parliament
◦ Constitutional law: From interpretation and application of the Constitution
◦ Criminal law: Laws that protect public welfare
◦ Civil law: Disputes between people or people in business

Criminal Law
◦ Criminal law refers to a body of laws that apply to criminal acts.
◦ In instances where an individual fails to adhere to a particular criminal statute, he or she commits
a criminal act by breaking the law.
◦ This body of laws is different from civil law, because criminal law penalties involve the forfeiture
of one's rights and imprisonment.
◦ There are two types of criminal laws:
◦ Misdemeanor is an offense that is considered a lower-level criminal offense, such as minor assaults, traffic
offenses, or petty thefts.
◦ Felony crimes involve more serious offenses. Some examples of felonies include murder, manslaughter,
dealing drugs, rape, robbery, and arson.

Civil Law
◦ Civil law deals with behavior that constitutes an injury to an individual or other private party, such
as a corporation.
◦ Examples are defamation (including libel and slander), breach of contract, negligence resulting in
injury or death, and property damage.
◦ Cases are initiated (suits are filed) by a private party (the plaintiff); cases are usually decided by a
judge; punishment almost always consists of a monetary award and never consists of
imprisonment; to prevail, the plaintiff must establish the defendant's liability only according to the
"preponderance of evidence"

Basic Terms Related to Law
◦ Affirm: To ratify; to confirm the law or judgment passed by the former court.
◦ A fortiori: Literally, a stronger reason; a logic or term which denotes that if one argument is true,
then the less improbable and unusual fact analogous to the former argument must also exist.
◦ Amicus Curiae: Literally, a friend of court; a party not involved in litigation may petition the court
to give expert testimony, a rationale consistent with its own views.
◦ Averment: Positive statement of facts in pleading.
◦ Cause: Legal action; Litigation; any question initiating a legal proceeding.
◦ Cause of action: Fact or combination of facts, on which a party initiates a lawsuit.

Basic Terms Related to Law (2)
◦ Certiorari: Literally, to be informed of; to be made certain in regard to; the name of the writ
issued by the appellate court to the inferior court, to convey the record of the proceeding.
◦ Declaratory Judgment: A judgment defining the rights of the parties or an interpretation of law,
without ordering anything to be done. When a party is unclear about a law or about the rights and
status of litigants, it can ask for a declaratory judgment.
◦ Demurrer: Court issuing an order, that the alleged facts are true but they do not form the grounds
for civil damages or violation of law.

◦ De novo Trial: Trying a matter anew; a trial or hearing which is being conducted for the second
time in the lower court, as if no decision has been previously rendered, on the order of the
appellate court.
◦ Dicta: Opinion, observation or remark of a judge, which is not binding on the subsequent cases
as legal precedent.
◦ Directed Verdict: It is issued in cases where a party with the Burden of proof has failed to present
a Prima Facie case for jury consideration, a trial judge orders for the verdict being determined by
law rather than fact.
◦ En Banc: Literally, in the bench; full bench; when the case is heard or re-heard by a panel of
judges, it is heard en banc.

◦ Enjoin: To require; command; admonish; Ordering a person by writ of injunction to perform or
abstain from some specific act.
◦ Ex Contractu: From contract; Action arising out of a contract or cause of action from a breach
of promise, in common law cases.
◦ Ex Delicto: From wrong; from a transgression; a common law action due to misconduct or fraud,
beyond the terms of contract.
◦ Ex Ante: Before the fact or event in question has occurred.
◦ Ex Post: After the fact or event in question has occurred.
◦ Finding: Formal decision by a judge or jury on the Question of fact.

◦ Holding: Opinion of the court or a legal principle drawn from the decision of the court, which is
applied to the facts and is binding on the lower courts.
◦ Injunction: A writ prohibiting a party from performing a specific act or commanding them to
undo some wrong. It is aimed at future acts and is a protective and preventive remedy.
◦ Inter alia: Literally, among other things; a term used in Pleadings, where a particular part of the
statute is being recited or written and not the entire statute.
◦ Judgment: Final disposition of legal proceedings, determining the rights and obligation of parties.

◦ Judgment Nov.: Judgment non obstante veredicto, translates as judgment notwithstanding the
verdict, where a judge reverses the verdict given by the jury.
◦ Overrule: To declare a judgment or a precedent void. This can be done by the same court which
previously issued it or by a superior court, while passing a judgment on the same question of law.
◦ Per Curium Opinion: An unsigned opinion of the whole court, where there are more than one
judges, distinguishing it from the opinion written by any one judge.
◦ Prima Facie Case: Literally, on the first appearance; A case which has minimum sufficient evidence
to initiate a legal proceeding. If the defendant presents a contradictory evidence the case is
dismissed.

◦ Remand: To send a case back in the lower court, usually it is done by appellate court, so that
further proceedings if any, may be taken there.
◦ Res Judicata: Literally, a thing to be adjudged; once a lawsuit is decided it cannot be contested
again involving the same cause of action.
◦ Reverse: To overthrow; repeal; to declare the judgment of lower court void either by substituting
it or by returning it to a lower court and ordering a retrial.
◦ Sine Qua Non: Literally, without which is not; Indispensable condition or action.
◦ Stare Decisis: Literally, let the decision stand; a doctrine that courts will adhere to the decisions
previously taken.

◦ Summary Judgment: It is also known as accelerated judgment. When material facts are not
disputed, court can dispose of a claim using affidavits and briefings.
◦ Trespass: An action brought to recover damages for causing an injury to one’s person, property or
relationship with other, by using direct and immediate use of force, either expressly or impliedly
in law.
◦ Trespass on the case: An action brought to recover damages where defendant’s act was indirect
and unaccompanied with force.
◦ Writ: An order or a legal document issued by the court to perform a specified act or giving
authority for an act or to institute an action.

◦ Writ of Mandamus: An order issued by court directing a public officer to perform an act.
◦ Writ of Habeas Corpus: Literally, produce the body; to obtain a writ seeking release from unlawful
confinement; a writ requiring a person to be brought before a judge to determine the legality of
the detention.

Burden and Standard of Proof
◦ “Burden of proof” refers broadly to a party's duty to present evidence and argument to prove his
or her allegations,
◦ Whereas “standard of proof” refers to the 'degree or level of proof demanded' to prove a
specific allegation”.
◦ Proof beyond a reasonable doubt
◦ Preponderance of the evidence
◦ Clear and convincing evidence

Burden and Standard of Proof (2)
◦ In criminal cases, the burden of proof is on the prosecution, and the standard required of them is
that they prove the case against the defendant “beyond reasonable doubt”. For the benefit of the
jury in the Crown Court, this is usually expressed as requiring them to be “satisfied so that you are
sure” of the defendant’s guilt. This is unofficially described as the 99% test.
◦ In civil cases, the burden of proof is on the claimant, and the standard required of them is that
they prove the case against the defendant “on a balance of probabilities”. This is unofficially
described as the 51% test.

Freedom of Speech
◦ Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to
articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction.
◦ Limitations of Freedom of Speech
◦ Harmful and offensive content
◦ Time, place, and manner
◦ The Internet and information society
◦ Freedom of information
◦ Freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the Internet.
Freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information
technology.
◦ Internet censorship

Privacy
◦ It is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves,
and thereby express themselves selectively.
◦ When something is private to a person, it usually means that something is inherently special or
sensitive to them.
◦ By Law:
◦ The right of a person to be free from any unwarranted publicity.
◦ The right to live without any unwarranted interference by the public in matters with which the public is
not necessarily concerned.
◦ By Value:
◦ Privacy is a necessary foundation for a healthy, vibrant, and functioning society.
◦ Despite this importance, the act of intruding upon privacy is nothing new.

Civil Right vs Civil Liberties
◦ Civil Rights
◦ Civil rights concern the basic right to be free from unequal treatment based on certain protected characteristics (race,
gender, disability, etc.) in settings such as employment, education, housing, and access to public facilities.
◦ A civil rights violation occurs in designated situations where an individual is discriminated against based on a protected
characteristic. Most civil rights laws are established through the federal government via federal legislation or case law.
◦ Civil Liberties
◦ Civil liberties concern basic rights and freedoms that are guaranteed -- either explicitly identified in the Bill of Rights
and the Constitution or interpreted or inferred through the years by legislatures or the courts.
◦ The right to free speech, The right to privacy, The right to remain silent in a police interrogation, The right to be free
from unreasonable searches of your home, The right to a fair court trial, The right to marry, The right to vote

Major Issues Concerning Online Privacy
◦ Spying and Snooping
◦ Trackers keep a record of your search history and track all your online activities through various means.
◦ This provides them a clear picture of who you are and your interests, which is a breach of online privacy policy
and makes you a public property.
◦ Information Mishandling
◦ Sites often store cookies and save your personal information and later use it for various purposes.
◦ Most of the time this information is not encrypted and can be accessed by anyone.
◦ This mishandling of personal information may lead to serious consequences.
◦ Location Tracking
◦ Along with social media apps, Google Maps and other apps also ask for your location and by turning on your
location you are providing first-hand information to the world about where exactly you are and what your next
move is, which is certainly risky and insecure.

State of Privacy in Pakistan
◦ Domestic laws related to privacy
◦ Article 8: Laws inconsistent with or in derogation (an exemption from or relaxation of a rule or law) of
fundamental rights to be void.
◦ Article 14: Inviolability of dignity of man, etc.
◦ The dignity of man and, subject to law, the privacy of home, shall be inviolable.
◦ International obligations
◦ Pakistan has ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
◦ Convention on the Rights of the Child (ratified November 1990)
◦ Cairo Declaration on Human Rights In Islam (signed August 1990)

State of Privacy in Pakistan (2)
◦ Communications surveillance
◦ Surveillance across all of Pakistan’s communications networks is becoming more widespread.
◦ Obligations on service providers
◦ Since 2004 network providers have been required to comply with requests for interception and access to
network data as a standard condition of the Pakistan Telecommunications Authority (PTA).
◦ Surveillance capabilities
◦ IMSI Catchers are monitoring devices that transmit a strong wireless signal, which work to entice nearby
phones to connect to the IMSI catcher, rather than cell phone towers.

State of Privacy in Pakistan (3)
◦ Internet Protocol monitoring center
◦ In 2013 the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), Pakistan’s intelligence agency, sought to commission a mass
surveillance system to tap international undersea cables at three cable landing sites in southern Pakistan to
collect and analyze a significant portion of communications travelling within and through the country,
including through Wi-Fi, broadband internet traffic, and any data transmitted over 3G, at a centralized
command center.

What is a Digital Policy?
◦ Digital policy concerns utilizing and promoting the opportunities offered by digitalization and includes regulation of digital and
electronic communications, network and information security, frequency policy (Control over supply) and issues concerning
broadband access and digital infrastructure.

Profession
◦ A Profession is a disciplined group of individuals who adhere to ethical standards and who hold
themselves out as and are accepted by the public as possessing special knowledge and skills in a
widely recognized body of learning derived from research, education and training at a high level,
and who are prepared to apply this knowledge and exercise these skills in the interest of others.
Or
◦ A paid occupation, especially one that involves prolonged training and a formal qualification.

Attributes of a
Profession
• The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
• An easy example of this is baking a cake.
• If you were to lay out all the ingredients of a cake, you would not have
a cake.
• But combine those ingredients in a particular way, you produce a cake.
Systematic Theory
Authority
• Professional licensing
• Minimum criteria to enter profession (Education, Experience)
• Apprenticeship
Community Sanction
Ethical Codes
A Culture

Attributes of IT Professionals
Adaptable
Inquisitive /
Curious / Eager to
Learn
Teachable Team Player
Ethical/Trusted Enthusiastic
Know Your Limits
/ Know When to
Say "I Don't
Know"

Attributes of Computer Experts
Great analytical
skills
Paying attention
to detail
Commitment to
work and self-
development
Excellent
communication
skills
Math knowledge
Ability to learn
programming
languages
Multitasking
skills
Problem-solving
skills

Professional Bodies
◦ They are dedicated to the advancement of the knowledge and practice of professions through
developing, supporting, regulating and promoting professional standards for technical and ethical
competence.

Function of a
Professional Body
Professional examinations
Set and
assess
Support for continuing professional development (CPD)
Provide
Professional journals or magazines
Publish
Networks for professionals to meet and discuss their field
of expertise
Provide
A code of conduct to guide professional behavior
Issue
With complaints against professionals and implement
disciplinary procedures
Deal
Their members in lobbying government about relevant
legislation
Represent
Fairer access to the profession to people from all
backgrounds
Promote
Careers support and opportunities for students, graduates
and people already working in the profession.
Provide

Accreditation Councils & Professional Bodies in
Pakistan
Pakistan Bar
Council (PBC)
Pakistan Council
for Architects and
Town Planners
(PCATP)
Pakistan
Engineering
Council (PEC)
Pakistan Medical
Commission
(PMC)
Pakistan Nursing
Council (PNC)
Pakistan Pharmacy
Council (PCP)
Pakistan Veterinary
Medical Council
(PVMC)
National Council
for Homoeopathy
(NCH)
National Council
for Tibb (NCT)

Professional Bodies of Computing
◦ American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T)
◦ Among its some 4,000 members, ASIS&T counts information specialists in computer science, linguistics,
management, librarianship, engineering, law, medicine, chemistry, and education. The society is committed
to finding new and better theories, techniques, and technologies to improve access to information.
◦ Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)
◦ Founded in 1947 as an international scientific and educational organization dedicated to advancing the art,
science, engineering, and application of information technology and serves both professional and public
interests.
◦ Association for Women in Computing (AWC)
◦ The Association for Women in Computing was founded in 1978 and was one of the first professional
organizations for women in computing. They have chapters worldwide, as well as individual members.

Professional Bodies of Computing (2)
◦ American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)
◦ A nonprofit member association, founded in 1893, dedicated to promoting and improving engineering
and technology education.
◦ Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology (ABIWT)
◦ A nationally recognized organization that provides platforms allowing women’s voices, ideas and spirits to
influence technology. The mission is to increase the impact of women on all aspects of technology, to
increase the positive impact of technology on the lives of the world’s women, and to help communities,
industry, education and government benefit from these increases.
◦ Association of Information Technology Professionals (AITP)
◦ The leading, worldwide society of professionals in information technology.

◦ The Computing Research Association (CRA)
◦ The Computing Research Association is composed of more than 200 academic departments of computer
science, computer engineering, and related fields. Their mission is to strengthen research and advanced
education in the computing fields, expand opportunities for women and minorities, and policy work.
◦ The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society (IEEE)
◦ With over 200 chapters worldwide, the Computer Society was formed, “to advance the theory, practice,
and application of computer and information processing science and technology.” This society traces its
roots back to 1971 and is also a part of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).

◦ Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS)
◦ Serves the professional and scientific needs of Operations Research and Management Sciences
investigators, scientists, educators, students, and managers, as well as the institutions they serve where
Operations Research (OR) and the Management Sciences (MS) are the professional disciplines that deal
with the application of information technology for informed decision-making.
◦ USENIX, the Advanced Computing Systems Association
◦ Founded in 1975, USENIX brings together engineers, system administrators, scientists, and technicians
working in computer science.

◦ Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM)
◦ Dedicated to advancing the application of mathematics to science and industry, to promoting
mathematical research that could lead to effective new methods and techniques for science and industry,
and to providing media for the exchange of information and ideas among mathematicians, engineers, and
scientists. In conjunction with the AMS, they also provide career information and services to the
mathematics community through the AMS-SIAM Mathematics Careers Bulletin Board which is an
interactive service that informs students about non-academic career choices in the mathematical sciences.

Organization
An organization, is an entity—such as a company,
an institution, or an association—comprising one
or more people and having a particular purpose.
Organization with a clear purpose or mission is one
that is easy to understand and manage.
A common purpose unifies employees and helps
them understand the organization's direction.
Any employee working at the NASA Space Center
in the 1960s knew that that organization's common
purpose was to put a man on the moon.

Classification of Organization
◦ Business organizations:
◦ They formed into organizations for earning profits. Companies, partnership firms, sole trading firms are
organized along these lines with a profit motive to survive against competition, future expansion and
development.
◦ Government organizations:
◦ Such organizations serve for the satisfaction of the people and their welfare. They exercise some measure
of control. Central and State government undertakings, local bodies etc., come under this category.
◦ Protective organizations:
◦ Organizations which protect the citizens from threats and dangers. Example of such organizations are
policing, military fire brigades, navy and air force services which shield citizens and the country from
danger.

Classification of Organization (2)
◦ Service organizations:
◦ They include voluntary organizations formed for promoting social welfare activities in the country. They
are non-profit social organizations.
◦ Political organizations:
◦ They seek to elect a member of their group to public office of the country (parliament or legislative
body). Political parties, groups and associations come under this category.
◦ Religious organizations:
◦ They serve for the attainment of spiritual needs of members and try to convert non-believers to their
faith. Churches, mosques, temples, etc. come under this category.
◦ Associative organizations:
◦ They satisfy the needs of people to make friendships and to have contact with others who have
competitive interests. Clubs, teams, fraternities, etc., come under this category.

Classification of Organization (3)
◦ Educational organizations:
◦ They include schools, colleges, universities, institutes, etc. committed to promote education and
knowledge.

Types of business organization
◦ There are 4 main types of business organization:
◦ Sole proprietorship
◦ Partnership
◦ General partnerships do not require a formal agreement—partnerships can be verbal or even implied
between the two business owners.
◦ Limited partnerships require a formal agreement between the partners. They must also file a certificate
of partnership with the state.
◦ Corporation
◦ Limited Liability Company, or LLC.

Constitution of an Organization (Sample)
◦ Title of Document: Constitution of “Organization’s Name”
◦ Preamble: A one paragraph statement of the mission of the organizations, telling why it was
created.
◦ Article I. NAME (The name of this organization shall be.....)
◦ Article II. PURPOSE
◦ Article III: MEMBERSHIP ( Non-Discrimination Statement: This organization shall not
discriminate based on race, color, religion, sex, age, sexual orientation, marital status, national
origin, disability, and status as a veteran.

Constitution of an Organization (Sample) (2)
◦ Article IV: ORGANIZATION
◦ Section I: Structure (Branches Executive, etc.)
◦ Section II: Officers
◦ Section III: Elections and Appointments
◦ Section IV: Terms of Office
◦ Section V: Powers
◦ Section VI: Governing Rules
◦ Article V: MEETINGS
◦ Article VI: QUORUM

Constitution of an Organization (Sample) (3)
◦ Article VII:
◦ Section I: Adoption and Ratification (What is the procedure)
◦ Section II: Amending the constitution (What is the procedure?)
◦ Article VIII: GENERAL PROVISIONS (balance sheet items representing funds set aside by a
company as assets to pay for anticipated future losses)

Structure of an Organization
◦ Hierarchical
◦ The chain of command goes from the top to down and each employee has a supervisor.
◦ Functional
◦ Starts with positions with the highest levels of responsibility at the top and goes down from there.
◦ Primarily, though, employees are organized according to their specific skills and their corresponding
function in the company.
◦ Each separate department is managed independently.
◦ Horizontal
◦ Many start-up businesses use a horizontal org structure before they grow large enough to build out
different departments, but some organizations maintain this structure since it encourages less supervision
and more involvement from all employees.

Structure of an Organization (2)
◦ Divisional
◦ A company’s divisions have control over their own resources, essentially operating like their own company
within the larger organization.
◦ Matrix
◦ Chart looks like a grid, and it shows cross-functional teams that form for special projects.
◦ Team-based
◦ Structure is meant to disrupt the traditional hierarchy, focusing more on problem solving, cooperation,
and giving employees more control.
◦ Network
◦ Structure makes sense of the spread of resources. It can also describe an internal structure that focuses
more on open communication and relationships rather than hierarchy.

Management of an Organization
◦ Structure of an organization can be represented as:

Key Resources of an Organization
◦ Businesses and organizations depend on three key resources:
◦ Physical resources, such as materials and equipment
◦ Financial resources, including cash, credit, and debt
◦ People, there can be no doubt that people play a vital role in an organization or business as a resource.

Human Resource Management
◦ Job analysis and staffing
◦ Organization and utilization of work force
◦ Measurement and appraisal of work force performance
◦ Implementation of reward systems for employees
◦ Professional development of workers
◦ Maintenance of work force.

Role of IT in HRM
◦ Recruitment
◦ Hiring talent is one of the primary roles of human resources professionals. Various tech solutions assist
them in running the recruitment process smoothly.
◦ Most of the openings today are posted online and the applications are routed through a unified platform.
◦ Background check
◦ Screening job candidates is very time-consuming.
◦ Many recruiters today use social media while running background checks on candidates.

Role of IT in HRM (2)
◦ Employee management
◦ There are lots of day-to-day personnel management tasks that are performed by the HR department.
◦ Maintaining staff files, tracking their attendance and work hours, following the progress of their work
tasks and evaluating performance are just a few examples.
◦ Strategic planning
◦ Another important aspect of human resources management is conducting research, collecting and
analyzing data and preparing reports on the company’s workforce, and future trends.
◦ In the digital world, data analysis is done efficiently and effortlessly.

Role of IT in HRM (3)
◦ Communication
◦ Facilitating communication between the employees and departments is the key function of HR managers.
◦ By introducing messengers, file sharing systems and project management tools, HR eases the interaction between
coworkers from different departments.
◦ Learning and development
◦ The curriculum of HR certifications in Canada also includes training future HR professionals on how to develop
employee learning programs and activities.
◦ Nowadays a lot of the training is done digitally and is catered to individual needs. It allows HR teams to track progress
and measure effectiveness against the set goals.
◦ Online training sessions and webinars have been widely adopted by HR departments as practical tools for employee
development.

Health and Safety at Work
◦ Workplace health and safety is all about sensibly managing risks to protect your workers and your business.
◦ Good health and safety management is characterized by strong leadership involving your managers, workers, suppliers,
contractors and customers.
◦ In a global context, health and safety is also an essential part of the movement towards sustainable development.
◦ It is morally right to ensure your workers return home safe and healthy at the end of every working day.
◦ By protecting your workers, you reduce absences, ensuring that your workplace is more efficient and productive.
◦ Research shows that workers are more productive in workplaces that are committed to health and safety.
◦ Reducing down-time caused by illness and accidents means less disruption – and saves your business money.

Employee Health and Productivity
◦ Allow discounted access to a local gym
◦ Give them plenty of access to healthy foods
◦ Make sure they get away from their desks every once in a while
◦ Allow them to work flexibly and give them time off when they need it
◦ Provide incentive trips

Ethics
◦ Moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity.

Ethical Theory
◦ Ethical Theories are attempts to provide a clear, unified account of what our ethical obligations are.
◦ It is common in discussions of business ethics to appeal to one or more ethical theories to clarify what it is
right or wrong to do situations.
◦ Some of the philosophical ethical theories commonly appealed to include:
◦ Utilitarianism, which says that the right thing to do in any situation is whatever will “do the best” (that is,
produce the best outcomes) taking into consideration the interests of all concerned parties;
◦ Kantianism (or Deontology more generally), which says that—as a matter of respect—there are certain
absolute (or nearly absolute) rules that must be followed (for example, the rule that we must respect
people’s privacy, or respect other people’s right to make decisions about their own lives);

Ethical Theory (2)
◦ Social Contract Theory (or “contractarianism”), which says that, in order to figure out what ethical rules
to follow, we ought to imagine what rules rational beings would agree to in an “ideal” decision-making
context;
◦ Virtue Theory, which says that we ought to focus not on what rules to follow, but on what kinds of
people (or organizations!) we want to be, and what kinds of ethical examples we ought to follow;

Ethical Rules
◦ Honesty
◦ Integrity
◦ Promise-keeping & Trustworthiness
◦ Loyalty
◦ Fairness
◦ Concern for Others
◦ Respect for Others
◦ Law Abiding
◦ Commitment to Excellence
◦ Leadership
◦ Reputation and Morale
◦ Accountability
The goal of a code of ethics is to help employees make decisions that are
in line with what the company or organization values.

Computer Ethics
◦ Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.
◦ Thou shalt not interfere with other people’s computer work.
◦ Thou shalt not snoop around in other people’s computer files.
◦ Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.
◦ Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.
◦ Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
◦ Thou shalt not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.
◦ Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
◦ Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing.
◦ Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow humans.2

IEEE Code of Ethics
◦ To uphold the highest standards of integrity, responsible behavior, and ethical conduct in
professional activities.
◦ to hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public, to strive to comply with ethical design and
sustainable development practices, to protect the privacy of others, and to disclose promptly factors that
might endanger the public or the environment;
◦ to improve the understanding by individuals and society of the capabilities and societal implications of
conventional and emerging technologies, including intelligent systems;
◦ to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected parties
when they do exist;
◦ to avoid unlawful conduct in professional activities, and to reject bribery in all its forms;
◦ to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, to be
honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data, and to credit properly the
contributions of others;

IEEE Code of Ethics (2)
◦ to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological tasks for others only if
qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
◦ To treat all persons fairly and with respect, to not engage in harassment or discrimination, and to
avoid injuring others.
◦ to treat all persons fairly and with respect, and to not engage in discrimination based on characteristics
such as race, religion, gender, disability, age, national origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender
expression;
◦ to not engage in harassment of any kind, including sexual harassment or bullying behavior;
◦ to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious actions, rumors or
any other verbal or physical abuses;

IEEE Code of Ethics (3)
◦ To strive to ensure this code is upheld by colleagues and co-workers.
◦ to support colleagues and co-workers in following this code of ethics, to strive to ensure the code is
upheld, and to not retaliate against individuals reporting a violation.

Software Engineering Code of Ethics and
Professional Practice
◦ In accordance with their commitment to the health, safety and welfare of the public, software engineers shall
adhere to the following Eight Principles:
◦ PUBLIC – Software engineers shall act consistently with the public interest.
◦ CLIENT AND EMPLOYER – Software engineers shall act in a manner that is in the best interests of
their client and employer consistent with the public interest.
◦ PRODUCT – Software engineers shall ensure that their products and related modifications meet the
highest professional standards possible.
◦ JUDGMENT – Software engineers shall maintain integrity and independence in their professional
judgment.
◦ MANAGEMENT – Software engineering managers and leaders shall subscribe to and promote an ethical
approach to the management of software development and maintenance.

Software Engineering Code of Ethics and
Professional Practice (2)
◦ PROFESSION – Software engineers shall advance the integrity and reputation of the profession
consistent with the public interest.
◦ COLLEAGUES – Software engineers shall be fair to and supportive of their colleagues.
◦ SELF – Software engineers shall participate in lifelong learning regarding the practice of their profession
and shall promote an ethical approach to the practice of the profession.

Software Development
◦ Software development is the process of conceiving, specifying, designing, programming, documenting,
testing, and bug fixing involved in creating and maintaining applications, frameworks, or other software
components.
◦ The three most common purposes are:
◦ to meet specific needs of a specific client or organization (known as custom software)
◦ to meet a perceived need of some set of potential users (known as commercial software )
◦ for personal use

Software Development Problems
◦ Shovel ware
◦ Shovel ware is a term for individual video games or software bundles known more for the quantity of what is included
rather than for the quality or usefulness.
◦ Software bloat
◦ Software bloat is a process whereby successive versions of a computer program become perceptibly slower, use more
memory, disk space or processing power, or have higher hardware requirements than the previous version, while
making only dubious user-perceptible improvements or suffering from feature creep.
◦ Solution allow plugins
◦ Software bug
◦ A software bug is an error, flaw or fault in a computer program or system that causes it to produce an incorrect or
unexpected result, or to behave in unintended ways.
◦ The Mars Climate Orbiter was launched in 1998 with the goal of studying climate on Mars, although it never
managed to fulfill its mission. (Imperial vs Metric Units)

Software Risks
◦ Software risk encompasses the probability of occurrence for uncertain events and their potential for loss within an
organization.
◦ Typically, software risk is viewed as a combination of robustness (ability of a computer system to cope with errors during
execution and cope with erroneous input), performance efficiency, security and transactional risk propagated throughout
the system.
◦ Causes of Software Risks
◦ Lack of user participation.
◦ Changing requirements.
◦ Unrealistic or unarticulated project goals.
◦ Inaccurate estimates of needed resources.
◦ Badly defined system requirements.
◦ Poor reporting of the project's status.
◦ Lack of resources.

Software Liability
◦ Software Defects, Performance Issues & System Failures are the few software liability examples.
◦ These liabilities can cause serious damages to minor issues, and if someone able to prove it that your product
can cause harm, they are intitled to be paid by the law.
◦ For this Companies contracts or end user license agreements to define the terms of the relationship.
◦ A strong license agreement between the user and software developer can greatly reduce product liability. But
you could still be held liable for a software problem that causes a physical injury or property damage.

Types of Contracts
◦ Fixed-price contract
◦ Fixed-price contracts, also known as lump sum contracts, are used in situations where the payment doesn’t
depend on the resources used or time expended.
◦ Cost-reimbursement contract
◦ The final total cost is determined when the project is completed or at another predetermined date within
the contract’s time frame.
◦ Cost-plus contract
◦ A cost-plus contract is a type of cost-reimbursement contract for situations where the buyer agrees to pay
the actual cost of the entire project, including labor, materials, and any unexpected expenses.

Types of Contracts (2)
◦ Time and materials contract
◦ A time and materials contract is like a cost-plus contract, but a little more straightforward. In these deals,
the buyer pays the contractor for the time spent to complete the project and the materials used in the
process.
◦ Unit price contract
◦ When using this type of contract, the contractor will present the buyer with specific prices for each
segment of the overall project and then they will agree to pay them for the number of units needed to
complete it.
◦ Bilateral contract
◦ A bilateral contract is one in which both parties make an exchange of promises to perform a certain
action. The promise of one-party acts as the consideration for the promise of the other and vice versa.

◦ Unilateral contract
◦ Unilateral contracts are agreements where a party promises to pay another after they have performed a
specified act. These types of contracts are most often used when the offeror has an open request that
someone can respond to, fulfill the act, and then receive the payment.
◦ Implied contract
◦ An implied contract is an agreement that exists based on the actions of the involved parties. Implied
contracts are not written down, and they might not even be spoken either. The agreement simply ensues
once the parties take the designated action that kickstarts the contracts.

◦ Express contract
◦ An express contract is a category of contracts entirely. In these types of agreements, the exchange of
promises includes both parties agreeing to be bound by the terms of the contract orally, in writing, or a
combination of both.
◦ Simple contract
◦ A simple contract is a contract made orally or in writing that requires consideration to be valid. Again,
consideration is the exchange of one thing for another and can be anything of value, including time,
money, or an item.
◦ Unconscionable contract
◦ An unconscionable contract refers to an agreement that is so obviously one-sided and unfair to one of the
parties involved that it can’t be enforceable by law.

◦ Adhesion contract
◦ An adhesion contract, also known as a standard form contract, is sort of a “take it or leave it” situation.
In these agreements, one party typically has more bargaining power than the other.
◦ Aleatory contract
◦ Aleatory contracts explain agreements where parties don’t have to perform their designated action until a
triggering event occurs. Essentially, aleatory contracts state that if something happens, then the action is
taken.

Software Contracts
◦ A software contract is a binding agreement between the owner of a software product and a buyer. The contract enables the buyer
to use the software legally.
Or
◦ A software contract is the written agreement between you and the software provider that lays out each party's obligations with
respect to using the software. If you have an Order Form and hyperlinked Terms and Conditions, both of those pieces form the
contract, so it's important to review them together.

Main Elements of a Software Contract
◦ Usage and Restrictions
◦ The first section you’ll likely encounter in your software contract is regarding usage and restrictions. This
will outline exactly what you can and cannot do when using the software.
◦ Right to Use: Subject to the terms and conditions of this Agreement, the Provider grants to Customer
a worldwide, limited, non-exclusive, non-transferable right, and license during the Term, to use the
Software.
◦ Usage Restrictions: The Customer may not license, sub-license, sell, re-sell, rent, lease, transfer,
distribute, timeshare, or otherwise make any portion of the Software available to any third parties not
authorized by this Agreement.

Main Elements of a Software Contract (2)
◦ Ownership
◦ The ownership portion of the contract is going to explain that the software company is the owner of the
software. As a buyer, the contract is granting you limited rights to use the software but does not grant you
any rights to own any of the underlying technology or intellectual property.
◦ Ownership of Software: The Software and all copies thereof will always remain the sole and exclusive
property of the Provider, and the Customer shall obtain no title to the Software.
◦ Proprietary Rights: Provider owns all rights, title, and interest in and to the Software. All data,
information, files, or other materials and content that Customer makes available to Provider for the
purpose of utilizing the Software shall remain the sole property of Customer.

◦ Term and Termination
◦ This portion of the software contract will detail how long the contract is valid. It will also detail what
occurs when the contract ends, and if someone has the right to end it earlier than previously agreed upon.
◦ Term: This Agreement is effective for 12 months after the date of the last signature. This Agreement
will automatically renew for an additional 12-month term unless one party gives at least 30 days prior
written notice of termination.
◦ Termination: A party may terminate this Agreement for cause (i) upon 30 days written notice to the
other party of a material breach if such breach remains uncured at the expiration of such period, or (ii)
if the other party becomes the subject of a petition in bankruptcy or any other proceeding relating to
insolvency, receivership, liquidation, or assignment for the benefit of creditors."

◦ Fees and payment
◦ This portion of the software contract will detail the price in dollars – or other currency – of your
purchase and will typically be located on the order form in addition to the payment terms. As an example,
your contract may include details regarding a predetermined “late fee” if you’re late on making payments.
◦ This portion can also state that the software provider can suspend your access to the software if payment
conditions aren’t met.
◦ Fees: The Customer will pay all fees specified in the Order Form. Fees invoiced and paid are non-
cancelable and non-refundable. If any invoiced amount is not received by the Provider by the due date,
those charges may accrue late interest at the rate of 1.5% of the outstanding balance per month, or the
maximum rate permitted by law, whichever is higher. If any fee owed by the Customer under this
Agreement for Software is 30 days or more overdue, the Provider may suspend your use of Software
until such overdue amounts are paid in full.

◦ Indemnification
◦ Indemnification can be one of the most confusing parts of any contract, not just a software contract.
◦ Indemnity provisions are used to determine who will pay for claims brought by third parties against one
party when the issue underlying the third-party claim is the responsibility of the other party.
◦ Indemnification: The Provider will indemnify, protect, defend, and hold harmless the Customer from
and against all claims arising out of, involving, or in connection with any negligent act or omission of
the Provider.

Intellectual Property
◦ Refers to creations of the mind, such as inventions; literary and artistic works; designs; and symbols, names
and images used in commerce.
◦ Types of intellectual property are:
◦ Patent
◦ Trademark
◦ Copyright
◦ Trade Secret
◦ Trade Dress

Patent
◦ A patent is used to prevent an invention from being created, sold, or used by another party without
permission.
◦ Patents are the most common type of intellectual property rights that come to people’s minds when they
think of intellectual property rights protection.
◦ A Patent Owner has every right to commercialize his/her/its patent, including buying and selling the patent
or granting a license to the invention to any third party under mutually agreed terms.
◦ There are three different categories that patents can fall under:
◦ Utility: A utility patent protects the creation of a new or improved product, process, composition of
matter, or machine that is useful.
◦ Design: A design patent protects the ornamental design on a useful item.
◦ Plant: A plant patent protects new kinds of plants produced by cuttings or other nonsexual means.

Trademark
◦ Trademarks are another familiar type of intellectual property rights protection.
◦ A trademark is a distinctive sign which allows consumers to easily identify the goods or services that a
company provides.
◦ Some examples include McDonald’s golden arch, the Facebook logo, and so on.
◦ A trademark can come in the form of text, a phrase, symbol, sound, smell, and/or color scheme.
◦ Unlike patents, a trademark can protect a set or class of products or services, instead of just one product or
process.

Copyright
◦ Copyright protects the original work of authorship fixed in any tangible medium of expression. Original
work means the work which is not copied of any existing work.
◦ Copyright is a legal right to prevent others making copies, publish, reproduce, distribute etc. of your work
without your permission.
◦ In Pakistan, the Copyright Ordinance, 1962 (hereinafter referred as “the Ordinance”) is the law which deals
with the copyright protection.
◦ Computer software should be protected by copyright, whereas apparatus using computer software or
software-related inventions should be protected by patent.
◦ Duration Of Copyrights: Section 18 of the Ordinance provides that in published literary (including computer
program), dramatic, musical and artistic work copyright shall subsist within the lifetime of the author until
fifty years after the death of the author.

Trade Secret
◦ Trade secrets are the secrets of a business.
◦ They are proprietary systems, formulas, strategies, or other information that is confidential and is not meant
for unauthorized commercial use by others.
◦ This is a critical form of protection that can help businesses to gain a competitive advantage.
◦ Although intellectual property rights protection may seem to provide a minimum amount of protection,
when they are utilized wisely, they can maximize the benefit and value of a creation and enable world-
changing technology to be developed, protected, and monetized.

Trade Dress
◦ Trade dress is the commercial look and feel of a product or service that identifies and distinguishes the
source of the product or service.
◦ It includes the various elements (such as the design and shape of materials) used to package a product or
services.
◦ Trade dress is sometimes considered product design.
◦ Trade dress law can sometimes protect the design configuration and shape of the product itself, although in
some cases obtaining a design patent may be more appropriate than using trade dress protection.

Software Piracy
◦ Software piracy is the illegal copying, distribution, or use of software.
◦ It is such a profitable "business" that it has caught the attention of organized crime groups in several
countries.
◦ According to the Business Software Alliance (BSA), about 36% of all software in current use is stolen.
◦ Software piracy causes significant lost revenue for publishers, which in turn results in higher prices for the
consumer.

Type of Software Piracy
◦ Soft lifting: Borrowing and installing a copy of a software application from a colleague.
◦ Client-server overuse: Installing more copies of the software than you have licenses for.
◦ Hard-disk loading: Installing and selling unauthorized copies of software on refurbished or new computers.
◦ Counterfeiting: Duplicating and selling copyrighted programs.
◦ Online piracy: Typically involves downloading illegal software from peer-to-peer network, Internet auction or
blog.

Software Patents
◦ A software patent is a patent directed to a software program or an algorithm implemented in or using a
computer.
◦ While copyright can protect your actual code from being copied; copyrights cannot prevent others from
independently (i.e., without copying) developing the same software.
◦ On the other hand, a patent can permit you to exclude others from practicing the functional aspects of the
software claimed in your patent, even if the other party independently developed the software.
◦ If your software produces a technical effect or technical improvement over existing computer systems, you
can get patent.
◦ Fun Fact: Copyright may last up to 150 years whereas the patent may be relevant up to 20 years.

Computer Misuse & its Effects
This refers to entering a computer system to steal data or destroy a device or network (such as planting a virus )
or unauthorized modification of data.
Effects:
Unauthorized access
Data misuse and unauthorized transfer or copying
Impersonation, Identity theft and financial abuses
Cyber Stalking and harassment

Computer Misuse Act (1990) UK
◦ The Computer Misuse Act protects personal data held by organizations from unauthorized access and
modification.
◦ The act makes the following illegal:
◦ Unauthorized access to computer material. This refers to entering a computer system without permission
(hacking)
◦ Unauthorized access to computer materials with intent to commit a further crime. This refers to entering
a computer system to steal data or destroy a device or network (such as planting a virus)
◦ Unauthorized modification of data. This refers to modifying or deleting data, and covers the introduction
of malware or spyware onto a computer (electronic vandalism and theft of information)
◦ Making, supplying or obtaining anything which can be used in computer misuse offences

Computer Misuse Act (1990) UK (2)
◦ These four clauses cover a range of offences including hacking, computer fraud, blackmail and viruses.
◦ Failure to comply with the Computer Misuse Act can lead to fines and potentially imprisonment.
◦ Offence: Penalty
◦ Unauthorized access to computer material: Up to six months in prison and/or an up to a £5,000 fine
◦ Unauthorized access to computer materials with intent to commit a further crime: Up to a five-year prison
sentence and/or an unlimited fine
◦ Unauthorized modification of data: Up to a five-year prison sentence and/or an unlimited fine
◦ Making, supplying or obtaining anything which can be used in computer misuse offences: Up to a ten-year
prison sentence and/or an unlimited fine

What is Computer Crime Law?
Computer crime law deals with the broad range of criminal offenses committed using a computer
or similar electronic device.
Nearly all these crimes are perpetrated online.
The internet provides a degree of anonymity to offenders, as well as potential access to personal,
business, and government data.
Many computer crimes are committed as a means of stealing money or valuable information,
although financial gain is not always the objective.
In fact, some of the most notorious incidents of computer crime involved hackers seeking
"bragging rights" by overcoming government or corporate cyber security measures.

Negative Effects of Internet
◦ Individual level
◦ Internet Addiction
◦ Negative Cognitive Development (Brain Development, Memory, Decision Making)
◦ Information Overloading
◦ Community level
◦ Public-Private Boundaries (Personal and Shared Life)
◦ Social Relationships

Cyberspace & its Ethics
◦ A global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of
information systems infrastructures including the Internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems,
and embedded processors and controllers.
◦ Ethics
◦ Do not access any data, systems or networks without authority or permission
◦ Do not spread computer viruses or malicious codes, or conduct any hacking activities on other computers
◦ Respect all other Internet users
◦ Do not threaten, harass, stalk or abuse anyone

Data Protection Act 1988 (UK)
◦ Processing personal information fairly and lawfully
◦ Personal data should be processed fairly and lawfully and, shall not be processed unless certain conditions, set out in the
Act, are met.
◦ Processing personal data for specified purposes only
◦ “Personal data shall be obtained only for one or more specified and lawful purposes and shall not be further processed
in any manner incompatible with that purpose or those purposes”
◦ The amount of personal information
◦ “Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purpose or purposes for which they are
processed”
◦ Keeping personal information accurate and up to date
◦ Personal data shall be accurate, and where necessary, kept up to date

Data Protection Act 1988 (UK) (2)
◦ Keeping personal information
◦ Personal data processed for any purpose or purposes shall not be kept for longer than is necessary for that purpose or
those purposes.
◦ Note that in health and social care and support agencies there are specific recommended time frames for keeping and
disposing of different types of information about individuals and this is set out clearly by each organization's agreed
policies and procedures.
◦ There are also specific time frames with regards to employment records in relation to staff.
◦ Ensuring that people’s rights are maintained
◦ Personal data shall be processed in accordance with rights of the person.
◦ For example, a person has the right to: request access to the information; prevent the processing of information if it is
likely to cause damage or distress; correct mistakes in the information; claim compensation if the information is
inaccurate of if the Data Protection Act has been breached

Data Protection Act 1988 (UK) (3)
◦ Information Security
◦ Appropriate technical and organizational measures shall be taken against unauthorized or unlawful processing of
personal data and against accidental loss or destruction of, or damage to, personal data
◦ Sending information outside the European Union
◦ Personal data shall not be transferred to a country or territory outside the EEA unless that country or territory ensures
an adequate level of protection for the rights of data for subjects in relation to the processing of personal data.

Cyber Crime
Cyber Crime is the use of any computer network in committing a criminal act.

Type vs Category
Type
Grouping based on shared characteristics
Category
Assigned based on defined criteria

Types of Cyber Crime
◦ Unauthorized access to information system or
data
◦ Unauthorized copying or transmission of data
◦ Interference with information system or
computer data
◦ Glorification of offences
◦ Cyber terrorism
◦ Hate speech
◦ Recruitment, funding and planning of terrorism
◦ Electronic forgery
◦ Electronic fraud
◦ Making, supplying or obtaining devices for use
in offence
◦ Identity crime
◦ Unauthorized interception
◦ Defamation

Types of Cyber Crime (2)
◦ Offensive Content
◦ Writing or distributing malicious code
◦ Cyberstalking
◦ Spamming
◦ Spoofing

History of Cybercrime
◦ 1834 — French Telegraph System — A pair of thieves hack the French Telegraph System and steal financial
market information, effectively conducting the world’s first cyberattack.
◦ 1870 — Switchboard Hack — A teenager hired as a switchboard operator can disconnect and redirect calls
and use the line for personal usage.
◦ 1903 — Wireless Telegraphy — During John Ambrose Fleming’s first public demonstration of Marconi’s
“secure” wireless telegraphy technology, Nevil Maskelyne disrupts it by sending insulting Morse code
messages discrediting the invention.
◦ 1939 — Military Codebreaking — Alan Turing and Gordon Welshman develop BOMBE, an electro-
mechanical machine, during WWII while working as codebreakers at Bletchley Park. It helps to break the
German Enigma codes.

History of Cybercrime (2)
◦ 1955 — Phone Hacker — David Condon whistles his “Davy Crockett Cat” and “Canary Bird Call Flute” into his
phone, testing a theory on how phone systems work. The system recognizes the secret code, assumes he is an
employee, and connects him to a long-distance operator. She connects him to any phone number he requests for
free.
◦ 1957 — Joy bubbles — Joe Engressia (Joy bubbles), a blind, 7-year-old boy with perfect pitch, hears a high-pitched
tone on a phone line and begins whistling along to it at a frequency of 2600Hz, enabling him to communicate with
phone lines and become the U.S.’s first phone hacker or “phone phreak.”
◦ 2002 – Internet Attack — By targeting the thirteen Domain Name System (DNS) root servers, a DDoS attack
assaults the entire Internet for an hour. Most users are unaffected.
◦ 2003 — Operation CyberSweep — The U.S. Justice Department announces more than 70 indictments and 125
convictions or arrests for phishing, hacking, spamming and other Internet fraud as part of Operation CyberSweep.

History of Cybercrime (3)
◦ 2019 - Alibaba - A telemarketing employee privately obtained 1.1 million pieces of data including Alibaba
client contact information and leaked it to a distributor’s staff member during the November 11 Singles’ Day
shopping festival.
◦ 2019 - Facebook - Information relating to more than 530 million Facebook users is exposed by an unknown
hacker including phone numbers, account names, and Facebook IDs.
◦ 2021 - Colonial Pipeline - a ransomware attack forced Colonial Pipeline, a U.S. energy company to shut down
its entire fuel distribution pipeline — and therefore threatened gasoline and jet fuel distribution across the
U.S. east coast. Colonial Pipeline paid nearly $5 million to Eastern European hackers to help restore the
country’s largest fuel pipeline.
◦ 2021 - Accenture - The LockBit ransomware gang breached Accenture's networks, encrypted files and
demanded $50 million to avoid having their encrypted files sold on the dark web.

Categories of Cyber Crime
◦ Hacking
◦ Computer Viruses and Worms
◦ Malicious software or Malware.
◦ Cyber Bullying
◦ Cyber Stalking
◦ Intellectual Property Rights
◦ Money Laundering
◦ Financial Fraud
◦ Electronic Terrorism, Vandalism and
Extortion
◦ Hate speeches on social media.
◦ Digital Piracy
◦ Identity Theft

Definition of Cyber Crimes
◦ Hacking: It is a type of cybercrime in which unauthorized access is gained to data in a system or
computer.
◦ Identity theft: It is the deliberate use of someone else’s identity. The term identity theft was first
used in 1964.
◦ Cyberbullying: Also known as online bullying, cyberbullying, or is a form of harassment or
bullying done using electronic means.
◦ Cyberstalking: It is the use of the internet to stalk or harass someone. It involves false
accusations, slander, and defamation.
◦ Spoofing: It is a trick in which hackers deceive computer systems to gain illegitimate advantage
and steal data from personal networks or websites.

Definition of Cyber Crimes (2)
◦ Financial fraud: It is when someone steals money or deprives others of their assets through online
means.
◦ Digital Piracy: Also known as online piracy, it involves the practice of illegally downloading and
distributing digital copyrighted content.
◦ Computer viruses and worms: They are types of malware computer programs that replicate
themselves to spread and infect computer systems.
◦ Malware: A software designed by cybercriminals to intentionally cause damage to the server,
computer, client, or network.
◦ Intellectual property rights: Intellectual property theft is defined as online theft of content or
material that is copyrighted.

◦ Money Laundering: It involves the use of the internet to launder money through different online
payment systems.
◦ Denial of service attack (DOS attack): It is a cyberattack to disrupt the targeted server and its
traffic. It makes a network resource or machine unavailable to the intended users.
◦ Electronic terrorism: Also known as cyberterrorism, electronic terrorism involves the use of the
internet for violent acts. It involves potentially threatening someone or achieving ideological or
political gains.
◦ Online Vandalism: It is the action that involves the deliberate damage and destruction of your
online material. It may also involve the modification of the online content on your website
without your permission.

◦ Worms: Refers to a malicious program that replicates itself, automatically spreading through a
network.
◦ Virus: Type of computer program that, when executed, replicates itself by modifying other
computer programs and inserting its own code. If this replication succeeds, the affected areas are
then said to be "infected" with a computer virus, a metaphor derived from biological viruses.

Hacking and its effects
◦ The effects of hacking can also include damage to digital data or even to physical equipment.
◦ Some hackers may purposely destroy data in order to harm their targets.
◦ In other cases, valuable data may be accidentally damaged or not saved, because of interference from hackers
or the software that hackers use.
◦ Data may also be encrypted and held for ransom and rendered unusable, if hackers aren't paid.
◦ In rare cases, hackers may even use computers that control other devices to damage hardware or physical
equipment.

Types of Hackers
◦ White Hat Hackers
◦ Black Hat Hackers
◦ Gray Hat Hackers
◦ Script Kiddies
◦ Green Hat Hackers
◦ Blue Hat Hackers
◦ Red Hat Hackers
◦ State/Nation Sponsored Hackers
◦ Hacktivist
◦ Malicious insider or Whistleblower

White Hat Hackers
◦ White hat hackers are types of hackers who’re professionals with expertise in cybersecurity. They are
authorized or certified to hack the systems.
◦ These White Hat Hackers work for governments or organizations by getting into the system.
◦ They hack the system from the loopholes in the cybersecurity of the organization.
◦ This hacking is done to test the level of cybersecurity in their organization.
◦ By doing so, they identify the weak points and fix them to avoid attacks from external sources.
◦ White hat hackers work as per the rules and regulations set by the government.
◦ White hat hackers are also known as ethical hackers.

Black Hat Hackers
◦ Black hat hackers are also knowledgeable computer experts but with the wrong intention.
◦ They attack other systems to get access to systems where they do not have authorized entry.
◦ On gaining entry they might steal the data or destroy the system.
◦ The hacking practices used by these types of hackers depend on the individual’s hacking capacity and
knowledge.
◦ As the intentions of the hacker make the hacker a criminal.
◦ The malicious action intent of the individual cannot be gauged either can the extent of the breach while
hacking

Gray Hat Hackers
◦ The intention behind the hacking is considered while categorizing the hacker.
◦ The Gray hat hacker falls in between the black hat hackers and white hat hackers.
◦ They are not certified, hackers.
◦ These types of hackers work with either good or bad intentions.
◦ The hacking might be for their gain.
◦ The intention behind hacking decides the type of hacker.
◦ If the intention is for personal gain, then the hacker is considered to be a gray hat hacker.

Script Kiddies
◦ It is a known fact that half knowledge is always dangerous.
◦ The Script Kiddies are amateurs' types of hackers in the field of hacking.
◦ They try to hack the system with scripts from other fellow hackers.
◦ They try to hack the systems, networks, or websites.
◦ The intention behind the hacking is just to get attention from their peers.
◦ Script Kiddies are juveniles who do not have complete knowledge of the hacking process.

Green Hat Hackers
◦ Green hat hackers are types of hackers who’re learning the ropes of hacking.
◦ They are slightly different from the Script Kiddies due to their intention.
◦ The intent is to strive and learn to become full-fledged hackers.
◦ They are looking for opportunities to learn from experienced hackers.

Blue Hat Hackers
◦ Blue Hat Hackers are types of hackers who’re like Script Kiddies.
◦ The intent to learn is missing.
◦ They use hacking as a weapon to gain popularity among their fellow beings.
◦ They use hacking to settle scores with their adversaries.
◦ Blue Hat Hackers are dangerous due to the intent behind the hacking rather than their knowledge.

Red Hat Hackers
◦ Red Hat Hackers are synonymous with Eagle-Eyed Hackers.
◦ They are the types of hackers who’re similar to white hackers.
◦ The red hat hackers intend to stop the attack of black hat hackers.
◦ The difference between red hat hackers and white hat hackers is in the process of hacking through intention
remains the same.
◦ Red hat hackers are quite ruthless while dealing with black hat hackers or counteracting with malware.
◦ The red hat hackers continue to attack and may end up having to replace the entire system set up.

State/Nation Sponsored Hackers
◦ Government appoints hackers to gain information about other countries.
◦ These types of hackers are known as State/Nation sponsored hackers.
◦ They use their knowledge to gain confidential information from other countries to be well prepared for any
upcoming danger to their country.
◦ The sensitive information aids to be on top of every situation but also to avoid upcoming danger.
◦ They report only to their governments.

Hacktivist
◦ These types of hackers intend to hack government websites.
◦ They pose themselves as activists, so known as a hacktivist.
◦ Hacktivist can be an individual or a bunch of nameless hackers whose intent is to gain access to government
websites and networks.
◦ The data gained from government files accessed are used for personal political or social gain.

Malicious insider or Whistleblower
◦ These types of hackers include individuals working in an organization who can expose confidential
information.
◦ The intent behind the exposure might be a personal grudge with the organization or the individual might
have come across the illegal activities within the organization.
◦ The reason for expose defines the intent behind the exposure.
◦ These individuals are known as whistleblowers.

Possible Protection from Hackers
◦ Protection from hackers is important no matter whether it is for personal use or for large corporations. The following tools
are the best defense against hackers:
◦ Firewalls
◦ The firewall is a software barrier which is designed to protect private resources and prevents unauthorized network
traffic.
◦ They are designed to block off ports of access on the computer and require administrative clearance to access
resources.
◦ Routers
◦ All modern routers include firewalls and protective features.
◦ You can password protect wireless networks and create useful protection with them.
◦ Updates
◦ Software updates are crucial to ensure the safety and security of any application of the software.
◦ It could be the operating system at home or the server software that processes website information and more.

Identity theft
◦ The three most common types of identity theft are financial, medical and online.
◦ Financial identity theft
◦ Most people associate identity theft with this type of crime, which involves the use of personal information to take over
financial accounts.
◦ Medical identity theft
◦ Did you know that your health insurance information can be used by someone else to see a doctor, get prescription
drugs or file claims to your insurance provider?
◦ Online identity theft
◦ A sharp increase in social media use means greater opportunities than ever before to steal identities or perpetuate fraud
online.

Safety checklist for identity theft prevention
◦ While institutions are continuously adapting to the latest cybercrime techniques, the first line of defense is
often at home, since identity thieves specialize in hacking personal computers.
◦ Watch for phishing
◦ "The most common technique, known as phishing, could involve receiving an email indicating your account has been
compromised, that you need to validate your information or that there's something wrong with an order," More says.
"This is a red flag — should you receive such an email, delete it and do not respond.
◦ Verify virus alerts
◦ Another common scam involves a fake "virus alert" with an 800 number to call for help. "Whatever you do, don't call
the number," More says. "If you are concerned, contact a known and trusted source, such as an authorized electronics
service center."

Safety checklist for identity theft prevention (2)
◦ Update your software
◦ One of the easiest ways to protect yourself from identity theft is to keep your computer technology updated. "Hackers
exploit software vulnerabilities of people who haven't kept their software and anti-virus programs current, and those
annoying updates are actually plugging security holes that exist within the system," More says. "Set your system to auto-
update so you know it will be maintained by a legitimate provider."
◦ Beware of phone scams
◦ Remember that not all identity theft takes place through a computer. Phone calls are an increasingly popular way to
gather security information. "Be suspicious when someone calls and asks you for personal or secure information,"
More says. "If you don't recognize the caller, don't give them any answers."

Laws in Pakistan
◦ There are three cybercrime laws in Pakistan.
◦ These laws deal with different categories of internet crimes in Pakistan. They are
listed as under:
◦ Electronic Transaction Ordinance (ETO) 2002
◦ to recognize and facilitate documents, records, information, communications and transactions in
electronic form
◦ to provide for the accreditation of certification service providers.
◦ Electronic / Cyber Crime Bill 2007
◦ Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA) 2016

ELECTRONIC TRANSACTION
ORDINANCE (ETO) 2002
◦ Introduced in 2002, the Electronic transactions Ordinance (ETO) came out to be the first IT-
relevant legislation.
◦ It was created by national lawmakers.
◦ It was a first step that served as a solid foundation for legal sanctity and protection of the local e-
Commerce industry.
◦ A large part of this cybercrime law in Pakistan was inspired by foreign law related to cybercrime.
◦ This ordinance consist of 9 chapters.
◦ It has 45 sections dealing with different aspects.

Chapters in ETO (2002)
◦ Preliminary (Definitions)
◦ Recognition and Presumption
◦ Electronic Documents
◦ Certification Service Providers
◦ Certification Council
◦ Amendments of Certain Laws
◦ Other Laws and Jurisdiction
◦ Offences
◦ Miscellaneous

Key Provisions of the ETO
◦ If a rule of law requires or permits information to be or given in writing, the use of electronic records satisfies the rule of law;
◦ If a rule of law under a statutory provision specified requires or permits a document to be served on a person by personal service
or by post, the service of the document in the form of an electronic record satisfies the rule of law;
◦ If a rule of law requires a signature of a person on a document and neither the person whose signature is required nor the person
to whom the signature is to be given is or is acting on behalf of a government entity, an electronic signature satisfies the
requirement;
◦ If a rule of law requires a signature of a person on a document and the person whose signature is required and/or the person to
whom the signature is to be given is/are acting on behalf of a government entity/entities, a digital signature satisfies the
requirement;
◦ If a rule of law requires certain information to be presented or retained in its original form, that requirement is satisfied by
presenting or retaining the information in the form of electronic records; and
◦ If a rule of law requires certain information to be retained, that requirement is satisfied by retaining electronic records.

Electronic / Cyber Crime Bill 2007
◦ The Prevention of Electronic Crimes or Cybercrimes Ordinance (PECO) was passed in 2007.
◦ According to the Prevention of Electronic Crimes or Cybercrimes Ordinance (PECO), cyber
criminals in Pakistan may have to face different penalties.
◦ They may include six months of imprisonment to sometimes even capital punishment for various
types of cybercrimes.
◦ The laws apply to every person who commits cybercrimes in Pakistan irrespective of their
nationality or citizenship.
◦ This ordinance consist of 7 chapters.
◦ It has 49 sections addressing different aspects.

Offences And Punishments
Type of Offence Jail Time Fine Both applicable?
Criminal access 2 Years <=300,000 Rs Yes
Criminal data access 3 Years Yes
Data damage 3 Years Yes
System damage 3 Years Yes
Electronic fraud 7 Years Yes
Electronic forgery 7 Years Yes
Misuse of electronic system 3 Years Yes
Unauthorized access to code 3 Years Yes
Misuse of encryption 5 Years Yes
Malicious code 5 Years Yes

Offences And Punishments (2)
Type of Offence Jail Time Fine Both applicable?
Cyber Stalking 7 Years <=300,000 Rs Yes
Spamming 3 Months Yes
Spoofing 3 Years Yes
Unauthorized interception 5 Years <=500,000 Rs Yes
Cyber terrorism 10 Years > 10 Million Rs Yes

Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA)
2016
◦ The Prevention of Electronic Crimes Act (PECA) was introduced in 2016.
◦ It provides a comprehensive framework for various types of cybercrime in Pakistan.
◦ It is one of those cybercrime laws in Pakistan that is in accordance with the Cyber Crime Bill
2007.
◦ It deals with the following internet crimes in Pakistan:
◦ Illegal Access of Data (Hacking)
◦ Denial of Service Attack (DOS Attack) (shut down a machine or network)
◦ Electronic Forgery and Electronic Fraud
◦ Cyberterrorism

Offences And Punishments (3)
◦ Up to three years of imprisonment, 1 million PKR fine, or both for accessing critical information
systems without authorization.
◦ Up to seven years of imprisonment, PKR 10 million fine or both for disruption of critical information
systems with dishonest or fraudulent intentions.
◦ Up to seven years of imprisonment, PKR 10 million fine or both for involvement in offence related to
terrorism.
◦ Up to six months of imprisonment, PKR 50 thousand fine or both for importing, exporting or
supplying an electronic device for offensive use.
◦ Up to three years of imprisonment, PKR 5 million fine or both for involvement in data breach. It may
include the online distribution of someone’s personal data without consent.

Reporting of Cyber Crime in Pakistan
◦ The National Response Centre for Cyber Crime (NR3C) comes under the supervision of the Federal
Investigation Agency (FIA).
◦ It acts as a cyber law enforcement body in Pakistan.
◦ For Reporting:
◦ Website: complaint.fia.gov.pk
◦ Contact number: 051-9106384
◦ Cyber Rescue Helpline: 1991
◦ Email address: helpdesk@nr3c.gov.pk
◦ Address (Where you can send your written applications): NR3C-FIA, National Police Foundation Building, 2nd
Floor, G-10/4, Mauve Area, Islamabad
◦ Karachi Wing: Dd/Cyber Crime, FIA Office, Near Darul Sehat Hospital Gulistan-e-johar Karachi

Cyber Scout
◦ Cyber Scout is a person with unique aim to promote awareness about
cyber crime in the society.
◦ A Cyber Scout is trained to identify cyber crime activities and equipped
with adequate preventive knowledge to help fight this menace.
◦ He understands the risks associated with virtual socializing and he
works to promote Cyber safety in his surrounding environment.
◦ A Cyber Scout play a vital role to create Cyber awareness among fellow
students, teachers and parents.
◦ To become a cyber scout: https://csop.pk/become-scout.html

TIPS FOR
PREVENTIN
G CYBER
CRIME

Biotechnology
◦ Biotechnology is a broad discipline in which biological processes, organisms, cells or cellular components are
exploited to develop new technologies.
◦ New tools and products developed by biotechnologists are useful in research, agriculture, industry and the
clinic.
◦ Five major branches of biotechnology are:
◦ Blue Biotechnology (Marine)
◦ Green Biotechnology (Environmental)
◦ Red biotechnology (Medical)
◦ White Biotechnology (Industrial)
◦ Bioinformatics

Involvement of Computer Science in
Biotechnology
◦ Development of software tools and methods for understanding biological data.
◦ Being able to visualize, simulate, and analyze biological and genetic information is made possible by the
applications of computer science.
◦ Fields:
◦ Bioinformatics Engineers
◦ write software applications and tools that are used by biologists in the field of biotechnology and
bioinformatics to perform research and analysis.
◦ Computational Biologists
◦ to develop the underlying algorithms that are used in data analysis to try and understand biological processes
◦ Bioinformatics Analysts
◦ create models and perform statistical analyses to generate insights from the data.

Ethical Issues in Biotechnology
◦ Safety
◦ Power disrupts the complex balance in living nature in ways that are likely to be harmful
◦ Liberty
◦ Will give some people tyrannical power over others
◦ Justice
◦ Will be so expensive that only the richest individuals will benefit from it so that the rich will have an unjust
advantage over the poor
◦ Environmental nature
◦ Will promote the replacement of the natural environment with a purely artificial world and that this will
deprive human beings of healthy contact with wild nature

Ethical Issues in Biotechnology (2)
◦ Human nature
◦ Could change or even abolish human nature
◦ Religious beliefs
◦ Express the religious attitude that life is sacred and therefore the biotechnological manipulation of life
shows a lack of reverence for the divinely ordained

ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
AND LAW

Artificial intelligence
◦ Artificial intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science.
◦ It involves developing computer programs to complete tasks that would otherwise require human intelligence.
◦ AI algorithms can tackle learning, perception, problem-solving, language-understanding and/or logical reasoning.
◦ AI is used in many ways within the modern world.
◦ For example, AI algorithms are used in Google searches, Amazon's recommendation engine, and GPS route finders.
◦ Most AI programs are not used to control robots.
◦ Even when AI is used to control robots, the AI algorithms are only part of the larger robotic system, which also includes
sensors, actuators, and non-AI programming.
◦ Often — but not always — AI involves some level of machine learning, where an algorithm is "trained" to respond to a
particular input in a certain way by using known inputs and outputs.

Ethical Issues of AI
◦ Job Loss and Wealth Inequality
◦ AI is Imperfect — What if it Makes a Mistake?
◦ Should AI Systems Be Allowed to Kill?
◦ Rogue Ais
◦ Singularity and Keeping Control Over Ais
◦ How Should We Treat AIs?
◦ AI Bias

Virtual Reality
◦ Virtual Reality (VR) is a computer-generated environment with scenes and objects that appear to be real,
making the user feel they are immersed in their surroundings.
◦ This environment is perceived through a device known as a Virtual Reality headset or helmet.
◦ There are 3 primary categories of virtual reality simulations used today:
◦ Non-immersive
◦ Semi-immersive
◦ Fully-immersive

Non-immersive Virtual Reality
◦ Non-immersive virtual experiences are often overlooked as a virtual reality category because it’s already so
commonly used in everyday life.
◦ This technology provides a computer-generated environment but allows the user to stay aware of and keep
control of their physical environment.
◦ Non-immersive virtual reality systems rely on a computer or video game console, display, and input devices
like keyboards, mice, and controller.
◦ A video game is a great example of a non-immersive VR experience.

Semi-immersive Virtual Reality
◦ Semi-immersive virtual experiences provide users with a partially virtual environment.
◦ It will still give users the perception of being in a different reality when they focus on the digital image, but
also allows users to remain connected to their physical surroundings.
◦ Semi-immersive technology provides realism through 3D graphics, a term known as vertical reality depth.
◦ More detailed graphics result in a more immersive feeling.
◦ This category of VR is used often for educational or training purposes and relies on high-resolution displays,
powerful computers, projectors or hard simulators that partially replicate design and functionality of
functional real-world mechanisms.

Fully Immersive Virtual Reality
◦ Fully-immersive simulations give users the most realistic simulation experience, complete with sight and
sound.
◦ To experience and interact with fully-immersive virtual reality, the user needs the proper VR glasses or a head
mount display (HMD).
◦ VR headsets provide high-resolution content with a wide field of view.
◦ The display typically splits between the user’s eyes, creating a stereoscopic 3D effect, and combines with
input tracking to establish an immersive, believable experience.
◦ This type of VR has been commonly adapted for gaming and other entertainment purposes, but usage in
other sectors, namely education, is increasing now as well.
◦ The possibilities for VR usage are endless.

VR vs AR vs
MR
◦ Virtual reality (VR)
immerses users in a
fully artificial digital
environment.
◦ Augmented reality
(AR) overlays virtual
objects on the real-
world environment.
◦ Mixed reality (MR) not
just overlays but
anchors virtual objects
to the real world.

Virtual Reality Ethical Issues
◦ One of the biggest such VR problems includes isolation.
◦ A user can enjoy the virtual world so much, they forget about the real world.
◦ This can also lead to problems with social interaction caused by isolation.
◦ This leads to another VR challenge of getting the person readjusted to the real world.
◦ They may be desensitized to certain types of violence or interactions, which could damage their social
relationships.
◦ They may also overestimate their physical abilities, attempting a jump they can’t make or trying a skill they’ve
only perfected in a VR environment.
◦ These are only some of the VR ethical issues being talked about and will need to be resolved as the
technology develops.

Case Study
Therac 25
London Ambulance Service, Comedy of
Errors

Therac 25
◦ The Therac-25 was a medical linear accelerator (It
delivers high-energy x-rays or electrons to the
region), used to treat cancer patients to remove
tumors.

Background Information
◦ Early1970’s, AECL (Atomic Energy of Canada Limited) and a French Company Cullen Grummitt & Roe (CGR)
collaborate to build Medical Linear Accelerators.
◦ They develop Therac-6, and Therac-20.
◦ In 1976, AECL develops the revolutionary "double pass" accelerator which leads to the development of Therac-25.
◦ AECL and CGR end their working relationship in 1981.
◦ In March 1983, AECL performs a safety analysis of Therac-25 which apparently excludes an analysis of software.
◦ July 29,1983, the Canadian Consulate General announces the introduction of the new "Therac 25" Machine
manufactured by AECL Medical, a division of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited.
◦ Medical linear accelerators (linacs) known generally as “Therac-25”.

How Therac-25 works:
Generating an Electron Beam
◦ Linear accelerator works just like the computer monitor
◦ The electrons are accelerated by the gun in the back of the monitor and directed at the inside of the screen
◦ A medical linear accelerator produces a beam of electrons about 1,000 times more powerful than the
standard computer monitor
◦ Medical linear accelerators accelerate electrons to create high-energy beams that can destroy tumors with
minimal impact on surrounding healthy tissue
◦ The Therac-25 is designed to fold beam back and forth in order to produce long acceleration to fit into
smaller space

Getting the Beam into the
Body
◦ Shallow tissue is treated with accelerated electrons
◦ Scanning magnets placed in the way of the beam; the spread of
the beam (and thus its power) could be controlled by a
magnetic fields generated by these magnets
◦ Deeper tissue is treated with X-ray photons
◦ The X-ray beam is flattened by a device in the machine to
direct the appropriate intensity to the patient.
◦ Beams kill (or retard the growth of) the cancerous tissues

Accident with Therac-25
◦ Total 6 incidents happened during 1985 to 1987.
◦ Each time patient felt the burning sensation on the operated part.
◦ Every patient died after some time.
◦ Each time ACEL sent their engineer to investigate but refused to acknowledge any issue in the machine.
◦ Except after the fifth incident where they started proper investigation.

Reasons for the cause of the accidents
At Texas facility;
◦ Operator selected x-rays by mistake, used cursor keys to change to electrons
◦ Machine tripped with “Malfunction 54”
◦ Documentation explains this is “dose input 2” error
◦ Operator saw “beam ready” proceeded; machine tripped again
At Washington facility;
◦ Operator used hand controls to rotate table to field-light position & check alignment
◦ Operator set machine but forgot to remove film
◦ Operator turned beam on, machine showed no dose and displayed fleeting message
◦ Operator proceeded from pause; After another machine pause, operator reentered room

Root Cause Analysis of the Accidents
◦ Software code was not independently reviewed.
◦ AECL did not consider the design of the software during its assessment of how the machine might produce
the desired results and what failure modes existed. –No proper risk assessment followed.
◦ The system noticed that something was wrong and halted the X-ray beam, but merely displayed the word
"MALFUNCTION" followed by a number from 1 to 64. The user manual did not explain or even address
the error codes, so the operator pressed the P key to override the warning and proceed anyway.
◦ AECL personnel, as well as machine operators, initially did not believe complaints. This was likely due to
overconfidence

Root Cause Analysis of the Accidents (2)
◦ AECL had never tested the Therac-25 with the combination of software and hardware until it was assembled
at the hospital.
◦ The problem was a race condition produced by a flaw in the software programming.
◦ Management inadequacies and lack of procedures for following through on all reported incident.
◦ The engineer had reused software from older models. These models had hardware interlocks that masked
their software defects

Requirements Issues
◦ Error messages provided by Therac-25 monitor are not helpful to operators
◦ Machine pauses treatment but does not indicate reason why
◦ The equipment control task did not properly synchronize with the operator interface task, so that race
conditions occurred if the operator changed the setup too quickly.
◦ Software is required to monitor several activities simultaneously in real time
◦ Interaction with operator
◦ Monitoring input and editing changes from an operator
◦ Updating the screen to show the current status of machine
◦ There were no independent checks that the software was operating correctly (verification).
◦ Traceability matrix: ways to get information about errors, i.e., software audit trails should be designed into
the software from the beginning.

Requirements Issues (2)
◦ The software should be subjected to extensive testing and formal analysis at the module and software level.
◦ System testing alone is not adequate; verification would be very valuable.
◦ Involve users at all phases of product development

Corrective Action Plan
◦ Documentation should not be an afterthought.
◦ Software quality assurance practices and standards should be established.
◦ Designs should be kept simple and ensure user-friendly interfaces

Lessons
◦ Complacency
◦ Assumption that problem was understood without
adequate evidence
◦ Sole reliance on software for safety
◦ Systems engineering practices need proper
coordination

London Ambulance Service, Comedy of Errors
◦ LAS responsible for:
◦ 600 square miles
◦ 6.8 million peoples
◦ Roughly 5000 patients per day
◦ 2000 to 2500 calls per day
◦ Before 1992 LAS did not have computerized system.
◦ The process was like:
Take Call Paper
Collection
Point
Paper
Reginal
Allocator
Paper
Dispatch Voice
Driver

The Accident
◦ On October 26th, 1992, the London Ambulance System failed.
◦ Phones rang for up to 10 minutes
◦ Ambulance response times were delayed
◦ Some calls were lost
◦ On November 2nd, the system crashed completely.
◦ Software was a major cause of the failures.

Background
◦ The London Ambulance Service (LAS) is the largest ambulance service in the world.
◦ 6.8 million residents – much higher during daytime.
◦ Services 5000 patients a day.
◦ Handles between 2000 and 2500 calls a day (more than 1 per minute).
◦ Employs 2700 full-time staff.
◦ In 1990 the LAS was not meeting the UK standards for ambulance response times.
◦ Other parts of the UK National Health Service had undergone reforms throughout the 80s, but the LAS had
not changed much since 1980.
◦ Staff/Management relations were low.

Dispatch system
Take
Call Collection
Point
Paper
Regional
Allocator
Paper
RA
RA
Paper
Dispatcher
Voice
Ambulance

Professional Issues in Computing

Professional Issues in Computing

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Similar to Professional Issues in Computing

Similar to Professional Issues in Computing (20)

More from Syed Zaid Irshad

More from Syed Zaid Irshad (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Professional Issues in Computing