Season Extension Techniques for Market Gardeners

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Season Extension Techniques
for Market Gardeners
HORTICULTURE TECHNICAL NOTE
Abstract: Market gardeners can grow crops year-round with season extension techniques. Cultural practices, plastic
mulches, row covers, and low tunnels provide growers with earlier, later, and higher-quality produce that can capture
more markets and demand higher prices. High tunnels or hoophouses, which are essentially unheated greenhouses, have
gained increased interest around the country in the past 10 years. Many growers now consider hoophouses essential to
the success of their market gardens; they are the focus of research projects, workshops, and new manuals. This publication
describes these season extension techniques and provides sources for equipment, supplies, and further information.
Introduction
Market gardeners use a variety of techniques
to extend the growing season. Since season
extension has a long history, current techniques
involve both rediscovery and innovation. Gar-
deners through the centuries have learned to use
available materials to produce earlier crops in
the spring, grow cool-season crops in summer,
maintain production well into the fall, and even
harvest crops through the winter. Time-hon-
ored methods include cold frames heated with
manure, masonry walls or stone mulch as heat
sinks, and cloches (glass bell jars) to protect in-
dividual plants. Improvements in glass quality
were big news for season extenders of the 18th
and 19th centuries.(Ashton, 1994) More recently,
plasticulture (use of plastics in agriculture) has
greatly extended the possibilities for year-round
production. Plastic ﬁlm mulches, drip irriga-
tion, row covers, low tunnels, and high tunnels
Revised by Janet Bachmann
NCAT Agriculture Specialist
January 2005
©2005 NCAT
Table of Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Cultural Practices ................................................................................................... 2
Plasticulture for Season Extension ............................................................................ 6
Economics of Season Extension.............................................................................. 21
References........................................................................................................... 22
Further Resources ................................................................................................ 24
High tunnels protect high value crops. Photo
by Janet Bachmann

//SEASON EXTENSION TECHNIQUES FOR MARKET GARDENERS
or hoophouses, help to protect crops from the
weather. The use of plastic in horticultural crop
production has increased dramatically in the past
decade. High tunnels are springing up around
the country, as more and more market gardeners
see them as essential to their operations.
Benefits from year-round production include
year-round income, retention of old customers,
gain in new customers, and higher prices at times
of the year when other local growers (who have
only unprotected field crops) do not have pro-
duce. Other potential benefits of season extension
technologies are higher yields and better quality.
In addition, with year-round production you can
provide extended or year-round employment for
skilled employees whom you might otherwise
lose to other jobs at the end of the outdoor grow-
ing season. Disadvantages include no break in
the yearly work schedule, increased management
demands, higher production costs, and plastic
disposal problems.
Eliot Coleman, a market gardener in Maine who
uses various techniques to grow vegetables
year-round, summarizes the contribution season
extension makes to sustainability.
. . . to make a real difference in creating a local food
system, local growers need to be able to continue
supplying “fresh” food through the winter months
. . .[and] to do that without markedly increasing
our expenses or our consumption of non-renewable
resources.(Coleman, 1995)
The information in this publication and in the
materials listed as Further Resources can help
you analyze the benefits and costs of season ex-
tension techniques on your farm.
Cultural Practices
Almost all plants benefit from increased early-
and late-season warmth. Many cultural tech-
niques can modify the microclimate in which a
crop is grown, without using structures or covers,
though some of these techniques require long-
term planning.
Site Selection
Garden site selection is very important for ex-
tended-season crop production. Cold air, which
is heavier than warm air, tends to settle into val-
leys on cold nights, limiting the growing season
there. In areas of relatively low elevation, a
higher-elevation site only a few miles away can
easily have a 4- to 6-week longer growing season.
A site on the brow of a hill, with unimpeded air
drainage to the valley below, would be ideal
where season extension is an important consider-
ation. (In more mountainous areas, temperatures
drop as elevation increases.)
In northern states, land with a southern aspect
is the best choice for early crops, as south-facing
slopes warm up sooner in the spring. Further-
more, the closer to perpendicular the southern
slope is to the angle of sunlight, the more quickly
it warms.
South-facing slopes may not be advantageous
in the southern U.S., where soil is likely to be
relatively shallow, poor in soil fertility, and low
in accumulated organic matter. If there has to
be a choice between a sunnier aspect and native
soil quality, the latter wins out, especially in the
South, where winters and early springs are not
as cold as in the North.
Soils and Moisture Content
Soils can affect temperature because their heat
storage capacity and conductivity vary, depend-
ing partly on soil texture. Generally, when they
are dry, sandy and peat soils do not store or con-
duct heat as readily as loam and clay soils. The
result is that there is a greater daily temperature
range at the surface for light soils than for heavier
Related ATTRA Publications
Compost Heated Greenhouses
Greenhouse and Hydroponic Vegetable
Resources on the Internet
Low-cost Passive Solar Greenhouses
Root Zone Heating
Solar Greenhouse Resource List
Specialty Lettuce and Greens:
Organic Production
Scheduling Vegetable Plantings for
Continuous Harvest

// SEASON EXTENSION TECHNIQUES FOR MARKET GARDENERS PAGE 3
soils, and the minimum surface temperature is
lower. Darker soils often absorb more sunlight
than light-colored soils and store more heat.
Consequently, areas with lighter-colored soils
(and no ground cover) are more prone to frost
damage.(Snyder, 2000)
Bare soil absorbs and radiates more heat than soil
covered with vegetation. Although the radiated
heat helps protect against frost, cover crops pro-
vide many other benefits. Mowing to keep the
ground cover short provides a compromise.
In addition, moist soil absorbs and radiates more
heat than dry soil, because water stores consider-
able heat. To maximize this effect, water content
in the upper one foot of soil where most of the
change in temperature occurs must be kept near
field capacity.(Snyder, 2000)
Irrigation
Overhead sprinklers, furrow, and drip irrigation
can be used to protect crops from frost. Sprinklers
are turned on when the temperature hits 33°F.
When the water comes in contact with plants, it
begins to freeze and release heat. As ice forms
around branches, vines, leaves, or buds, it acts as
an insulator. Although the level of protection is
high, and the cost is reasonable, there are several
disadvantages. If the system fails in the middle
of the night, the risk of damage can be quite high.
Some plants are not able to support the ice loads.
Large amounts of water, large pipelines, and big
pumps are required. Water delivered to a field
via drip and furrow irrigation, however, can
keep temperatures high enough to prevent frost
damage without the same risks.(Evans, 1999;
Snyder, 2000)
Smudge Pots and Wind Machines
Smudge pots that burn kerosene or other fuels
are placed throughout vineyards or orchards to
produce smoke. The smoke acts like a blanket
to keep warm air from moving away from the
ground. The smoke is also a significant source
of air pollution, and smudge pots are rarely used
anymore.(Atwood and Kelly, 1997) Today, using
oil and gas heaters for frost control in orchards is
usually in conjunction with other methods, such
as wind machines, or as border heat (two or three
rows on the upwind side) with undertree sprin-
kler systems.(Evans, 1999; Geisel and Unruh,
2003; Snyder, 2000)
Specialty cut flower growers Pamela and Frank
Arnosky in Texas have a lot of experience deal-
ing with wide fluctuations in temperature, and
in a recent article they describe various methods
for protecting high-value crops. They give this
description of wind machines.
Cold air is heavier than warm air, and on a still
night, the cold air will sink below the warm air
and actually flow downhill. This is what happens
when people say you have a “frost pocket.” As
cold air flows downhill, it gets trapped in valleys
and low spots. Even a row of trees can hold cold
air in a pocket. Unless your farm is perfectly flat,
you probably have a frost pocket somewhere, and
you can avoid trouble by planting that spot later in
the spring, or with hardy plants.
As the cool air sinks, the warm air is pushed up,
and settles in a layer just above the field as an “in-
version layer.” This is a pretty neat phenomenon
Orchard-Rite Ltd. wind machines protect crops from frost, and with added Agri-Cool™
System protects apple crops from hot weather. Photo courtesy of Orchard-Rite, Ltd.

that occurs on perfectly still nights. The inversion
layer can be quite warm, and often is not very far
off the ground. . . .
In big orchard operations, you will often see giant
fans on towers among the trees. These fans are there
to take advantage of the trapped inversion zone.
They mix the warm air above and prevent the cold
air from settling among the trees. They are super-
expensive, but so is losing a crop. Fans like this only
work in a still, radiational frost.(Arnosky, 2004)
More information about wind machines is
available from contacts listed under Further
Resources.
Windbreaks
Windbreaks decrease evaporation, wind damage,
and soil erosion, and provide habitat for natural
enemies of crop pests. They are also an important
part of season extension, helping to create pro-
tected microclimates for early crops. Windbreaks
should run perpendicular to (across) the prevail-
ing direction of early-season winds.(Hodges and
Brandle, 1996) Existing stands of trees can be
used, but choose trees for windbreaks carefully,
so that shading, competition for water and nutri-
ents, and refugia for plant pests do not become
problems.
Fall-planted cover crops of small grains (rye,
barley, winter wheat) can serve as windbreaks
the following spring; at plow-down, strips are
left standing every 30 to 40 feet and cut or tilled
under when no longer needed. Each strip should
be the width of a small-grain drill (10 to 12 feet).
However, small winter-grains may be too short to
constitute an effective windbreak for early spring
crops. Top-dressing with compost will help
ensure a good stand. Another option is to plant
perennial grass windbreaks that will maintain
protection through winter and early spring.
These are only general guidelines; experimen-
tation and adaptation are necessary to ﬁnd the
best solution for a particular situation. Other
windbreaks include snow fences, commercial
windbreak materials, brush piles, stone walls,
old fencerows or hedges, shrubs, berry brambles,
and even overgrown ditches. In any case, wind-
breaks should not be allowed to interfere with
down-slope air drainage and should allow for
some circulation to prevent air stagnation and
frost pockets.(Lamont, 1996; Hodges and Brandle,
1996)
Cultivar Selection
Cultivar selection is important for early crop
production. The number of days from planting
to maturity varies from cultivar to cultivar, and
some cultivars germinate better in cool soil than
others. Staggered planting dates can be combined
with the use of cultivars spanning a range of ma-
turity dates to greatly extend the harvest season
for any one crop. Early-maturing cultivars are
very important in going for the early market,
though in many cases the produce will be smaller.
Some later-maturing cultivars also have better
eating qualities and yields than earlier cultivars.
Information on varieties adapted to your area is
available from local growers, seed catalogues,
trade magazines, Cooperative Extension, and
resources listed at the end of this publication.
Brett Grohsgal, who co-owns Even’ Star Organic
Farm with his wife, Dr. Christine Bergmark, in
southern Maryland, says that seed saving and
genetic management are keystones of their winter
cropping system. They started with purchased
seed, but after several years of careful selection
and seed saving, they have their own supply of
seed for crops adapted to their harsh local winter
weather.(Grohsgal, 2004)
Shade
Although season extension usually brings to
mind an image of protecting plants from the cold,
modifying temperatures in mid-summer can also
be important. Shade over a bed can create a cool
microclimate that will help prevent bolting and
bitterness in heat-sensitive crops such as lettuce
and spinach, make it possible to grow warm-
weather crops in areas with very hot summers,
and hasten germination of cool-weather fall
crops. Some growers provide cooling shade by
growing vines such as gourds on cattle panels
or similar frames placed over the beds. Shade
fabrics, available from greenhouse- and garden-
supply companies, can be fastened over hoops in
summer to lower soil temperatures and protect
crops from wind damage, sunscald, and drying.
Placing plants under 30 to 50% shade in midsum-
mer can lower the leaf temperature by 10°F or
more.(Bartok, 2004)
Commercial shade fabrics are differentiated by
how much sunlight they block. For vegetables
like tomatoes and peppers, use 30% shade cloth
in areas with very hot summers. For lettuce, spin-
ach, and cole crops, use 47% in hot areas, 30% in
northern or coastal climates. Use 63% for shade-

loving plants. (The maximum
shade density—80%—is often used
over patios and decks to cool people
as well as plants).(Peaceful Valley,
2004) See the ATTRA publication
Specialty Lettuce and Greens: Organic
Production for more on growing let-
tuce in hot weather. Shade houses
can also provide frost protection
for perennials and herbs during
winter. Temperatures inside can
be as much as 20°F higher than
outdoors.(Bartok, 2004)
Silver Tufbell from Peaceful Valley
Farm Supply is a specially devel-
oped alternative to woven shade
fabric. It is impregnated with sil-
ver-finish aluminum for very high
light as well as infra-red (heat) reflection.
This, combined with a close weave, gives 45%
shading during the day, but reflects heat back
to the crop at night. Silver Tufbell is especially
suited for sun- and heat-sensitive crops. The
reflective surface also deters many pests, espe-
cially whiteflies and aphids, from approaching
the crop.(Peaceful Valley, 2004)
Steve Upson, who has been working with hoop-
houses at the Noble Foundation in Oklahoma,
began installing Kool-Lite Plus brand poly film,
in attempts to keep the houses cooler in the
summer. He says this film, which blocks solar
infra-red radiation, has kept temperatures up to
12°F cooler during the afternoon and evening.
He says although you can expect to pay 75%
more for Kool-Lite Plus, the additional cost can
be justified, considering the costs associated with
the use of shade fabric.(Upson, 2002)
Transplants
Use of transplants (versus direct seeding) is
another key season-extension technique. Some
crops have traditionally been transplanted, and
recent improvements in techniques have expand-
ed the range of crops suited to transplant culture.
Transplants provide earlier harvests by being
planted in a greenhouse several weeks before it
is safe to direct-seed the same crop outdoors. If
a grower uses succession planting or multiple
cropping (i.e., follows one crop with another in
the same spot), transplants provide extra time for
maturing successive crops. Transplants hit the
ground running, with a 3 to 4 week head start on
the season. Transplanting aids in weed control by
getting a jump on the weeds and by quickly form-
ing a leaf canopy to shade out germinating weed
seedlings. Transplants also avoid other pests that
attack germinating seeds and young seedlings,
such as fungal diseases, birds, and insects.
Multiple Cropping
Planting more than one crop on the same bed or
row in one year intensifies the cropping schedule.
Immediately after one crop is harvested, another
is planted. Dr. Charles Marr and Dr. William
Lamont (1992) list the following advantages of
multiple cropping, and conclude “if you can’t
triple crop, then you certainly can consider
double cropping.”
• Cost savings. Money spent on plastic mulch,
drip irrigation lines, and other equipment
covers three crops instead of one.
• Higher gross per acre. In his triple cropping
field trials, Lamont realized gross returns of
$13,000 to 15,000 per acre.
• Improved cash flow. Multiple harvests
throughout the season can provide income
at critical times and distribute returns more
evenly over a longer period.
• Risk management. Multiple cropping pro-
vides a hedge against the loss of a crop to
freezes, hailstorms, and other crises.
• Increased productivity. Small areas of land
are thus made more productive, a great boon
in areas where cropland is scarce or costly.
Plastic mulch can increase yield and quality of potatoes.
Photo courtesy Penn State Center for Plasticulture.

Table 2. Examples of triple cropping sequences
Spring Summer Fall
Cole crops Summer squash Tomatoes
Lettuce Cucumbers Tomatoes
Sweet corn Cucumbers Tomatoes
(Marr and Lamont, 1992)
Table 1. Spring-Fall Planting Sequences for North Carolina
Please note that crops in the same family never follow each other in the same field or bed in the same
year. The same rule applies to triple cropping sequences.
Spring Fall
Peppers Summer squash, cucumbers, or cole crops
Tomatoes Summer squash, cucumbers, or cole crops
Summer squash Tomatoes or cole crops
Eggplant Summer squash
Cucumbers Tomatoes
Muskmelons Tomatoes
Watermelons Tomatoes
Honeydews Tomatoes
Cole crops Summer squash, pumpkins, muskmelons, or tomatoes
Cauliflower Summer squash, pumpkins, muskmelons, or tomatoes
Snap beans Summer squash, pumpkins, muskmelons, or tomatoes
Southern peas Summer squash, pumpkins, muskmelons, or tomatoes
Lettuce Summer squash, pumpkins, muskmelons, or tomatoes
Sweet corn Summer squash, tomatoes, or cucumbers
Strawberries Tomatoes, summer squash, cucumbers, or pumpkins
(Sanders, 2001)
Table 1 shows examples of dou-
ble cropping sequences from
North Carolina.(Sanders, 2001)
Table 2 shows examples of triple
cropping sequences suitable for
plasticulture in Kansas.(Marr
and Lamont, 1992) For related
information, see the ATTRA
publication Scheduling Vegetable
Plantings for Continuous Harvest.
• Cleaner, higher-quality produce
• More efficient use of water resources
• More efficient use of fertilizers
• Reduced soil and wind erosion (though
erosion may increase in un-mulched paths
between rows)
• Potential decrease in disease
• Better management of certain insect pests
• Fewer weeds
• Reduced soil compaction and elimination
of root pruning
• The opportunity for efficient double or
triple cropping (Lamont, 1996)
Plasticulture for Season
Extension
During the past 10 years there has been an explo-
sion in the use of plastics in agriculture. The term
“plasticulture” is used to describe an integrated
system that includes—but is not limited to—plas-
tic film mulches, drip irrigation tape, row covers,
low tunnels, and high tunnels. Some benefits of a
comprehensive plasticulture system include:
• Earlier crop production (7 to 21 days
earlier)
• Higher yields per acre (2 to 3 times higher)

Disadvantages of Plasticulture:
The Disposal Dilemma
Costs and management time will both increase with the use of plasticulture, but if it’s done well, the
higher productivity and profit should more than compensate. The most serious problems associated with
plasticulture have to do with removal from the field and disposal. Machines are commercially available
to remove plastic mulch from the field (Zimmerman, 2004; Holland, 2004) and to roll and pack it into
bales, but for smaller-scale growers this is probably not an option. Other obstacles to recycling include
dirt on the plastic, UV degradation, the high cost of collecting and sorting, and a lack of reliable end-
use markets. But recycling technologies and initiatives are evolving. Dr. William Lamont, an advocate
of plasticulture, envisions a future when growers will remove, chop, and pelletize field plastics for use
as a fuel. Lamont and others at The Penn State Center for Plasticulture are currently testing a heater
manufactured in Korea that burns plastic pellets made from waste plastics of all types. Dennis DeMatte,
Jr., who as manager of the Cumberland County (New Jersey) Improvement Authority works with New
Jersey’s greenhouse plastic film recycling program, stated that since the program was initiated in 1997,
the CCIA has recycled approximately 80 percent of the film collected. From 1997 through 2002, the
state collected about 1,120 tons of film.(Kuack, 2003) Web sites for more information about recycling
agricultural or greenhouse-related plastic products include:
The Penn State Center for Plasticulture
www.plasticulture.org/newsletters/ASP_April04.pdf
Cumberland County Improvement Authority
www.ccia-net.com
Agriculture Container Recycling Council
www.acrecycle.org
USAg Recycling Inc.
www.usagrecycling.com
Cornell University Environmental Risk Analysis Program
http://environmentalrisk.cornell.edu/C&ER/PlasticsDisposal/AgPlasticsRecycling/
Plastic Mulches
Plastic mulches have been used commercially on
vegetables since the early 1960s. Muskmelons,
tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, squash, eggplant,
watermelons, sweet corn, snap beans, southern
peas, pumpkins, and okra will all ripen earlier
and produce better yields and fruit quality when
grown on plastic mulch.
Plastic mulches have helped growers in extreme
northern and high-altitude climates harvest
heat-loving crops that were previously impos-
sible for them to grow. In the northeastern U.S.
small acreages of sweet corn are established by
transplanting into plastic mulch for an early
crop. Broccoli, cauliﬂower, pumpkin, and winter
squash can also be established as transplants into
plastic, if earliness and reduced environmental
stress are required. In the Southwest, spring mel-
ons are direct seeded then covered with plastic
strips to accelerate germination and develop-
ment. At the three to four leaf stage, the plastic
is removed.(Guerena, 2004)
Small-scale market gardeners will probably lay
down plastic mulch by hand. Tim King, market
gardener near Long Prairie, Minnesota, has been
using a system of raised beds, drip irrigation,
plastic mulch, and fabric row-cover tunnels since
1986. He says that although doing everything by
hand is very labor intensive, they are very pleased
with the ﬂexibility this gives them to “hybridize”
the parts of the system in various ways. It also al-

lows them to reuse much of the material a second
and even a third season.(King, 2002)
Mechanical application can save time. Many
growers have found that a simple tractor-pulled
mulch layer will reduce overall costs and help
ensure a uniform installation that will resist wind
damage. Plans are available for a mulch layer
that can be built in a farm shop (Thompson et al.,
2004), and the machines are also commercially
available. They can also be designed to install a
drip irrigation line at the same time.(Zimmerman,
2004; Holland, 2004) Plants or seeds can be set
through slits or holes in the plastic by hand or
with a mechanical transplanter. Labor savings
from mechanical transplanters are significant,
even on limited acreages.
For successful plant establishment with plastic
mulch, it is important that beds be level, the plas-
tic is tightly laid, drip irrigation tape is placed in
a straight line in the center of the bed, and water
is applied through the irrigation system immedi-
ately after transplanting. Never use plastic mulch
without irrigation.
Certified organic producers should be aware that
organic standards place certain restrictions on
the use of plastic mulches. For example, PVC
plastics may not be used as mulches or row
covers. Also, plastic mulches must be removed
from the field before they begin decomposing—
which would seem to eliminate photodegradable
films from organic production.
Plastic mulches are available in a number of col-
ors, weights, and sizes for various needs. Many
come as 3– to 5–foot wide rolls that can be laid
over soil beds with a tractor and mechanical
mulch layer. Extensive research with colored
mulches has been conducted at the Horticulture
Research Farm, Rock Springs, Pennsylvania, by
staff of The Pennsylvania State University Cen-
ter for Plasticulture. (See Further Resources for
contact information.)
Black plastic mulch is the most commonly used.
It suppresses weed growth, reduces soil water
loss, increases soil temperature, and can im-
prove vegetable yield. Soil temperatures under
black plastic mulch during the day are gener-
ally 5°F higher at a depth of 2 inches and 3°F
higher at a depth of 4 inches compared with
bare soil.(Sanders, 2001) Black plastic embossed
film has a diamond-shaped pattern. It has the
same advantages as smooth black plastic. The
pattern helps to keep the mulch fitted tightly to
the bed. For plastic mulch to be most effective,
it is important that it be in contact with the soil
that it covers. Air pockets act as insulation that
reduces heat transfer.
Clear plastic mulch will allow for greater soil
warming than colored plastic. It is generally used
in the cooler regions of the United States, such as
New England. Clear plastic increases soil tem-
peratures by 8 to 14ºF at a depth of 2 inches, and
by 6 to 9°F at a depth of 4 inches.(Orzolek and
Lamont, no date) A disadvantage is that weeds
can grow under the clear mulch, while black
mulch shades them out. Therefore, clear plastic
is generally used in conjunction with herbicides,
fumigants, or soil solarization. Organic growers
may want to experiment with clear plastic to find
out whether weeds become a real problem. The
mulch’s benefit to the crop may outweigh the
competition from weeds.(Coleman, 1995)
White, coextruded white-on-black, or silver reflect-
ing mulches can result in a slight decrease in soil
temperature. They can be used to establish a crop
when soil temperatures are high and any reduc-
tion in soil temperatures is beneficial.
Infrared-transmitting (IRT) mulches provide the
weed control properties of black mulch, but they
are intermediate between black and clear mulch
in warming the soil. IRT mulch is available in
brown or blue-green.
Redmulchperformslikeblackmulch,warmingthe
soil, controlling weeds, and conserving moisture,
with one important difference. In Pennsylvania
experiments, tomato crops responded with an av-
erage 12% increase in marketable fruit yield over
a 3-year period. There appears to be a reduction
in the incidence of early blight in plants grown on
red mulch, compared with plants grown on black
mulch. When environmental conditions for plant
growth are ideal, tomato response to red mulch
is minimal. Other crops that may respond with
higher yields include eggplant, peppers, melons,
and strawberries.(Bergholtz, 2004) (Red mulch
also suppresses nematodes. See the ATTRA
publication Alternative Nematode Control.)
Additional colors that have been investigated
include blue, yellow, silver, and orange. Each
reflects different radiation patterns into the
canopy of a crop, thereby affecting plant growth
and development. Increased yield was recorded
for peppers grown on silver mulch, cantaloupe
on green IRT or dark blue mulch, and cucum-
bers and summer squash on dark blue mulch,

compared with black. Insect activity can also be
affected: yellow, red, and blue mulches increase
peach aphid populations; silver repels certain
aphid species and whiteflies and reduces or
delays the incidence of aphid-borne viruses in
crops.(Orzolek and Lamont, no date)
Photodegradable film has much the same qualities
as other black or clear plastic film, but is formu-
lated to break down after a certain number of
days of exposure to sunlight. The actual rate of
breakdown depends on temperature, the amount
of shading from the crop, and the amount of
sunlight received during the growing season.
Buried edges of the film must be uncovered and
exposed to sunlight. Use of photodegradable
film eliminates some of the disposal problems
associated with regular plastic, but is not with-
out problems, and its availability has decreased
rather than expanded during the past five years.
A representative of one company that no longer
offers photodegradable mulch says they discon-
tinued the product because the breakdown was
not consistent. Photodegradable mulch is not
allowed for use in organic production.
Biodegradable Mulches
Biodegradable plastics are made with starches
from plants such as corn, wheat, and potatoes.
They are broken down by microbes. Biodegrad-
able plastics currently on the market are more
expensive than traditional plastics, but the lower
price of traditional plastics does not reflect their
true environmental cost. Field trials in Australia
using biodegradable mulch on tomato and pep-
per crops have shown it performs just as well
as polyethylene film, and it can simply be
plowed into the ground after harvest.(Anon,
2002) Researchers with Cornell Univer-
sity also found that biodegradable mulches
supported good yields, but the films they
used are not yet commercially available
in the U.S.(Rangarajan et al, 2003) Bio-
Film is the first gardening film for the U.S.
market. Made from cornstarch and other
renewable resources, it is 100% biodegrad-
able. Bio-Film is certified for use in organic
agriculture by DEBIO, the Norwegian con-
trol and certification body for organic and
biodynamic agricultural production, and is
available from Dirt Works in Vermont. (See
Further Resources.)
Paper mulch can provide benefits similar
to plastic and is also biodegradable. An
innovative group in Virginia carried out
on-farm experiments to explore alternatives to
plastic. They compared soil temperatures and
tomato growth using various mulches, including
black plastic, Planters Paper, and recycled kraft
paper. Plastic, paper, and organic mulches all
improved total yields of tomatoes grown in the
trials, when compared with tomatoes grown on
bare soil.(Schonbeck, 1995; Anderson, 1995)
Recycled kraft paper is available in large rolls at
low cost. Participants in the experiment were
concerned that it would break down too quickly.
To retard degradation, they oiled the paper. This
resulted in rather transparent mulch and, as with
clear plastic, soil temperatures were higher than
under black plastic. Weeds also grew well under
the transparent mulch. To reduce weed growth
and to keep the soil from becoming too hot, the
experimenters put hay over the oiled paper sev-
eral weeks after it was laid.
Planters Paper is a commercially available paper
mulch designed as an alternative to plastic. It
comprises most of the benefits of black plastic
film and has other advantages. It is porous to
water. Left in the soil, or tilled in after the grow-
ing season, it will degrade. Tomatoes grown with
this mulch showed yields and earliness similar
to tomatoes grown in black polyethylene mulch,
even though the latter resulted in slightly higher
soil temperatures. Planters Paper, however, is
considerably more expensive than black plastic.
It does not have the stretchability of plastic, and
it tends to degrade prematurely along the edges
where it is secured with a layer of soil. The paper
is then subject to being lifted by the wind. Rebar,
old pipe, or stones—rather than soil—can be used
to secure the edges.(Bergholtz, 2004)
Penn State Center for Plasticulture trial of potatoes grown with
colored plastic mulch, drip irrigation, and floating row covers.
Photo courtesy Penn State Center for Plasticulture.

Melons, more and earlier
One study, based on three years of field trials in
Utah, found that clear plastic mulch increased
watermelon yield by 20%, while using the mulch
and a row cover increased the yield by 44%, in
comparison with melons raised without plasticul-
ture. The mulch also allows for earlier planting.
Dr. Alvin Hamson, the primary author of the study,
recommends covering the cultivated beds with
clear plastic a week or two before transplanting.
Then set the transplants into slits cut into the plas-
tic. The mulch will trap enough heat to protect the
melon plants down to an air temperature of 27ºF.
Some further tips from Dr. Hamson: Transplant
three-week-old seedlings into the field (harden
them off first) about the same time apple blossoms
open in your area. If you plan to use a floating
row cover in addition to the mulch, you can set
out transplants a week before apple bloom. Be
sure to remove the row cover a week before the
melons begin to flower, so that bees can pollinate
them, and remove it gradually—leave the cover
off for a few more hours each day for a week.
Dr. Hamson recommends the same early planting
technique for summer squash.(Long, 1996)
Another study, done at an experiment station in
Connecticut, involved multiple cropping of spe-
cialty melon transplants using black plastic mulch
and floating row covers. Yields from these beds
were up to three times higher than yields from
beds planted in plastic mulch without the row
cover. The earliest-yielding cultivars in this study
were Passport (galia) and Acor (charentais), both
developed with shorter days to maturity for use
in northern climates. These specialty melons are
larger than cantaloupe and fetch a higher price.
Accounting for the added expense of row covers,
the researchers concluded that “row covers not
only increased early fruit and total fruit, but prof-
itability is about 6-fold greater when melons are
grown for retail or wholesale.”(Hill, 1997)
Floating Row Covers
Floating row covers are made of spun-bonded
polyester and spun-bonded polypropylene and
are so lightweight that they “float” over most
crops without support. (Crops with tender,
exposed growing points, such as tomatoes and
peppers, are exceptions. To prevent damage
from wind abrasion, the cover should be sup-
ported with wire hoops.) The spun-bonded
fabric is permeable to sunlight, water, and air,
and provides a microclimate similar to the inte-
rior of a greenhouse. Plants are protected from
drying winds by what amounts to a horizontal
windbreak, and the covers give 2 to 8°F of frost
protection. In addition to season extension, ad-
vantages include greater yields, higher-quality
produce, and exclusion of insect pests.
Floating row covers are available in various
weights ranging from 0.3 to 2 ounces per square
yard. The heavier the cover, the more degrees
of frost protection it affords. Sizes range from
widths of 3 to 60 feet and lengths of 20 to 2,550
feet. Wider covers are more labor-efficient, as
there is less edge to bury per covered area. Du-
rability is related to weight, type of material, and
the additives used.
The lightest covers are used primarily as insect
barriers. They can protect crops such as cabbage
and broccoli from loopers and cabbage worms
by excluding the egg-laying moths. Eggplant,
radishes, and other favorites of the flea beetle are
easily protected by floating row covers. Be sure to
rotate crops in fields or beds planted under row
covers, since overwintering insects from a previ-
ous crop can emerge under the cover.(Hazzard,
1999) Various diseases spread by insect vectors
such as aphids and leaf hoppers are prevented
as long as the cover remains in place. Disadvan-
tages to the lighter covers are that they are easily
damaged by animals and are seldom reusable.
The lightest covers have a negligible effect on
temperature and light transmission.
Medium-weight covers are the most commonly
available. They are used to enhance early ma-
turity, increase early yields and total yields,
improve quality, and extend the season or make
possible the production of crops in areas where
they could not otherwise be grown. They also
serve as insect barriers. Crops commonly grown
with protection of medium-weight covers include
melons, cucumbers, squash, lettuce, edible-pod
peas, carrots, radishes, potatoes, sweet corn,
strawberries, raspberries, and cut flowers.
Heavier covers, those exceeding 1 ounce per
square yard, are used primarily for frost and
freeze protection and where extra mechanical
strength and durability are required for ex-
tended-season use. The microclimate created
by heavier covers is similar to that created by

medium-weight covers, but they can be reused
for three to four seasons or more.
Floating row covers can be installed manually or
mechanically. Immediately after transplanting or
direct seeding, lay the covers over the area and
weigh down or bury the edges. Small-diameter
concrete reinforcing bar (rebar), cut to manage-
able lengths, is excellent for weighting the edges.
Enough slack should be left in the cover to allow
the crop to grow. Row covers placed over crops
growing on bare soil create a favorable environ-
ment for weed germination and growth. Peri-
odic removal of the cover for hand cultivation is
not practical. Weed control can be a significant
problem under row covers, unless they are used
in combination with plastic or other mulches.
In self-pollinated crops, or leafy vegetables such
as lettuce or cabbage, the covers can be left on
for most of the production period. One caution
when growing tomatoes or peppers under covers
is in regard to heat—temperatures that rise above
86°F for more than a few hours may cause blos-
som drop.(Wells, 1992) With insect-pollinated
crops, such as melons, squash, or cucumbers, the
covers must be removed at flowering to allow
for insect pollination. The covers may, however,
be replaced after the crop has been pollinated.
Removing the covers should be considered a
hardening-off procedure. Over the course of
a few days, keep the covers off for longer and
longer periods. Final removal is best done on a
cloudy day, preferably just before a rain. Plants
will suffer more transition shock if exposed to
sun and wind.
Floating row covers
can be used again in
the fall. This some-
times involves modi-
fying the technol-
ogy. When floating
row covers are used
for spring crops, the
covers are removed
before the crops ma-
ture, while with fall
crops the covers re-
main on the mature
plants. In windy
c o n d i t i o n s t h i s
sometimes results in
abrasion of the plant
leaves, which can
mar the appearance
of a leafy crop. In
that case, the cover
could be supported
on wire hoops or
bowed fiberglass rods, so it no longer rubs against
the vegetable crop.(Coleman, 1995)
Row covers should be stored away from sun-
light as soon as they are removed from the field.
Many have been treated to resist degradation
by UV light; whether or not that is the case, they
will last longer if stored carefully in a dark, dry
place. Fold or roll the covers in a systematic way
to make them easy to unfurl for the next season’s
use.(Hazzard, 1999)
Hoop-Supported Row Covers
(Low Tunnels)
Row covers made of clear or white polyethylene
are too heavy to float above the crop, so they
are supported by hoops. Dimensions vary, but
a typical structure is 14 to 18 inches high at the
apex and wide enough to cover one bed. They
are commonly used in combination with black
plastic mulch for weed control. Hoop-supported
row covers are often called low tunnels. They
offer many of the same benefits as floating row
covers, but are not permeable to air or water and
are more labor-intensive. There are several types
of low tunnels.
Slitted row covers have pre-cut slits that provide
a way for excessive hot air to escape. At night
the slits remain closed, reducing the rate of con-
vective heat loss and helping to maintain higher
temperatures inside the tunnel.
Punched row covers have small holes punched
Floating row covers are available in various weights and sizes. Photo courtesy of
Ken-Bar.

about 4 inches apart to ventilate hot air. The
punched covers trap more heat than the slitted
tunnels. They are best for northern areas and
must be managed carefully to avoid overheating
crops on bright days. They are useful for peppers,
tomatoes, eggplant, most cucurbits, and other
warm-season crops that grow upright.
Tunnels that use two 3-foot wide plastic sheets
stapled together at the top are commonly used
by farmers growing trellised crops such as cherry
tomatoes, long beans, and bitter melons. These
tunnels are more expensive to put up, but they
require little equipment investment. Most of
the work to put them up is done by hand.(Ilic,
2004)
Hoops for supporting slitted or punched row
covers are often made from 10-gauge galvanized
wire. The pieces are cut to 65 to 75 inches long.
Each end is inserted about 6 to 12 inches deep
on each side of a row or bed to form a hoop over
it. Hoops are spaced 5 to 8 feet apart—or less.
Tim King, a market gardener in Minnesota, cuts
hoops 3 to 4 feet long and spaces them 2 feet
apart in the beds.(King, 2002) The covers are
anchored on each edge with soil. Tunnels can
be set by hand or with machines that resemble
plastic mulch layers.
Cold Frames
Traditional low struc-
tures such as cold
frames and cloches
are continually be-
ing modified by in-
novative gardeners
and garden supply
manufacturers. Al-
though cold frames
work well in pro-
tecting crops in cold
weather, construction
costs are high com-
pared to plasticulture
systems. For special
situations, many pub-
lications contain plans
for cold frames, solar
pods, and other small
portable structures.
Solar Gardening, by
Leandre and Gretchen
Poisson, listed under Further Resources, is one
such publication. A more recent article on cold
frames can be found in the November 2004 issue
of Fine Gardening magazine.(Vargo, 2004)
High Tunnels
High tunnels, also called hoop houses, have been
attracting a lot of attention in the past few years,
as more and more market gardeners have come
to consider high tunnels essential tools in their
operations. A high tunnel is basically an arched
or hoop-shaped frame covered with clear plastic
and high enough to stand in or drive a tractor
through. Traditional high tunnels are completely
solar heated, without electricity for automated
ventilation or heating systems. Crops are grown
in the ground, usually with drip irrigation. Com-
pared to greenhouses, high tunnels are relatively
inexpensive, ranging in price from $1.50 to $3.00
per square foot—and even less for the Haygrove
multibay tunnels discussed below.
High tunnels are used extensively in Europe,
Asia, and the Middle East. Although high tun-
nels are not used as much in the United States
as in other parts of the world, interest here is
growing rapidly. Universities and agricultural
organizations around the country are conducting
high-tunnel research, market growers are hosting
workshops on their farms and at conferences, and
more articles are appearing in trade journals and
newsletters.
Slitted row covers have pre-cut slits that provide a way for excessive hot air to es-
cape. Photo courtesy of Ken-Bar.

Universities and Foundations Conducting High Tunnel Research (Lamont, 2003)
University or Foundation Contact Phone E-mail
Pennsylvania State University Center
for Plasticulture
Bill Lamont 814-865-7118 wlamont@psu.edu
http://plasticulture.cas.psu.edu
Ohio State University Matt Kleinhenz 330-263-3810 kleinhenz1@osu.edu
University of New Hampshire Brent Loy 603-862-3216 jbloy@christa.unh.edu
Rutgers University A.J. Both 732-392-9534 both@aesop.rutgers.edu
University of Maryland Cooperative
Extension
Bryan Butler bb113@umail.umd.edu
University of Missouri-Columbia Louis Jett 573-884-3287 jettl@missouri.edu
Kansas State University Ted Carey 913-438-8762 tcarey@oznet.ksu.edu
University of Nebraska Laurie Hodges 402-472-1639 lhodges@unl.edu
University of Minnesota Terrance Nennich 218-694-2934 nenni001@umn.edu
Michigan State University John Biernbaum 517-353-7728 biernbau@msu.edu
Noble Foundation, Oklahoma Steve Upson 580-223-5810 sdupson@noble.org
Healthy Farmers Healthy Profits Proj-
ect, University of Wisconsin
Astrid Newenhouse 608-262-1054 astridn@facstaff.wisc.edu
University of Kentucky Brent Rowell 859-257-3374 browell@ca.uky.edu
Right: The most critical components
of hoop house strength are the end
walls. Below: At the Noble Founda-
tion, wood end-posts fabricated from
two 2- by 6-inch boards, corrugated
fiberglass. Photos courtesy of Noble
Foundation.

Several manuals on hoophouses have been pub-
lished recently. They give details on construction,
crop production, economics, and sources for
supplies, equipment, and additional information.
Some of these were written by market gardeners
who have built and are using hoophouses. Oth-
ers were published as a result of research done at
universities and private foundations. Titles
and ordering information for these are pro-
vided under Further Resources.
High tunnels have had a tremendous im-
pact on season extension. Market garden-
ers say the structures pay for themselves
in one season.
• Crops grown in hoophouses have
higher quality and are larger than
those grown in the ﬁeld.
• Crops grown in hoophouses can hit
the market early when prices are high
and help to capture loyal customers
for the entire season.
• Hoophouses allow certain crops to be
grown throughout the winter, pro-
viding a continuous supply to markets
(and tables) the entire year.
Crops that have been grown in high tunnels
include specialty cut ﬂowers, lettuce and
other greens, carrots, tomatoes, peppers,
squash, melons, raspberries, strawberries,
blueberries, and cherries. Although high
tunnels provide a measure of protection
from low temperatures, they are not frost
protection systems in the same sense that
greenhouses are. On average, tunnels per-
mit planting about three weeks earlier than
outdoor planting of warm season crops.
They also can extend the season for about
a month in the fall. Earlier plantings and
later harvests would require a supplemental
heating system.
Location and Site Preparation
Alison and Paul Wiediger of Au Naturel Farm in
south-central Kentucky grow winter vegetables
in 8,500 square feet of high tunnels. In regard to
locating a hoophouse, they advise other growers
to put it close to the house. Especially on cold
days, the shorter the walk from the house to the
hoophouse, the more pleasant the trip will be—
and the more likely you will be to make it. The
Wiedigers advise other growers to prepare the
site so that the ground is level from side to side,
and has no more than 3% slope from end to end.
Avoid wet or shady areas and obstructions to
ventilation. Make sure drainage around the site
is good. You don’t want water running through
the house every time it rains.(Wiediger, 2003)
The High Tunnels Web site, www.
hightunnels.org, is another valu-
able resource. At this site, re-
searchers, Extension specialists,
professors, students, technicians,
and growers are collaborating to
share their experience and knowl-
edge about the use of high tunnels
in the Midwest.
Haygrove Tunnel with Cherries. Photo courtesy of Haygrove
Tunnels.

Orientation
Dan Nagengast of Wild Onion Farm in eastern
Kansas says the orientation (east-west or north-
south) depends on your location. Manufacturers
recommend orienting the house to capture the
most light in winter. For locations north of 40°
latitude, the ridge should run east to west. For
locations south of 40° latitude, the ridge should
run north to south. At any latitude, gutter-con-
nected or closely spaced multiple greenhouses
will get more light if they are aligned north-south
because they avoid the shadow cast by structures
to the south.(Byczynski, 2003) Dr. Lewis Jett,
in Columbia, Missouri, says that a high tunnel
should be oriented perpendicular to prevailing
winds: in regard to orientation of a high tunnel,
sunlight is less important than ventilation.(Jett,
2004)
Design and construction
A high tunnel is not difficult to build. The most
common design uses galvanized metal bows at-
tached to metal posts driven into the ground 4
feet apart—a traditional quonset style structure.
Carol A. Miles and Pat Labine in Washington
offer construction details for a 10-foot by 42-foot
structure that can be built for $350.(Miles and
Labine, 1997) See Appendix I.
The High Tunnel Production Manual, published
by The Pennsylvania State University Center for
Plasticulture, details the construction and use
of 17- by 36-foot tunnels using a gothic arch de-
sign developed by Penn State. (They chose this
smaller size for research purposes.) The center
section of the end walls can be opened up for
easy access by machinery.(Lamont, 2003) Con-
struction details only are shown in Appendix II,
Design and Construction of the Penn State High
Tunnel.
The Hoop House Construction Guide, by Steve Up-
son of the Noble Foundation, provides details for
three designs: quonset, straight wall, and triple
side-vent. Upson says the quonset structure is
generally the least expensive to purchase. While
satisfactory for producing low growing crops,
trellised crops can’t be grown close to the sides.
Straight wall designs provide unhindered in-
ternal access along the sides of the house, while
permitting plenty of vertical growing space, but
because of the additional pipe required, expect to
pay more for materials and to spend more time
on construction. The triple side-vent has vents
on both ends of the tunnel; one side of the house
is taller than the other, and the third vent is at the
top of the tall side. This is the most expensive of
these three designs. See Further Resources for
information.
Strength is important. Heavy-gauge galvanized
steel pipe is best for hoops. Setting the hoops
four feet rather than any further apart is also
recommended. Growers in snowy climates might
choose a peaked-roof structure instead of the
quonset style.(Bartok, 2002) The most critical
components of a hoop house for strength are the
end walls.(Upson, 2004) At the Noble Founda-
tion, wood end-posts fabricated from two 2- by
6-inch boards, corrugated fiberglass panels for
end-wall glazing, and industrial steel frame doors
with heavy-duty latches, provide long-lasting
end walls.
The most economical covering is 6-mil green-
house grade, UV-treated polyethylene, which
should last three to five years. Do not use plastic
that is not UV-treated—“It will fall apart after half
a season.”(Mattern, 1994)
Roll-up sides used on many high tunnels provide
a simple and effective way to manage ventilation
and control temperature. The edge of the plastic
is taped to a one-inch pipe that runs the length
of the tunnel. A sliding “T” handle is attached
to the end of the pipe so that the plastic can be
rolled up as high as the hip board. Ventilation
is controlled by rolling up the sides to dispel the
heat. Depending on temperature and wind fac-
tors, the two sides may be rolled up to different
heights.
Coleman (1995) gives the following advice for
dealing with wind.
Wind whipping and abrasion can be a serious prob-
lem. No matter how carefully the cover is tightened
when it is first put on, it always seems to loosen.
There are two ways to deal with this. The simplest
is to run stretch cord over the top of the plastic from
one side to the other…. One cord between every
fourth rib is usually sufficient. The tension of the
stretch cord will compensate for the expansion and
contraction of the plastic due to temperature change
and will keep the cover taut at all times. The sec-
ond solution is to cover the tunnel with two layers
of plastic and inflate the space between them with
a small squirrel cage fan. This creates a taut outer
surface that resists wind and helps shed snow.

Missouri cut flower grower builds a solar-powered hoophouse
When Bryan Boeckmann of Westphalia, Missouri, decided to start cultivating cut flowers, a high tunnel
seemed like the natural choice. But he had a problem: He couldn’t always be in Westphalia to make the
required adjustments. Temperatures in such a structure can easily get too high on a sunny day, and the
grower must be on hand to open the vents.
“I work full time for the fire department in Jefferson City, and the temperature in a high tunnel can change
a lot in a 24-hour period,” he said. “I had to have something I could rely on. Fortunately, necessity is
where most good ideas come from.” Boeckmann’s good idea was to use solar power to automatically
raise and lower the side curtains on his tunnel. His project was funded by a grant from the Missouri
Department of Agriculture.
Jim Quinn, the MU extension researcher who helped with the project, said Boeckmann was inspired by
existing technology in poultry barns. “He had seen how poultry curtains work, and he thought, ‘Why can’t
I do the same thing with a high tunnel and use solar power?’” The curtains are made of white, woven,
tarp-like material. They are pulled up to close the sides and lowered to open the sides of the tunnel.
Quinn said the innovation “is really a nice fit. The times when you need to adjust the curtains are when
there’s a lot of sunny weather, and that’s also when the solar power is available.”
Boeckmann initially hoped to drive the side curtains with conventional electric power, but hooking into
the grid was “cost-prohibitive,” he said. He called on Missouri Valley Renewable Energy (MOVRE), a
firm in Hermann, Missouri, to design and build a solar unit. Using mostly used parts, MOVRE owner
Henry Rentz constructed a small building with two solar panels on the roof and an inverter, batteries, and
control panel within.
“I found some used stuff for Bryan because I wanted him to succeed in what he was doing,” said Rentz.
“Those batteries alone would have cost $1,600 new. I basically did it to show people something that
already works.”
The system succeeded beyond their expectations. “In June, when we had that extended period of rain,
that system ran for 11 days without sun, “ Rentz said.
“It’s fairly simple, “ Boeckmann said. “Once you’ve initially set it up, typically you don’t have to mess with
it. You just have to set the thermostat.” The thermostat in the hoop house senses temperature and, at
a set point, triggers a mechanism that very slowly raises or lowers the plastic side curtains. “The reason
it moves so slowly is to give the temperature in the building a chance to adjust,” he said. “It takes it 15
minutes to go all the way up. You can do it manually really fast, if a storm is coming.”
Boeckmann also uses solar power to drive his irrigation pump—“a little bitty pond pump that doesn’t
eat up a lot of juice.”
He believes his innovations could boost the already growing interest in high tunnel construction. “There’s
good reason for the interest,” he said. “The difference they make is phenomenal, considering it’s just a
sheet of plastic stretched over a frame. They just keep improving them.“
For more information, contact Jim Quinn at 573-882-7514 or by e-mail at
quinnja@missouri.edu.(Rose, 2004)

Irrigation is essential for adequate and timely wa-
tering. Watering can be done by hand, through
a trickle or drip system, or by overhead emitters.
The Pennsylvania State Center for Plasticulture
High Tunnel Production Manual discusses the
advantages of drip irrigation from water being
delivered directly to the soil around the crops.
• Efficient water and fertilizer use
• Reduced weed competition in areas outside
the beds
• Ability to simultaneously irrigate and work
inside tunnels
• Reduction in disease potential because
water doesn’t get on the leaves
If you choose trickle irrigation, use one line per
row, or depending on the crop, one line per
double row. If the soil is adequately fortified
with nutrients, supplemental feeding might not
be necessary; however, nitrogen can be applied
through the trickle system.
The manual also discusses overhead irrigation
and provides details on how to construct an over-
head system. This allows irrigation water to be
applied evenly to the entire soil surface. It can be
used to leach salts from tunnel soils or to establish
and grow cover crops within the tunnel.
A floor covering of a single sheet of 6-mil black
plastic or landscape fabric provides several
advantages. It warms the soil, controls weeds,
greatly reduces evaporation of soil moisture, and
serves as a barrier against diseases in the soil that
could infect plant parts above
ground. Secure the edges
(sides and ends) of the plastic
to prevent wind from blowing
the plastic over the plants.
Temperature management
using the roll-up sides is
critical. On sunny mornings,
the sides must be rolled up to
prevent a rapid rise in tem-
perature. Tomato blossoms,
as mentioned earlier, will be
damaged when temperatures
go above 86°F for a few hours.
Even on cloudy days, rolling
up the sides provides ventila-
tion to help reduce humid-
ity that could lead to disease
problems. The sides should
be rolled down in the evening
until night temperatures reach
65°F. A maximum/minimum thermometer is
a great aid in keeping tabs on temperature.
Twenty feet by 96 feet is a size commonly
used by market growers. This size allows ef-
ficient heating and cooling, efficient growing
space, and adequate natural ventilation. Lynn
Byczynski and Dan Nagengast who grow spe-
cialty cut flowers and vegetables in Zone 5 near
Lawrence, Kansas, have five hoophouses, each
20 by 96 feet. They purchased Polar Cub cold
frames from Stuppy Greenhouse Company.
They chose Stuppy not because it was the
only greenhouse manufacturer, but because
it was the closest, so shipping costs were least
expensive. The cost for two houses was $3,250,
including the metal frames, four-year poly
covering, wiggle wire to attach the poly to the
frames, and shipping. Lumber to install the
roll-up sides and poly-covered endwalls cost
an additional $1,600. They also paid a neigh-
bor $300 to prepare the site with a bulldozer
and laser leveling device. In their first year,
the hoophouses produced more than twice
what they cost. The record of crops grown,
planting and harvest dates, and revenue per
square foot is shown in Table 3.(Byczynski,
2003) Additional details, including photos that
show the construction of a Stuppy’s Polar Cub
cold frame at Wild Onion Farm, can be found
in The Hoophouse Manual: Growing Produce and
Flowers in Hoophouses and High Tunnels. See
Further Resources.
Alison and Paul Wiediger also use a commer-
cially available 20- by 96-foot high tunnel, in
Hoophouses at Wild Onion Farm. Photo courtesy of Wild Onion Farm.

addition to two 21- by 60-foot tunnels. They think
there is value in building as large a structure as
is practical.(Wiediger, 2003)
Most of the growing in this tunnel will be in spring,
fall, and winter when outside temperatures are
cooler/colder. We believe that both the earth and
the air within the tunnel act as heat sinks when the
sun shines. At night, they give up that heat, and keep
the plants safe. The smaller the structure, the smaller
that temperature “flywheel” is, and the cooler the
inside temperatures will be.
They also find that plants close to the walls do
not grow as well as the plants further from them.
The larger the frame, the larger the percentage of
effective growing area. And most growers want
more, rather than less, space at the end of one
growing season.
Twenty feet wide, however, may be as wide as
you can get with the inexpensive cold frame type
hoophouses without interior bracing. Longer
than 100 feet or so may be too long for effective
natural ventilation.
The Wiedigers use a double layer of 6-mil, 4-year
poly to cover their tunnels. A small fan blows
air between the two layers to create an insulating
barrier against the cold. Construction and man-
agement details can be found in their manual,
Walking to Spring: Using High Tunnels to Grow
Produce 52 Weeks a Year. See Further Resources
for ordering information.
Haygrove Multibay Tunnel Systems
With Haygrove tunnels, innovative growers are
literally covering their fields to protect high-value
crops from early and late frost, heavy rain, wind,
hail, and disease. The frames also provide sup-
port for shade cloth and bird netting.(DeVault,
2004) The British company Haygrove was started
in 1988 with a little more than two acres of straw-
berries in hoophouses. By 2002, Haygrove had
expanded to nearly 250 acres of soft fruits, includ-
Hoophouse production at Wild Onion Farm
Crop Date planted Dates of harvest
Revenue per
square foot
Fall-planted flowers
Delphinium ‘Clear Springs’ and “Bellamosum” 9/28/00 4/26/01-7/26/01 $2.67
Dianthus (Sweet William) 9/25/00 4/24/01-6/1/01 $5.05
Larkspur ‘Giant Imperial’ 10/7/00 5/2/01 - 6/10/01 $3.25
Spring-planted flowers
Stock ‘Cheerful’ 3/21/00 5/18/00-5/30/00 $1.92
Campanual ‘Champion’ 4/1/01 6/3/01-6/30/01 $3.62
Lisianthus 4/12/00 6/26/00-10/8/00 $3.32
Fall-planted vegetables
Arugula 9/27/00 fall, spring $1.31
Cilantro 9/27/00 fall, spring $0.95
Chinese cabbage 9/27/00 fall $1.11
Green onions 9/27/00 fall $0.61
Leeks 9/27/00 spring $1.10
Lettuce 9/27/00 fall, spring $0.40
Mizuna 9/27/00 fall $0.69
Spring-planted vegetables
Cucumbers 4/12/00 summer $1.34
Tomatoes 4/12/00 summer, fall $3.55
Byczynski, 2003

ing strawberries, blackberries, red currants, and
cherries, grown under plastic in England and
eastern Europe. They also came up with a new
design for multibay tunnels and sold 3,000 acres
of tunnels throughout Europe. Haygrove tunnels
are now being distributed and used in the U.S.
Haygrove sells tunnels from 18 to 28 feet wide
per bay, with a three bay minimum. There are no
walls between bays. The total length and width
can be whatever the grower desires. Company
representative Ralph Cramer in Lancaster Coun-
ty, Pennsylvania, says he has seen tunnels as short
as 65 feet and as long as 1,100 feet. They have
been used to cover from 1/3 acre to 100 acres (of
blueberries in California). Unlike greenhouses,
Haygrove tunnels don’t need to be built on ﬂat
ground, but can be built on slopes. Cramer says
advantages of the systems include lower cost
and better ventilation.(Cramer, 2004) One acre of
Haygrove tunnels costs about 55 cents per square
foot, or about $24,000.(Byczynski, 2002)
North Carolina market gardeners Alex and
Betsy Hitt covered two quarter-acre blocks with
Haygroves in 2004. One block was planted to
specialty cut ﬂowers, the other to organically
grown heirloom tomatoes. Heirlooms have not
been bred to resist foliar diseases, and growing
organically limits fungicide options. Alex was
pleased with the resulting decrease in plant
disease: “We have very severe foliar disease
Full production in early March at Au Naturel
Farm, lettuces and spinach. Photo courtesy of
Au Naturel Farm.
Haygrove tunnels covering large area. Photo courtesy of Haygrove Tunnels.

problems on our tomatoes in the field and tradi-
tionally would pick a crop for about five weeks,
and then it would be dead. With the Haygroves,
we picked from the same number of plants for
almost 10 weeks and picked and sold 35% more
fruit than last year.”(Hitt, 2004) Hitt also noticed
less disease in the Haygroves, compared with
single bay tunnels with roll-up sides. He attri-
butes the difference to better ventilation in the
Haygroves, since they vent so high, resulting in
less humidity.(Cramer, 2004)
Pennsylvania grower Steve Groff of Cedar Mead-
ow Farm agrees. In 2004, despite the early arrival
of late blight in the eastern United States and
Canada, Groff’s six inter-connected bays yielded
more than 3,000 25-pound boxes of tomatoes (by
October 11), with seventy percent of them grad-
ing out at No. 1. His unprotected fields yielded
only about 25 to 60 percent percent No. 1s. Groff
says 2004 was an extremely unusual year, with
a lot of wet weather. Tunnels allowed him to
reduce fungicide use by more than 50 percent
and allowed tomato harvest to begin two to three
weeks earlier. They also extended the season: On
October 11, Groff was still picking from tomatoes
planted in April, and expected to harvest 100 to
200 more 25-pound boxes. (DeVault, 2004, Groff,
2004)
Leitz Farms in Sodus, Michigan, covered 10 acres
of tomatoes this year to help control growing
conditions. Fred Leitz, one of four brothers who
run the family farm, said the plants look healthier
than the ones outside and show no sign of dis-
ease. Their operation was featured on the front
page of Vegetable Growers News.(Morris, 2004)
Haygrove tunnels, unlike single bay hoophouses,
are not designed to carry a snow load, so they
cannot be covered with poly during the winter
in areas that have snow. John Berry, director of
Haygrove, says “Haygrove tunnels are designed
to be temporary low-cost structures that can be
moved with the crop. The key management
task is venting. Unlike conventional single hoop
houses, multibay tunnels can be completely
opened to ensure the crop is not stressed by heat
or humidity.” Strawberries grown with this sys-
tem can be picked two to three weeks earlier in
the spring; yields of raspberries, blueberries, and
strawberries have consistently been 30 percent
higher in tunnels, compared with field grown
berries; and the grade-out percentage for soft fruit
under the tunnels runs about 90:10 Class A to B,
compared with 75:25 for conventional outdoor
production.(Otten, 2003)
Haygrove tunnel with tomatoes. Photo courtesy Haygrove Tunnels.

The mobile high tunnel
The “salad days” of season extension were argu-
ably in the second half of the 19th century, on
the outskirts of Paris, where 2,000 or so market
gardens employed cloches and cold frames to
produce 100,000 tons of out-of-season produce
per year. Many of these growers built small
trackways on which to move the heavy glass
cloches and frames to different parts of the gar-
den. (Poisson, 1994) For the past century, Euro-
pean horticulturists have put railcar wheels on
greenhouses and rolled them on iron rails. The
rails extend two or more times the length of the
greenhouse, making multiple sites available for
one house. Eliot Coleman describes a sample
cropping sequence for a mobile greenhouse or
high tunnel.
An early crop of lettuce is started in the greenhouse
on Site 1. When the spring climate is warm enough
for the lettuce to finish its growth out-of-doors, the
ends are raised and the house is wheeled to Site 2.
Early tomato transplants, which need protection at
that time of the year, are set out in the greenhouse
on Site 2. When summer comes and the tomatoes
are safe out-of-doors, the house is rolled to Site 3
to provide tropical conditions during the summer
for transplants of exotic melons or greenhouse
cucumbers.
At the end of the summer, the sequence is reversed.
Following the melon and cucumber harvest, the
house is returned to Site 2 to protect the tomatoes
against fall frosts. Later on, it is moved to Site 1
to cover a late celery crop that was planted after
the early lettuce was harvested. Then Site 1 is
planted to early lettuce again, and the year begins
anew.(Coleman, 1992)
Coleman has adapted these practices to his own
garden, replacing the heavy and costly iron
with more practical wooden rails. He provides
plans for his mobile high tunnel, and year-round
cropping plans, in his book Four-Season Harvest.
See Further Resources.
Economics of Season
Extension
One method for determining whether season
extension techniques can be a profitable ad-
dition to a farming operation is called partial
budgeting.(Ilic, 2004) A partial budget requires
assessment of changes in income and expenses
that would result from changing to a different
practice. It is called a partial budget because it
is not necessary to calculate the expenses that
would be the same for either practice. Steps to
follow in the analysis include:
• Decide what crop will be grown using a
season extension technique.
• Decide what season extension technique
will be used.
• Calculate costs of the new technique,
including supplies, rent or purchase of
specialized equipment, labor, water, pest
management. Allow for extra hours of
labor due to inexperience in the first year.
• Calculate the added gross income from the
new technique. Gross income is simply the
price per unit of produce sold multiplied
by the number of units sold. Income
changes as a result of a change in the price
received per unit, a change in the number
of units sold, or both.
• Calculate any reduced expenses associated
with the change. For example, use of black
plastic or paper mulch will reduce the
need for cultivation or herbicides. Use of
floating row covers will reduce the need for
other insect pest management operations.
• Add up all the increases and decreases of
expense and income and calculate the total
change in profit.
Specific information on costs of materials and
supplies is available from the companies and
in the manuals listed under Further Resources.
The High Tunnel Production Manual, High-Tun-
nel Tomato Production, The Hoophouse Handbook
and several Noble Foundation bulletins contain
sample budgets for a number of fruits, vegetables,
and cut flowers.
It must be remembered that any sample budget is
just that—a sample. All market gardeners bring
their own mix of skills, values, and resources
together to build a unique system. According to
Coleman(1992):
The secret to success in lengthening the season with-
out problems or failures is to find the point at which
the extent of climate modification is in balance with
the extra amount of time, money, and management
skill involved in attaining it. When planning for a
longer season, remember the farmer’s need for a
vacation period during the year. The dark days
of December and January, being the most difficult

months in which to produce crops, are probably
worth designating for rest, reorganization, and
planning for the new season to come.
References
Anderson, David F. et al. 1995. Evaluation of a
paper mulch made from recycled materials
as an alternative to plastic ﬁlm mulch for
vegetables. Journal of Sustainable Agricul-
ture. Spring. p. 39–61.
Anon. 2002. Making packaging greener: Bio-
degradable plastics. Australian Academy
of Science.
www.science.org.au/nova/061/061key.htm
Arnosky, Pamela and Frank. 2004. When frost
threatens, know what to expect. Growing
for Market. May. p. 15–17.
Ashton, Jeff. 1994. A short tale of the long
history of season extension. The Natural
Farmer. Spring. p. 12–13.
Atwood, Sam, and Bill Kelly. 1997. Orchard
smudge pots cooked up pall of smog. 3 p.
www.aqmd.gov/monthly/smudge.html
Bartok, John W. 2004. Shade houses provide
seasonal low-cost protected space. Green-
house Management & Production. May.
p. 56–57.
Bartok, John W. 2002. Hoop house designs
help ease snow loads. Greenhouse Man-
agement & Production. August. p. 75–76.
Bergholtz, Peter. 2004. KEN-BAR Products for
the Grower: Agricultural plastics. KEN-
BAR, Inc., Reading, MA.
www.ken-bar.com
Byczynski, Lynn. 2002. A cheaper hoophouse?
Growing for Market. October. p. 1, 4–7.
Bycynski, Lynn (ed.). 2003. The Hoophouse
Handbook: Growing Produce and Flowers
in Hoophouses and High Tunnels. Fairplain
Publications. 60 p.
Coleman, Eliot. 1992. The New Organic Grow-
er’s Four-Season Harvest. Chelsea Green
Publishing, Post Mills, VT. 212 p.
Coleman, Eliot. 1995. The New Organic Grow-
er: A Master’s Manual of Tools and Tech-
niques for the Home and Market Gardener.
2nd Edition. Chelsea Green Publishing,
Lebanon, NH. 270 p.
Cramer, Ralph. 2004. Personal communica-
tion.
DeVault, George. 2004. Farming under cover
- BIG TIME! The New Farm. August 31.
www.newfarm.org/columns/george_devault/
0804haygrove.shtml
Evans, Robert D. 1999. Frost Protection in
Orchards and Vineyards. Northern Plains
Agricultural Research Laboratory, Sidney,
MT. 20 p. www.sidney.ars.usda.gov/
Geisel, Pamela, and Carolyn L. Unruh. 2003.
Frost Protection for Citrus and Other Sub-
tropicals. University of California Divi-
sion of Agriculture and Natural Resources
Publication 8100. 4 p.
http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu
Groff, Steve. 2004. Personal communication.
Grohsgal, Brett. 2004. Winter crops, part 2:
Planting through marketing. Growing for
Market. September. p. 9
Guerena, Martín. 2004. Personal communica-
tion.
Hazzard, Ruth. 1999. Vegetable IPM Message.
Vol. 10, No. 1. University of Massachusetts
Vegetable & Small Fruit Program.
www.umass.edu/umext/programs/agro/veg-
smfr/
Articles/Newsletters/pestmessages/may12_
99.html
Hill, David E. 1997. Effects of multiple crop-
ping and row covers on specialty melons.
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tion, New Haven. Bulletin 945. October.
12 p.
Hitt, Alex. 2004. Personal communication.
Hodges, Laurie, and James R. Brandle. 1996.
Windbreaks: An important component in
a plasticulture system. HortTechnology.
July–September. p. 177–180.
Holland Transplanter Co. 2004. Product infor-
mation. Holland, MI.
www.transplanter.com
Ilic, Pedro. 2004. Plastic Tunnels for Early

Vegetable Production. University of
California Small Farm Center Family Farm
Series Publications. 21 p.
www.sfc.ucdavis.edu/Pubs/Family_Farm_Se-
ries/
Jett, Lewis. 2004. High Tunnel Tomato Produc-
tion. University of Missouri. 28 p.
King, Tim. 2002. Plasticulture without equip-
ment. Growing for Market. April. 2002. p.
1, 4–5.
Kuack, David. 2003. Dennis DeMatte Jr. on
New Jersey’s plastic film recycling pro-
gram. Greenhouse Management & Produc-
tion. July. p. 90–91.
Lamont, William J. 1996. What are the com-
ponents of a plasticulture vegetable sys-
tem? HortTechnology. July–September. p.
150–154.
Lamont, William J., Michael D. Orzolek, E. Jay
Holcomb, Kathy Demchek, Eric Burkhart,
Lisa White, and Bruce Dye. 2003. Produc-
tion system for horticultural crops grown in
the Penn State high tunnel. HortTechnol-
ogy. April–June. p. 358–362.
Lamont, William J., Martin R. McGann, Mi-
chael D. Orzolek, Nymbura Mbugua, Bruce
Dye, and Dayton Reese. 2002. Design and
construction of the Penn State high tunnel.
HortTechnology. July–September.
p. 447–453.
Lamont, WIlliam J. (ed.). 2003.High Tunnel
Production Manual. The Pennsylvania State
University. 164 p.
Long, Cheryl. 1996. New ground: Help spring
arrive early. Organic Gardening. April.
p. 18–19.
Marr, Charles, and William J. Lamont. 1992.
Profits, profits, profits: Three reasons to
try triple cropping. American Vegetable
Grower. February. p. 18, 20.
Mattern, Vicki. 1994. Get your earliest toma-
toes ever. Organic Gardening. November.
p. 26–28, 30, 32.
Miles, Carol A., and Pat Labine. 1997. Portable
Field Hoophouse. Washington State Uni-
versity Cooperative Extension. 7 p.
http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/
Morris, Christine. 2004. Grower erects 10 acres
of high tunnels to improve crop quality.
American Vegetable Grower. August. p. 1
www.vegetablegrowernews.com/pages/2004/
issue04_08/04_08_Leitz.htm
Orzolek, Michael D., and William J. Lamont, Jr.
No date. Summary and Recommendations
for the Use of Mulch Color in Vegetable
Production. The Pennsylvania State Center
for Plasticulture. 2 p.
www.plasticulture.org
Otten, Paul. 2003. High tunnels: Quietly revo-
lutionizing high value crops. Northland
Berry News. p. 11.
Peaceful Valley Farm Supply main catalogue.
2004. Grass Valley, CA.
www.groworganic.com
Poisson, Leandre and Gretchen. 1994. Solar
Gardening: Growing Vegetables Year-
Round the American Intensive Way. Chel-
sea Green Publishing. 288 p.
Rangarajan, Anu, Betsy Ingall, and Mike Davis.
Alternative Mulch Products 2003. Cornell
University. 4 p.
http://www.hort.cornell.edu/extension/com-
mercial/vegetables/online/2003veg/PDF/
Mulch2003Final.pdf
Rose, Forrest. 2004. Westphalia man builds
solar-powered hoophouse. University of
Missouri Extension and Ag Information.
News release. September 30.
Sanders, Douglas. 2001. Using Plastic Mulch
and Drip Irrigation for Vegetable Produc-
tion. North Carolina State University
HIL–33. 6 p.
www.ces.ncsu.edu/
Schonbeck, Mark. 1995. Mulching choices for
warm-season vegetables. The Virginia Bio-
logical Farmer. Spring. p. 16–18.
Snyder, Richard L. 2000. Principles of Frost
Protection. University of California. 13 p.
http://bionet.ucdavis.edu/frostprotection/FP005.
htm
Thompson, James F., Clay R. Brooks, and
Pedro Ilic. 1990. Plastic Tunnel and Mulch
Laying Machine. University of California
Small Farm Center. Family Farm Series
Publications. 4 p.

www.sfc.ucdavis.edu
Line drawings show key features of plastic tun-
nel and mulch laying machine. A list of mate-
rials needed to construct one in a farm shop is
included.
Upson, Steve. 2004. Hoophouse Construction
Guide. Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation
Agricultural Division. 24 p.
Vargo, Adrianna. 2004. 4 ways to use a cold
frame. Fine Gardening. November.
p. 55–59.
Wells, Otho. 1992. Want earlier tomatoes? Use
tunnel vision. American Vegetable Grower.
March p. 38-41.
Wiediger, Alison. 2003. Not just season exten-
sion anymore: Hoophouses saved their
season. Growing for Market. September.
p. 7.
Zimmerman, John. 2004. Rain-Flo Irrigation
catalogue. East Earl, PA.
Further Resources
Publications
Compost Heated Greenhouses. ATTRA Pub-
lication. 2001. By Steve Diver. NCAT,
Fayetteville, AR. 30 p.
Greenhouse and Hydroponic Vegetable Re-
sources on the Internet. ATTRA Publica-
tion. 2000. By Steve Diver. NCAT, Fay-
etteville, AR. 8 p.
Low-cost Passive Solar Greenhouses. 1980. By
Ron Alward and Andy Shapiro. NCAT,
Butte, MT. 174 p.
Root Zone Heating. ATTRA Publication. 2002.
By Steve Diver. NCAT, Fayettville, AR.
40 p.
Solar Greenhouse Resource List. ATTRA Pub-
lication. 2003. By Barbara Bellows. NCAT,
Specialty Lettuce and Greens: Organic Produc-
tion. ATTRA Publication. 2002. By George
Kuepper and Janet Bachmann. NCAT,
Scheduling Vegetable Plantings for Continuous
Harvest. ATTRA Publication. 2002. By
Janet Bachmann. NCAT, Fayetteville, AR.
27 p.
The Hoophouse Handbook: Growing Produce
and Flowers in Hoophouses and High
Tunnels. 2003. By Lynn Byczynski (ed.).
Fairplain Publications, Inc. 60 p.
Includes information on construction and man-
agement, including crops to grow and sources of
supplies. To order, send $15 plus $4 shipping
to:
GFM
P.O. Box 3747
Lawrence, KS 66046
800-307-8949 (toll-free)
Extending the Season: Six Strategies for Im-
proving Cash Flow Year-Round on the
Market Farm. 2004. Edited by Lynn
Byczynski, Fairplain Publications. 60 p.
Includes articles about protected early and late
crops; winter crops in the ﬁeld and unheated
hoophouse; high-dollar crops for the heated
greenhouse; storage crops to sell months after
harvest; value-added products to sell year-
round; creating year-round markets. $15 plus
$4 shipping from GFM.
Walking to Spring. 2003. By Paul and Alison
Wiediger. Au Naturel Farm. 94 p.
The Wiedigers tell how they use high tunnels to
grow produce 52 weeks a year. Includes infor-
mation on construction, crops grown, record-
keeping, and additional resources. The price is
$15 plus $3.50 shipping and handling. Order
from:
Au Naturel Farm
3298 Fairview Church Road
Smiths Grove, KY 42171
270-748-4600
wiediger@msn.com
http://aunaturelfarm.homestead.com/
High Tunnel Production Manual. 2003. By
William J. Lamont et al. The Pennsylvania
State University. 164 p.
Covers construction, production, and economics
for vegetables, berries, sweet cherries, and ﬂow-
ers. Includes additional resources. To order,
send a $25 check made out to The Pennsylvania
State University to:
Dr. Bill Lamont
Department of Horticulture
206 Tyson Building
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA 16802

High-Tunnel Tomato Production. 2004. By
Lewis Jett. University of Missouri Exten-
sion. 28 p.
The book covers everything from building high
tunnels to selecting varieties, fertilization,
caging and staking, pest management, and
intercropping. The intercropping section tells
how you can grow 12 different vegetables in a
12-month period. Available for $10 from:
Extension Publications
University of Missouri
2800 Maguire Blvd.
Columbia, MO 65211
573-882-7216
800-292-0969 (toll-free)
Hoop House Construction Guide. 2004. By
Steve Upson. Samuel Roberts Noble Foun-
dation Agricultural Division. 46 p.
Excellent photos show all construction details
from preparing the site to attaching the poly
covering. The resulting hoophouse is sturdy
enough to withstand the extremes of Oklahoma
weather. Contact:
Steve Upson
The Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation,
Inc.
P.O. Box 2180
Ardmore, OK 73402
580-223-5810
sdupson@noble.org
Four-Season Harvest: Organic Vegetables from
Your Home Garden All Year Long. 1999.
By Eliot Coleman. Chelsea Green Publish-
ing. 234 p.
Inspired by Scott and Helen Nearing’s
garden in the late ‘60s and based on the
author’s success with harvesting fresh
vegetables year-round in New England, this
book contains details on design, construc-
tion, and management of the outdoor gar-
den, cold frames, mobile high tunnels, and
root cellars. Also includes growing tips for
50 vegetable crops, a planting schedule for
extended harvests for all locations in the
U.S., and sources of tools and supplies.
Written primarily with the home gardener
in mind, but much of the material can be
applied to a commercial operation. Avail-
able from bookstores, on-line booksellers, or
directly from the publisher:
Chelsea Green Publishing
P.O. Box 428
Gates-Briggs Building #205
White River Junction, VT 05001
800-639-4099 (toll-free)
www.chelseagreen.com
The New Organic Grower (Revised edition).
By Eliot Coleman. 1995. Chelsea Green
Publishing Company. 340 p.
The New Organic Grower has become a
classic for small-scale market gardening.
This revised edition includes chapters on
season extension, including plans for con-
tructing moveable hoophouses. It provides
background information for his 1998 pub-
lication, below. Eliot Coleman and Barbara
Damrosch grow and market from October
through May in Maine.
The Winter-Harvest Manual: Farming the Back
Side of the Calendar. 1998. By Eliot Cole-
man. Four Season Farm. 62 p.
This manual describes what Coleman
and his wife Barbara Damrosch have
learned since the above book was written. It
includes their reasons for “farming the
back side of the calendar” and details about
how they do it, as well as a list of seed, tool,
and supply companies. Available for $15
including postage from:
Four Season Farm
609 Weir Cove Road
Harborside, ME 04642
Use of Plastic Mulch and Row Covers in Veg-
etable Production. 2003. By Dean McCraw
and James E. Motes. Oklahoma Coopera-
tive Extension Fact Sheet F-6034. 8 p.
www.osuextra.com
The Gandhi of greenhouses, Part I & Part II.
2004. By George DeVault. The New Farm.
April 6, April 20.
www.newfarm.org/features/
Two articles describe the passive solar produc-
tion system used by Steve and Carol Moore in
Spring Grove, Pennsylvania.
Waste oil heater. 1980. Anon. Mother Earth
News. 11 p.
www.bagelhole.org/
The article provides instructions for making
your own waste oil heater from an old water
heater tank. It is said to burn used crankcase oil
both cleanly and without any detectable odor,
and put out a lot of heat. The heater is designed
for use in a shop or garage rather than in an
open ﬁeld.
Organizations
American Society for Plasticulture

526 Brittany Drive
State College, PA 16803-1420
814-238-7045
www.plasticulture.org
National Greenhouse Manufacturers
Association
20 W. Dry Creek Circle, Suite 110
Littleton, CO 80120
800-92-NGMA
303-798-1338
ngma@ngma.com
www.ngma.com/
Recycling Contacts
American Plastics Council
1300 Wilson Blvd.
Arlington, VA 22209
800-243-5790 (toll-free)
703-741-5000
www.americanplasticscouncil.org/
Since 1990, the plastics industry, as in-
dividual companies and through organiza-
tions such as APC, has invested more than
$1 billion to support increased recycling
and educate communities in the United
States. The Association of Postconsumer
Plastic Recyclers hosts a Website as a ser-
vice to the plastic packaging industry to
promote the most efficient use of the na-
tion’s plastics recycling infrastructure and
to enhance the quality and quantity of re-
cycled post-consumer plastics.
Manufacturers and Suppliers
NOTE: This list is intended to be neither com-
prehensive nor exclusive. Endorsement of
any particular product or company is not
implied. Additional suppliers, both whole-
sale and retail, are listed in the manuals
and on the High Tunnel Web site described
above. Many resources are also listed in
the American Vegetable Grower magazine’s
annual Source Book (July issue) and the
Greenhouse Grower. Contact:
Meister Publishing Co.
37733 Euclid Ave.
Willoughby, OH 44094
440-942-2000
Good Fruit Grower is another trade magazine
that lists suppliers. Contact:
Good Fruit Grower
105 South 18th Street, Suite 217
Yakima, WA 98901
509-575-2315
www.goodfruit.com/buyers/
A.M. Leonard
P.O. Box 816
Piqua, OH 45356
800-543-8955 (toll-free)
www.amleo.com
General tools, also landscape fabric, plastic
film, shade cloth.
American Plant Products & Supplies
9200 N.W. 10th
Oklahoma City, OK 73127
405-787-4833
800-522-3376 (toll-free)
www.americanplant.com
Source of greenhouse frames, films and
glazing, shade cloth, row covers, mulch
film.
Atlas Greenhouse Systems, Inc.
P.O. Box 558
Alapaha, GA 31622
800-346-9902 (toll-free)
service@atlasgreenhouse.com
www.AtlasGreenhouse.com
Structures. Highly recommended by grow-
ers in the South and Midwest.
CropKing, Inc.
5050 Greenwich Rd.
Seville, OH 44273
330-769-2002
cropking@cropking.com
www.cropking.com
Offers grower-training workshops in hydro-
ponic production.
Dirt Works
6 Dog Team Rd.
New Haven, VT 05472-4000
800-769-3856 (toll-free)
admin@dirtworks.net
www.dirtworks.net/
Source of Bio-Film 100 biodegradable
mulch.
FEDCO Seeds
P.O. Box 520A
Waterville, ME 04903
207-426-9005
www.fedcoseeds.com
Floating row covers, plastic film mulches.
Frost Boss Wind Machine
Hawkes Bay Wind Machines, Ltd.

Hastings, New Zealand
www.frostboss.com.nz/
Source of wind machines for frost protec-
tion.
Griffin Greenhouse & Nursery Supplies
1619 Main Street
P.O. Box 36
Tewksbury, MA 01876
978-851-4346
www.griffins.com
Wholesale distributor of a range of plasti-
culture products.
Harmony Farm Supply & Nursery
3244 Hwy. 116 North
Sebastopol, CA 95472
707-823-9125
info@harmonyfarm.com
www.harmonyfarm.com
Floating row covers, frost blankets, land-
scape fabric, cold frames, greenhouse poly.
Haygrove Tunnels
Ralph Cramer
116 Trail Road North
Elizabethtown, PA 17022
866-HAYGROVE (toll-free)
Ralph.cramer@haygrove.com
www.haygrove.co.uk
Holland Transplanter Co.
P.O. Box 1527
Holland, MI 49422-1527
800-275-4482 (toll-free)
www.transplanter.com
Manufacturer of mechanical transplanters,
bed shapers, mulch layers, mulch lifters,
and related equipment.
Hummert International
4500 Earth City Expressway
Earth City, MO 63045
800-325-3055 (toll-free)
www.hummert.com
Drip irrigation, landscape fabric, green-
house frames, poly covering, floating row
cover, other supplies.
Jaderloon
P.O. Box 685
Irmo, SC 29063
800-258-7171 (toll-free)
jaderloon@jaderloon.com
www.jaderloon.com
Offers a complete line of structures and
wide selection of accessories including film
fastening systems, inflation blowers, poly-
carbonate sheets, and poly patch.
Johnny’s Selected Seeds
955 Benton Ave.
Winslow, ME 04901
207-861-3900
www.johnnyseeds.com
Floating row covers, slitted row covers,
black poly mulch, IRT-100 green poly
mulch, landscape fabric, tacks and staples,
cold frames, seeds for hoophouse/greenhouse
production and for hot weather lettuces.
KEN-BAR, Inc.
25 Walkers Brook Drive
Reading, MA 01867-0704
800-336-8882 (toll-free)
info@ken-bar.com
www.ken-bar.com
Suppliers of Dupont AG-06, Typar, Cus-
tom-Cover 5131, clear polyethylene slitted
and punched row covers, Insolar slitted/
punched row covers or tunnels, wire for
hoops, embossed and smooth black plastic
mulch, Planters Paper mulch, SRM-Red
plastic mulch, IRT plastic mulch, and clear
polyethylene tubes.
Ledgewood Farm Greenhouse Frames
Route 171
Moultonboro, NH 03254
603-476-8829
Manufacturere of Penn State type Gothic-
arch design frames.
Mechanical Transplanter Co.
1150 Central Ave.
Holland, MI 49423
800-757-5268 (toll-free)
mtc@mechanicaltransplanter.com
www.mechanicaltransplanter.com
Mechanical transplanters, bed shapers,
mulch layers, mulch lifters, low tunnel lay-
ers, floating row covers, colored film mulch-
es, and photodegradable mulch.
Orchard-Rite, Ltd.
P.O. Box 9308
Yakima, WA 98909
509-457-9196
www.orchard-rite.com
Source of wind machines and orchard heat-
ers.
Peaceful Valley Farm Supply
P.O. Box 2209

Grass Valley, CA 95945
888-784-1722 (toll-free)
www.groworganic.com
Agribon and Tufbell floating row covers,
slitted row covers, shade cloth, IRT mulch,
Planters Paper, black embossed polyethylene
mulch film, repair tape, clips, hoops, Wall-
O’-Water.
Plastitech, Inc.
478 Notre Dame
St. Remi, Quebec
Canada J0L 2L0
450-454-3961
800-667-6279 (toll-free)
info@plastitech.com
www.plastitech.com
Plastic mulch, floating row covers, tunnels,
irrigation, artificial windbreak material,
mechanical mulch layers.
Rain-Flo Irrigation
884 Center Church Rd.
East Earl, PA 17519
717-445-6976
On-farm family-owned and -operated busi-
ness. Manufactures vegetable growing ma-
chinery and supplies and carries almost all
brands of irrigation equipment, specializing
in drip irrigation. Floating row covers,
plastic film mulches, mulch layers, trans-
planters, mulch lifters.
ReflecTek Foils, Inc.
P.O. Box 310
Lake Zurich, IL 60047
888-439-6121 (toll-free)
www.repelgro.com
Metalized UV reflective and other plastic
film mulches.
Stuppy Greenhouse Mfg.
1212 Clay
North Kansas City, MO 64116
800-733-5025 (toll-free)
greenhouse@stuppy.com
www.stuppy.com
Offers a variety of both coldframes and
greenhouses.
Special thanks for their contributions to Dr. Wil-
liam J. Lamont, Dr. Carol Miles, Lynn Byczynski
and Dan Nagengast, Alison and Paul Wiediger,
Ralph Cramer, Steve Groff, Alex Hitt, Bryan
Boeckmann, and Steve Upson.

EB1825 Portable Field Hoophouse
EB1825
By
Carol A. Miles, Ph.D.,
Washington State University Cooperative Extension
Area Agricultural Systems Agent, Lewis County
Pat Labine, Ph.D.,
The Evergreen State College, Olympia, WA
When constructing a greenhouse would be unwieldy and too expensive, a plastic-enclosed
house—the hoophouse—fulfills most of a small farmer's or home gardener's needs. So named
because of the arched or "hoop" structure that supports the plastic "skin," hoophouses are
available in many lengths.
If you have a small farm business and are looking for ways to increase crop diversity or
earliness, this portable field hoophouse may help. Some crops that are well suited to this type of
hoophouse include tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, and melons—crops that need to be planted after
danger of frost and that generally mature late in the season west of the Cascade Mountains. The
hoophouse effectively allows a grower to produce early yields of crops that require more heat
units than the environment may otherwise provide.
The hoophouse rests directly over the soil in the field, using no benches or special growing
media. Two people can easily dismantle and reassemble the lightweight structure in a different
section of the field each year or within a growing season. An advantage to moving the hoophouse
around the field is crop rotation, which avoids pest buildup. Another is the low cost,
approximately $350 for a 10' X 42' hoophouse.
The following hoophouse design will result in a structure approximately 10' wide at the base, 6
1/2' high at the center, and 42' long (Figure 1). Growers can easily adjust the length by adding or
taking away support hoops and altering the length of the polyethylene plastic appropriately. The
maximum length of polyethylene plastic available on the market is 100', which governs the
maximum length for constructing a hoophouse. While initial construction of the hoophouse will
take a day, two people can later put it up and take it down in only 2 hours. Storing the hoophouse
out of the field during the winter months spares it from some of the worst weather and makes it
last many years. Using wood treated with water- based preservatives also increases the longevity
of the structure.
http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEpublications/eb1825/eb1825.html (1 of 6)12/10/2004 3:23:41 AM
APPENDIX I. Season Extension Techniques for Market Gardeners: Portable Field Hoophouse
Page 1 of 6 http://cru.cane.wsu.edu/CEpublications/eb1825/eb1825.html

FIGURE 1.
Portable field hoophouse, 10' wide by 42' long, resting directly
on soil surface in the field.
Selecting Materials
Polyethylene plastic is available in many grades. A 6 mil weight is recommended for
greenhouses. Selecting a lighter weight (4 mil) is not recommended. Untreated polyethylene will
cost less initially; however, the lifespan of the material is significantly less, and the material will
likely degrade after one year of use. When treated with a UV inhibitor, 6 mil plastic generally is
guaranteed for 3 years.
Gases that escape from the PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipes contribute to the deterioration of the
polyethylene plastic. To prevent "off-gasing," paint the PVC pipes with white latex paint. Use
wood treated with water-based preservatives for the base of the door frame, where the wood
comes into contact with the soil. Untreated wood used for the remainder of the frame will not
severely affect its longevity. Choose a mid-weight (4 oz to 5 oz) corrugated plastic for the ends.
A clear plastic generally will darken over the years, whereas a colored plastic will lighten with
time. The color of the plastic will not affect the usability of the hoophouse. Most light will enter
through the polyethylene sides.
The choice of nylon twine for tying the hoops in place is broad. Twisted twine is susceptible to
unraveling, while braided twine is more durable. Natural fiber twine (jute or cotton) is not
recommended due to the stretching these materials experience. Baling twine is inexpensive and
durable.
Materials
q 9 ea. 2" X 4" X 12' boards, treated with water-based
preservatives
q 4 ea. 2' X 8' sheets of 4 oz greenhouse-grade corrugated
plastic
q 30 ea. 1/2" X 18" lengths of reinforcing rod (rebar)
q 17 ea. 18' lengths of 1" rigid white schedule 40 PVC (20'
lengths cut down)
q 430' good quality nylon twine (minimum tensile strength 210
lbs.)
q 1 piece of 6mil polyethylene plastic sheeting, 50' long x 20'
wide
q 38 ea. 3" galvanized self-tapping screws with rubber washers
q 30 ea. 1" galvanized self-tapping screws with rubber washers
q 10 ea. 1/4" X 4" bolts and matching wing nuts

q battery powered drill
Building the Ends
Two of the two-by-four boards will become the bottoms of the door frames. Construct both door
ends in the same fashion. For each door frame, place an 11-foot length of two-by-four down with
a 4-inch side facing up. Mark the center of the 11-foot board, then mark 14 1/2" on each side of
the center. These marks frame a 29" length in the middle of the board, which will become the
bottom of the doorway. At each end of the framing board, measure 6" and drill two 1-inch holes
next to each other into the bottom piece, placing the holes as close together as possible (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2.
Top view of bottom piece with two holes drilled 6" from each end and door uprights marked, and
front view of the hoophouse end frame.
Turn the bottom piece on its side and insert a PVC length into holes at opposite ends, to form a
hoop. This will be the outermost hoop. The corrugated plastic and door frame will attach to it.
Cut two 6-foot lengths of two-by-four for the door uprights, along with one 32-inch piece for the
top (header) of the door. Screw the header into the uprights, using the 3-inch self-tapping screws,
so that the door frame is 2" wide and 4" deep. The door frame is then screwed to the bottom
piece at the marked position using 3-inch self-tapping screws. Brace each side of the doorway
with a two-by-four cut 72" long with the ends appropriately angled. Screw braces in place with 3-
inch self-tapping screws.
Cut the corrugated plastic, lining up the ridges horizontally, to fit the ends of the hoophouse.
Fitting the corrugated plastic horizontally gives added strength to the ends. Overlap the top piece
of corrugated plastic a few inches over the bottom piece to keep the ends weatherproof. Use 1-
inch self-tapping screws with rubber washers to attach the corrugated plastic to the door frame
and the hoop. The rubber washer is helpful to keep the corrugated plastic from cracking.
Attaching the ends to the hoop structure with bolts makes the hoophouse quite easy to take apart
and reassemble.
Forming the Hoop Structure

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