Guerras entre Roma y Espartaco

1. SPARTACUS AND THE
SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC
A gladiator rebels against Rome

2. ABOUT THE AUTHOR AND ILLUSTRATOR
D R N I C FIELDS started his career as a biochemist before joining the Royal
Marines. Having left the military, he went back to university and completed a
BA and PhD in Ancient History at the University of Newcastle. He was Assistant
Director at the British School at Athens, Greece, and then a lecturer in Ancient
History at the University of Edinburgh. Nic is now a freelance author and
researcher based in south-west France.
STEVE N O O N was born in Kent, UK, and attended art college in Cornwall.
He has had a life-long passion for illustration, and since 1985 has worked
as a professional artist. Steve has provided award-winning illustrations for
renowned publishers Dorling Kindersley, where his interest in historical
illustration began.

3. CAMPAIGN • 206
SPARTACUS AND THE
SLAVE WAR 73-71 BC
A gladiator rebels against Rome

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5. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 5
The origins of the revolt . The First Slave War (135-132 BC) . The Second Slave War (104-100 BC)
CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR EVENTS 146-60 B C 11
ROMAN SOCIAL ORDER 14
The slave system . Piracy and the slave trade - Gladiators - men of the sword . Oscan speakers
OPPOSING COMMANDERS 27
Spartacus the Thracian . Marcus Licinius Crassus
OPPOSING ARMIES 34
The slave army . The Roman army
OPPOSING PLANS 47
The Spartacan plan . The Roman plan
THE CAMPAIGN 52
Defeat of the praetorian armies, 73 BC - Defeat of the consular armies, 72 BC
The war with Crassus, 71 BC - The trap closes: River Silarus, 71 BC
AFTERMATH 79
Crucifixion . The return to order
THE LEGACY OF SPARTACUS 83
A GUIDE TO PRIMARY SOURCES 88
Appian (b. AD 95) . Plutarch (c. AD 46-120) . Sallust (86-c. 35 BC)
BIBLIOGRAPHY 93
GLOSSARY A N D ABBREVIATIONS 94
INDEX 95

7. INTRODUCTION
T h e year 7 3 BC, the 6 7 9 t h f r o m the f o u n d i n g o f R o m e , w i t n e s s e d the o u t b r e a k
of a serious u p h e a v a l in Italy itself, a slave-society's w o r s t n i g h t m a r e c o m e true.
T h i s w a s the g r e a t s l a v e u p r i s i n g led b y a c h a r i s m a t i c g l a d i a t o r n a m e d
S p a r t a c u s . F o r the m o d e r n r e a d e r his n a m e is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h justified
rebellion, the u n d e r d o g d a r i n g t o fight b a c k . N o t o n l y w a s he the p o s s e s s o r in
T o m Wolfe's p h r a s e of 'the right s t u f f for a H o l l y w o o d e p i c , S p a r t a c u s a l s o
Rocca di Cerere (left) and b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t l e i t m o t i f t o typify the m o d e r n w a g e - s l a v e w h o r e b e l s
Castello di Lombardia (right),
looking south-east outside the
a g a i n s t e c o n o m i c e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d s o c i a l inequality. M o s t n o t e w o r t h y in this
Eurospin supermarket, Enna. respect is the r a d i c a l g r o u p o f G e r m a n Socialists f o u n d e d in M a r c h 1 9 1 6 by
Cicero describes Enna as a R o s a L u x e m b u r g a n d K a r l L i e b k n e c h t , the Spartakusbund (Spartacus League),
town 'built on a lofty eminence, w h o l i n k e d the S p a r t a c u s l e g e n d t o p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t the G r e a t W a r a n d the
the top of which is a table-land,
watered by perennial springs,
c u r r e n t e c o n o m i c order. Similarly, in m o r e r e c e n t t i m e s , the b a l a c l a v a - c l a d
and bound in every direction Subcomandante M a r c o s , w h o d e s c r i b e d h i m s e l f a s the i n t e r n a t i o n a l
by precipitous cliffs' {Verrines s p o k e s p e r s o n for the i n d i g e n o u s rebel m o v e m e n t in C h i a p a s , s o u t h e r n M e x i c o ,
2.4.107). Besieged by Roman has used Spartacus, alongside Ernesto ' C h e ' G u e v a r a , as a revolutionary icon
forces, Enna remained
impregnable and only fell
for the p o p u l a r s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t p o l i t i c a l , j u d i c i a l , s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c
through betrayal from within. i n e q u a l i t i e s , the f o u r h o r s e m e n o f a n e n t r e n c h e d s t a t u s q u o , w h a t e v e r t h a t
(Fields-Carre Collection) status q u o m a y be.

8. Enna, a general view west- E x a m p l e s c o u l d b e m u l t i p l i e d o f S p a r t a c u s a s s u m i n g a different s h a p e
south-west from Rocca di a c c o r d i n g t o the v i e w p o i n t o f the o b s e r v e r : a s i n d i v i d u a l h e r o , a s leader of a
Cerere. At the time of the First
s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r e b e l l i o n , a s p o t e n t i a l d e s t r o y e r o f R o m e a n d , of
Slave War, the town was the
agricultural centre of one of the c o u r s e , a s i n s p i r a t i o n for future c l a s s s t r u g g l e . A s it h a p p e n s , w e all h a v e o u r
richest grain-producing plains o w n p a r t i c u l a r v i s i o n o f S p a r t a c u s , b e it f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f p o l i t i c a l
of Sicily and also an important c o m m i t m e n t o r a n t i q u a r i a n interest. A c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h , himself a G r e e k
cult centre of Demeter (Ceres),
a n d one of our three m a i n sources, S p a r t a c u s w a s 'much m o r e than one
the goddess of the earth,
agriculture and grain. Like the w o u l d e x p e c t f r o m his c o n d i t i o n , m o s t intelligent a n d c u l t u r e d , b e i n g m o r e
Syrian Atargatis, Demeter was like a G r e e k t h a n a T h r a c i a n ' (Crassus 8.2). T h e c o m m e n t implies that to a
a manifestation of the Great G r e e k intellect l i v i n g u n d e r t h e s u p e r p o w e r o f R o m e , S p a r t a c u s c o u l d be
Mother. (Fields-Carre
c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e o v e r c o m e the n a t u r a l inferiority p r o d u c e d by the t w i n
Collection)
h a n d i c a p s o f f o r e i g n n e s s a n d servile s t a t u s b y sheer f o r c e o f p e r s o n a l i t y .
T h e historical S p a r t a c u s w a s r o u g h a n d heroic, a big, brave and great-
h e a r t e d m a n , a n d his r e p o r t e d a c t i o n s b e a r o u t his ability t o l e a d others a n d
his ingenuity in battle. B u t like s u c h a h e r o , v i e w s o n his s h o r t career a s a slave
g e n e r a l o s c i l l a t e b e t w e e n the i m p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f fiction t o the p r o b a b i l i t i e s
o f f a c t . ' S p a r t a c u s ' , a s M a r x f a m o u s l y w r o t e in a letter t o E n g e l s d a t e d
2 7 F e b r u a r y 1 8 6 1 , ' a p p e a r s t o b e the m o s t c a p i t a l fellow t h a t all of ancient
h i s t o r y c a n s h o w for i t s e l f ( Correspondence 1846-95, 1 9 3 4 , p. 126). For
m a n y , this will p e r h a p s s e e m like a n e x t r e m e view. T h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y rebel
C h e G u e v a r a w a s a l s o a s t r o n g a d m i r e r of S p a r t a c u s . T h e ' H e r o i c Guerrillero'
r e m a i n s a w e l l - k n o w n f i g u r e , w h e t h e r a d o r e d or reviled, t o millions a r o u n d
the m o d e r n w o r l d . A s a real m a n , n o t a u n i v e r s a l i c o n , he killed for a c a u s e ,
o r d e r e d p e o p l e t o kill for t h a t c a u s e , a d v o c a t e d w a r t o the d e a t h a g a i n s t
i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d m a d e the u l t i m a t e sacrifice for his beliefs. D e a d m e n m a y
tell n o t a l e s , b u t they c a n m a k e a l e g e n d . In the ancient w o r l d S p a r t a c u s w a s
a real s l a v e w h o r e b e l l e d , b u t w h o u l t i m a t e l y did n o t w i n . Yet for all this, his
c o n t i n u e d a p p e a r a n c e o n the battlefield s o a l a r m e d R o m e t h a t it m o b i l i z e d a
6

9. punitive force e q u a l t o t h a t w i t h w h i c h C a e s a r w a s later t o c o n q u e r G a u l t o Temple of Demeter (Tempio
hunt h i m d o w n a n d kill h i m . di Cerere), looking north-east
from Torre Pisana, Castello
di Lombardia. It was here that
Eunus and his followers from
THE ORIGINS OF THE REVOLT the eastern Mediterranean
worshipped the Great Mother
in her local form as Demeter.
T h e r e b e l l i o n o f s l a v e s in I t a l y u n d e r S p a r t a c u s m a y h a v e b e e n the b e s t
Also it was from here, according
o r g a n i z e d , b u t it w a s n o t the first o f its k i n d . T h e r e h a d b e e n o t h e r r e b e l l i o n s to Cicero (Verrines 2.4.112), that
of s l a v e s t h a t afflicted R o m e , a n d w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t S p a r t a c u s w a s w i s e Verres, the infamous Roman
e n o u g h t o p r o f i t by their m i s t a k e s . All the s a m e , t h o u g h his r e b e l l i o n is easily governor of Sicily, dared to
take away her cult statue.
the m o s t f a m o u s , it is i m p o r t a n t for u s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t s t e a l i n g , p e t t y
(Fields-Carre Collection)
s a b o t a g e , or s i m p l y r u n n i n g a w a y , w e r e the m o r e u s u a l m o d e s o f r e s i s t a n c e
e m p l o y e d by s l a v e s . F u l l - b l o w n w a r s w e r e highly u n u s u a l .
N e i g h b o u r i n g Sicily, a l a n d o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s , b u t chiefly G r e e k s , h a d
b e c o m e R o m e ' s first o v e r s e a s p r o v i n c e in the w a k e o f the first l o n g s t r u g g l e
a g a i n s t C a r t h a g e (First P u n i c War, 2 6 4 - 2 4 1 BC). B u t the s u b s e q u e n t r e v i v a l
of C a r t h a g e t h a t led t o the s e c o n d s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t R o m e ( S e c o n d P u n i c War,
2 1 8 - 2 0 1 BC) b r o u g h t a l o g i c a l C a r t h a g i n i a n a m b i t i o n t o r e c o v e r its f o r m e r
interests in Sicily a n d R o m e in effect w a s f o r c e d t o c o n q u e r the i s l a n d a n e w .
It w a s Sicily's e n o r m o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o s p e r i t y , e a r n i n g it by C i c e r o ' s d a y the
n i c k n a m e ' R o m e ' s g r a n a r y ' (Verrines 2 . 2 . 5 ) , t h a t w a s t o p r o v e the p r o v i n c e ' s
greatest material asset to plundering R o m e .
Slavery of c o u r s e w a s n o t n e w to Sicily, b u t after the R o m a n r e c o n q u e s t the
scale of slave o w n i n g o n the i s l a n d h a d i n c r e a s e d d r a m a t i c a l l y , a p h e n o m e n o n
D i o d o r o s , a Sicilian himself, m a k e s clear in his r e m a r k s ( 3 5 . 2 . 1 - 2 , 2 7 , 3 4 ) o n
the c o n d i t i o n of the p r o v i n c e just p r i o r t o the first g r e a t s l a v e rebellion - the
First Slave War.
7

10. LEFT
Bronze statue of Eunus,
Castello di Lombardia -
Scuola Regionale d'Arte
Enna (1960). Eunus, the
principal figure of the First
Slave War, was a domestic
slave who belonged to a
certain Antigenes of Enna.
The rebel slaves of Enna MARCO TULLIO CICERONE
declared Eunus their king, D I F E N S O R E DI ENNA E D E L I . A SICILIA
who then took a diadem C 0 N T R 0 IL DEPREDATORE DI T E M P I !
and regal dress, called his CA10 I J C I N I O V E R R E
female companion queen, C 0 V E R N A T O R E ROMANO D E L L ' I S O L A
and conferred on himself
the Seleucid dynastic name
of Antiochos.
(Fields-Carre Collection) OUESTO R1C0RD0
RIGHT
Via Roma 528, the site of
Cicero's residence in Enna.
This commemorative
plaque makes mention
of his prosecution of Verres,
the former governor of Sicily.
It is significant that early in
his life Cicero had discovered
the profound difference
between justice and morality.
Justice was the tool of the THE FIRST SLAVE WAR (135-132 B C )
strong, morality the illusion
of the weak. Thus, for him, D i o d o r o s w r i t e s ( 3 5 . 2 . 4 , 1 0 ) t h a t t h e s l a v e s , w h o h a d their o r i g i n s in the
slavery was just.
(Fields-Carre Collection)
e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , m o t i v a t e d b y their m i s e r a b l e living c o n d i t i o n s a n d
the b r u t a l i t y w i t h w h i c h there w e r e t r e a t e d , h a d d i s c u s s e d rebellion before the
v i o l e n c e a c t u a l l y e r u p t e d . C o n v e n i e n t l y w e c a n d i v i d e it i n t o t w o t h e a t r e s of
o p e r a t i o n , w e s t e r n a n d e a s t e r n , w h i c h reflect the b a s i c g e o g r a p h i c a l d i v i s i o n
o f the i s l a n d . O n e R o m a n q u a e s t o r w a s in c h a r g e of the w e s t e r n p a r t of the
island, stationed at L i l y b a e u m , a n d another w a s stationed at Syracuse, on
the e a s t c o a s t . S l a v e h e r d s m e n d o m i n a t e d the w e s t e r n r e g i o n a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l
s l a v e s d o m i n a t e d the g r a i n - p r o d u c i n g p l a i n s o f the e a s t .
T h e s l a v e s in the t w o h a l v e s of the i s l a n d a p p e a r t o h a v e risen u p separately
- t h o s e in the e a s t u n d e r a s l a v e n a m e d E u n u s , by birth a S y r i a n f r o m A p a m e a ,
a n d t h o s e in the w e s t u n d e r a h e r d e r of h o r s e s n a m e d K l e o n , a Cilician f r o m
the T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s . E u n u s ' w a s a m a g i c i a n a n d w o n d e r w o r k e r ' with a deep
d e v o t i o n t o the S y r i a n m o t h e r g o d d e s s A t a r g a t i s ( A s t a r t e ) , while K l e o n ' h a d
b e e n a c c u s t o m e d t o a life o f b a n d i t r y f r o m the t i m e he w a s a s m a l l c h i l d '
( D i o d o r o s 3 5 . 2 . 5 , 3 . 2 ) . It w a s h o p e d by the a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t the t w o g r o u p s of
rebels w o u l d c o m e into conflict a n d tear e a c h other t o p i e c e s .
C o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , however, the rebellion g a t h e r e d m o m e n t u m w h e n
K l e o n a c k n o w l e d g e d the s u p e r i o r a u t h o r i t y o f E u n u s , a c t i n g a s g e n e r a l t o
his k i n g , a n d their f o l l o w e r s c o m b i n e d t o f o r m a single c o h e r e n t f o r c e . T h e
r a p i d e s c a l a t i o n o f their s t r e n g t h s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n a b e t t e d by the s l a v e
o w n e r s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o h a d e n c o u r a g e d violent b e h a v i o u r by a l l o w i n g their
s l a v e h e r d s m e n t o feed a n d c l o t h e t h e m s e l v e s by s t e a l i n g w h a t they n e e d e d
f r o m o t h e r p e o p l e o n the i s l a n d . In a d d i t i o n , the r e s p o n s e of the l o c a l
a u t h o r i t i e s w a s l e t h a r g i c , a p p a r e n t l y b e c a u s e they g r e a t l y u n d e r e s t i m a t e d the
s l a v e s ' ability t o o r g a n i z e a large-scale military c a m p a i g n . M o r e o v e r , with m o r e
8

11. d e m a n d i n g o v e r s e a s c o m m i t m e n t s elsewhere, a
garrison army w a s not permanently stationed
o n the island.
In t e r m s o f m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t officials w e r e t w o c o n s u l s of R o m e ,
a n d , b e n e a t h t h e m , the s i x p r a e t o r s . T h e s e
chief m a g i s t r a t e s w e r e u s u a l l y p u t in c h a r g e o f
R o m a n armies that battled formidable foreign
enemies. Repressing rebellious slaves w a s
certainly c o n s i d e r e d b e n e a t h the d i g n i t y o f
these m e n a n d n o t w o r t h y o f the talents o f the
l e g i o n a r i e s they c o m m a n d e d . S u c h a s o r d i d
t a s k w a s n o r m a l l y left to the slave o w n e r s or t o
local m i l i t i a s , w h i c h w e r e often v e n a l , w e a k ,
a n d p r o v i s i o n a l . A s the p e r m a n e n t g o v e r n i n g
b o d y of R o m e , the S e n a t e did h a v e a l o n g - t e r m
perspective o n events, b u t it h a d t o be m o v e d
by the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a m a n i f e s t t h r e a t o f
m a j o r p r o p o r t i o n s for it t o direct the c o n s u l s or
the p r a e t o r s t o u s e R o m a n l e g i o n s t o d e a l w i t h
a slave rebellion.
R o m a n provincial governors, such as those
w h o a d m i n i s t e r e d Sicily, w e r e n o r m a l l y f o r m e r
p r a e t o r s w h o u s u a l l y h e l d their p r o v i n c i a l
c o m m a n d s for o n e - y e a r t e r m s . B e c a u s e they w e r e t e m p o r a r y a n d they w e r e During the First Slave War,
severely u n d e r s t a f f e d by m o d e r n s t a n d a r d s , these g o v e r n o r s w e r e d e p e n d e n t Kleon, having risen in rebellion
on the western, more pastoral,
o n the g r e a t a n d the g o o d t h a t r a n l o c a l t o w n s a n d cities t o help a d m i n i s t e r
side of Sicily, immediately
their p r o v i n c e s . T h e s e local l a n d o w n i n g elites often g a v e their o w n interests overran Agrigentum
p r i o r i t y o v e r the rule o f l a w a n d o r d e r t h a t w a s s u p p o s e d t o b e e n f o r c e d (Agrigento), whose walls had
by the g o v e r n o r s . ' T h e R o m a n g o v e r n o r s o f Sicily', a s D i o d o r o s e x p l a i n s , probably fallen into disrepair,
and the neighbouring region
'tried t o p r e v e n t the g r o w t h of these g a n g s , b u t they d i d n o t d a r e t o p u n i s h
with a force said by Diodoros
t h e m b e c a u s e o f the p o w e r a n d influence o f the l a n d o w n e r s w h o w e r e the (35.2.17) to have numbered
b r i g a n d s ' slave m a s t e r s ' ( 3 5 . 2 . 2 ) . 5,000. Most of his followers
G i v e n the f a i l u r e o f the l o c a l f o r c e s t o d e a l w i t h t h e s l a v e r e b e l l i o n in were slave herdsmen, pastores.
View of the south circuit of
Sicily, the S e n a t e finally d e c i d e d t o d i s p a t c h R o m a n a r m y u n i t s t o the i s l a n d ,
the city, looking west from
first u n d e r the p r a e t o r L u c i u s H y p s a e u s a n d t h e n u n d e r t w o s u c c e s s i v e the temple of Hera.
c o n s u l s , L u c i u s C a l p u r n i u s P i s o ( cos. 1 3 3 BC) a n d P u b l i u s R u p i l i u s P e r p e r n a (Fields-Carre Collection)
( c o s . 1 3 2 B C ) . A s a result, the w a r w a s finally b r o u g h t t o a n e n d .
THE SECOND SLAVE WAR (104-100 B C )
T o a c o n s i d e r a b l e extent, the s e c o n d g r e a t s l a v e rebellion, w h i c h a g a i n e r u p t e d
o n Sicily, w a s a l m o s t a c a r b o n c o p y of the first. O u t l a w r y o u t s i d e the cities a n d
t o w n s c o n t i n u e d l a r g e l y u n a l t e r e d , n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e o f the t r a d i t i o n a l
a s s o c i a t i o n of b r i g a n d a g e w i t h p a s t o r a l i s m . R e s i s t a n c e in the e a s t e r n p a r t o f
the i s l a n d w a s led by S a l v i u s , w h o h a d the gift o f p r o p h e c y , a n d in the w e s t
w a s o r g a n i z e d by A t h e n i o n , a C i l i c i a n f a m o u s for his bravery. A t h e n i o n w a s
n o t only the overseer of a l a r g e f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n b u t , like S a l v i u s , he w a s
a l s o r e p u t e d t o p o s s e s s s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r s , i n c l u d i n g the a b i l i t y t o utter
p r o p h e c i e s b a s e d o n his a s t r o l o g i c a l skills ( D i o d o r o s 3 6 . 5 . 1 ) . H e w a s certainly
n o t the ideal bailiff, c a l l e d the vilicus, e n v i s i o n e d b y C a t o the Elder, w h o
9

12. Lilybaeum (Marsala) started r e c o m m e n d e d a m o n g his d u t i e s t h a t 'he s h o u l d h a v e n o d e s i r e t o c o n s u l t
life as a Punic city, but at its d i v i n e r s , a u g u r s , fortune-tellers or a s t r o l o g e r s ' (On Agriculture 5 . 4 ) , a ruling
zenith it was a Roman naval
C o l u m e l l a later r e p e a t s in his a g r i c u l t u r a l t r e a t i s e , a d d i n g t h a t 'these types of
base and the seat of the
quaestor in charge of the silly s u p e r s t i t i o n c a u s e u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d p e o p l e t o s p e n d m o n e y a n d result in
western part of Sicily. w r o n g d o i n g ' (On Agriculture 1 . 8 . 6 ) . O f c o u r s e b o t h he a n d Salvius h a d the
Cicero would call it civitas capacity, in v i e w of their ability t o c a s t spells over their f o l l o w e r s , t o e n c o u r a g e
splendidissima. During the
the k i n d o f r e s i s t a n c e t o a u t h o r i t y all s l a v e o w n e r s f e a r e d .
Second Slave War, the rebels
under Athenion felt strong
B u t there w a s m o r e t o l e a d i n g a r e b e l l i o n t h a n the a l l u r e of m y s t i c i s m .
enough to lay siege to S a l v i u s , like E u n u s b e f o r e h i m , w a s d e c l a r e d k i n g by his f o l l o w e r s , a n d he
Lilybaeum. This is a view a s s u m e d the r o y a l n a m e o f T r y p h o n . Intriguingly, the o r i g i n a l T r y p h o n h a d
of Marsala looking south- b e e n a b a r b a r o u s , f r e e - b o o t i n g e n t r e p r e n e u r of violence f r o m Cilicia, a p l a c e
west from Isola di Mozia.
w h i c h b e c a m e f a m o u s for its p i r a t e s , w h o u s u r p e d the S e l e u c i d t h r o n e
(Fields-Carre Collection)
(r. 1 4 2 - 1 3 9 / 8 BC). M e a n w h i l e in the w e s t a n o t h e r slave k i n g w a s p r o c l a i m e d ,
A t h e n i o n a d o p t i n g all the e x t e r n a l t r a p p i n g s of m o n a r c h y , a p u r p l e r o b e , silver
s c e p t r e , a n d a r o y a l d i a d e m , a n d p r o c l a i m i n g t o his f o l l o w e r s t h a t the g o d s
i n t e n d e d h i m t o rule all Sicily ( D i o d o r o s 3 6 . 4 . 4 , 7 . 1 , F l o r u s Epitome 3 . 1 9 . 1 0 ) .
S o the slave k i n g s c o n s c i o u s l y i m i t a t e d the c o n v e n t i o n s of Hellenistic k i n g s h i p ,
the i n s t i t u t i o n t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d the p o l i t i c a l m e n t a l i t y o f the e a s t e r n
M e d i t e r r a n e a n w o r l d since the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the A n t i g o n i d , Seleucid, a n d
P t o l e m a i c d y n a s t i e s . N o n e of this s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d u n u s u a l w h e n w e recall
the fact t h a t m a n y o f the rebels w e r e first-generation s l a v e s w h o s e p l a c e s of
birth w e r e in the e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n .
D e s p i t e t h e l e s s o n s o f t h e first w a r , the r e s p o n s e by the S e n a t e w a s
s i m i l a r l y s l o w . Its i n a d e q u a t e r e a c t i o n , d u e in p a r t t o the n e e d for R o m a n
f o r c e s t o f a c e G e r m a n i c t r i b e s t h r e a t e n i n g n o r t h e r n Italy, a l l o w e d the slaves
t o a c q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e m o m e n t u m in the c r u c i a l early s t a g e s o f the rebellion
a n d then t o c o a l e s c e in n u m b e r s t h a t o v e r w h e l m e d the l o c a l f o r c e s trying to
s u b d u e t h e m . O n c e a g a i n , the t w o rebel l e a d e r s c a m e t o a n a g r e e m e n t a n d
j o i n e d f o r c e s , w i t h A t h e n i o n d e f e r r i n g t o S a l v i u s , a n d o n c e a g a i n , only the
i n t e r v e n t i o n o f the larger, b e t t e r - t r a i n e d a n d d i s c i p l i n e d c o n s u l a r f o r c e s of
the R o m a n a r m y finally b r o u g h t the w a r t o a n e n d .
10

13. CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR
EVENTS 146-60 BC
146 BC Romans destroy Carthage and Corinth. 121 B C Caius Gracchus attempts to secure
further term - outlawed and suicide.
138 B C Birth of Lucius Cornelius Sulla.
119 B C Marius tribune of the people.
135 BC First Slave War begins - Lucius (?)
Cornelius Lentulus, governor in 116 B C Marius praetor.
Sicily, defeated.
C. 115 B C Birth of Marcus Licinius Crassus.
134 BC Caius Fulvius Flaccus, as consul,
sent against slaves. Uprising of 114 B C Marius, as propraetor, governor
4,000 slaves crushed at Sinuessa, in Hispania Ulterior - suppresses
Campania. Slave uprisings repressed local bandits.
in Attic silver mines and on the island
of Delos. 113 B C Cnaeus Papirius Carbo, consul,
routed by Cimbri at Noreia.
133 B C Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
tribune of the people - land reform 111 B C Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, as consul,
and assassination. Lucius Calpurnius sent against Iugurtha of Numidia.
Piso Frugi, as consul, sent against
slaves. Caius Marius serves under 109 B C Marius legate under his patron, consul
Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Quintus Caecilius Metellus, in Numidia.
at Numantia.
107 B C Marius consul - enlists capite censi
132 BC Publius Rupilius Perperna, as consul, and returns to Numidia.
winds up First Slave War.
106 B C Sulla serves Marius as quaestor in
129 B C Marius military tribune. Numidia - battle of the Muluccha.
Births of Cnaeus Pompeius (Pompey)
125 BC Abortive bill to enfranchise Latins and Marcus Tullius Cicero.
and Italians of Fulvius Flaccus.
105 B C Iugurtha captured. Consular armies
123 B C Caius Sempronius Gracchus tribune routed and destroyed at Arausio.
of the people - socio-political reforms.
Marius quaestor. 104 B C Marius' second consulship - army
'reforms'. Insurrection of Titus Vettius
122 BC Caius Gracchus re-elected as tribune - Minucius, a Roman eques - leads an
bill to enfranchise Latins and Italians. army of 3,500 slaves. Second Slave
War begins.
11

14. 103 B C Marius' third consulship. Lucius 85 B C Cinna's third consulship. Sulla completes
Licinius Lucullus, as propraetor, sent settlement of Asia. Sertorius praetor.
against slaves.
84 B C Cinna's fourth consulship - lynched
102 B C Marius' fourth consulship - Teutones during mutiny. Peace of Dardanus.
and Ambrones defeated at Aquae
Sextiae. Salvius (Tryphon) killed - 83 B C Sulla lands in Italy. Pompey and
Athenion assumes leadership of Crassus join Sulla.
slave army.
82 B C Battle of Porta Collina. Sulla dictator
101 B C Marius' fifth consulship - Cimbri - proscription lists.
defeated at Vercellae. Manius
Aquilius, as consul, sent against slaves. 81 BC Sulla's second dictatorship.
Pompey sent against Marians
100 B C Marius' sixth consulship. Birth of in Sicily and Africa. Sertorius
Caius Iulius Caesar. Aquilius, as expelled as (pro-Marian) governor
proconsul, ends Second Slave War f Hispania Ulterior.
- kills Athenion in duel.
80 B C Sulla's second consulship. Pompey's
99 B C Marius in Asia. first triumph. Sertorius re-enters
Iberia - establishes a Marian
98 B C Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus 'government in exile'.
invades Cappadocia.
79 B C Sulla retires.
97 BC Quintus Sertorius military tribune
in Iberia. 78 B C Marcus Aemilius Lepidus consul.
Publius Servilius Vatia, as proconsul,
96 B C Sulla propraetor of Cilicia - installs begins war against Mediterranean
Ariobarzanes as king of Cappadocia. pirates. Death of Sulla.
91 BC Social War begins. Mithridates invades 77 BC Insurrection and death of Lepidus.
Cappadocia for second time. Pompey, with propraetorian
command, sent against Sertorius.
90 B C Enfranchisement of Italy south of
the Po. 76 BC Successes for Sertorius in Iberia.
89 B C Destruction of Asculum Picenum. 75 BC Sertorius-Mithridates pact. Caesar
Rome provokes Mithridates to war. captured by pirates.
88 B C Sulla consul. Mithridates overruns 74 B C Lucius Licinius Lucullus, as consul,
province of Asia. Social War ends. sent against Mithridates. Marcus
Sulla marches on Rome - Marius Antonius, a praetor, given wide-
flees to Africa. ranging powers to fight pirates.
87 B C Lucius Cornelius Cinna consul. 73 B C Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus and
Marius returns - Marians take Rome. Caius Cassius Longinus consuls.
86 B C Cinna's second consulship. Marius' Spring: gladiators escape from Capua.
seventh consulship - dies soon after. Occupation of Mount Vesuvius.
Sulla's victories at Chaironeia and
Orchomenos. Birth of Caius Sallustius Summer: Caius Claudius Glaber,
Crispus (Sallust). as praetor, sent against slaves.
12

15. Autumn: defeat of Glaber. Publius Other events: Antonius' humiliating
Varinius, as praetor, sent against peace - Senate later rejects.
slave army. Defeats of Varinius
and his subordinates. 70 BC Crassus and Pompey consuls. Cicero
prosecutes Verres.
Winter: slave army moves to Lucania.
Crixus splits from Spartacus. 69 BC Lucullus invades Armenia - battle and
sack of Tigranocerta. Caesar quaestor
Other events: Sertorius assassinated; in Hispania Ulterior.
Caius Verres governor in Sicily;
Crassus praetor. 68 BC Lucullus' soldiers mutiny.
72 BC Lucius Gellius Publicola and Cnaeus 6 7 BC Pompey, as proconsul, sent against
Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus consuls. pirates. Mithridates defeats Romans
at Zela.
Spring: Spartacus treks northward.
Defeat and death of Crixus in Apulia. 66 BC Pompey, as proconsul, replaces
Lucullus in east.
Summer: Spartacus defeats consular
armies. Spartacus defeats army of 65 B C Crassus censor. Caesar curule aedile.
Cassius. Spartacus treks southward.
64 B C Pompey establishes Syria as province.
Autumn: Crassus, as propraetor,
sent against Spartacus. Spartacus 63 BC Cicero consul. Conspiracy of Lucius
withdraws to Bruttium. Sergius Catilina (Catiline). Caesar
elected pontifex maximus - speaks
Winter: Crassus traps Spartacus in against execution of Catilinarian
toe of Italy. Spartacus escapes trap. conspirators. Death of Mithridates.
Birth of Octavianus (Augustus).
Other events: Pompey ends Sertorian
War; Antonius defeated by pirates 62 BC Defeat and death of Catiline at Pistoia.
on Crete; Caesar military tribune. Pompey returns to Rome from east.
Caesar praetor.
71 BC Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura and
Cnaeus Aufidius Orestes consuls. 61 BC Pompey's third triumph. Caesar,
as propraetor, governor in Hispania
Spring: Pompey returns to Italy from Ulterior - victory against Lusitani.
Iberia. Defeat and death of Spartacus Caius Octavius' mopping-up
in Lucania. operation in southern Italy.
Summer: Crassus' 'triumph' along 60 BC The 'first triumvirate'.
Via Appia.
Winter: Pompey's second triumph.
Crassus' ovation.
13

16. ROMAN SOCIAL ORDER
Order and status, as o p p o s e d to w h a t today we understand as class, were
the vital p i g e o n h o l e s for the w o r l d of R o m e . C i c e r o , w h e n he claims that the
Senate w a s o p e n to all citizens, t a l k s of 'the highest o r d e r ' (Pro Sestio 6 5 . 1 3 7 ) .
T h u s the R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s t a l k e d in the l a n g u a g e of s t a t u s g r o u p s , which
entitled t h e m t o certain privileges, a n d if a n outsider a s k e d o n e of them to w h a t
class (classis) he or she b e l o n g e d , he or she w o u l d p r o b a b l y refer to one of the
five p r o p e r t y c l a s s e s in the o l d e s t of the three citizen a s s e m b l i e s , the comitia
centuriata. T h e R o m a n s defined themselves in terms of a n order (ordo) legally
defined by the state t h r o u g h s t a t u t o r y or c u s t o m a r y rules a n d in s t a n d i n g in a
hierarchical relation t o other o r d e r s (Finley 1 9 9 9 : 4 5 - 5 1 ) . F o r instance Tacitus,
albeit w r i t i n g u n d e r the e m p e r o r s , s a y s : ' S e n a t o r s a n d equites h a v e special
p r o p e r t y qualifications, n o t b e c a u s e they differ in nature f r o m other m e n , but
just a s they enjoy p r e c e d e n c e in p l a c e , r a n k a n d dignity, s o they s h o u l d enjoy it
a l s o in these things that m a k e for mental p e a c e a n d well-being' (Annates 2 . 3 3 . 2 ) .
E v e n under the e m p e r o r s , w h e n R o m e w a s n o longer a n oligarchic republic,
the s e n a t o r i a l a n d e q u e s t r i a n o r d e r s r e m a i n e d p r e s t i g i o u s , a tight-knit g r o u p of
families perceived t o be w o r t h y by the traditional s t a n d a r d s of birth, wealth a n d
m o r a l excellence. W h e n C i c e r o c l a i m s t h a t the highest order, t o w h i c h s e n a t o r s
b e l o n g , is a n o p e n o n e , the last thing he h a d in m i n d w a s o p e n i n g the d o o r s of
the Senate t o t h o s e at the other e n d of the social scale. In Cicero's R o m e ' m o n e y
t a l k s ' a n d all m e n h a v e a price. Indeed O v i d , o n e of the A u g u s t a n p o e t s , laments
the fact t h a t the ' S e n a t e is b a r r e d t o the p o o r ' (Amores 3 . 8 . 5 5 ) . In a similar
vein H o r a c e (Epistulae 1 . 1 . 5 8 ) , a c o n t e m p o r a r y of O v i d , w r o t e u n h a p p i l y that
4 0 0 , 0 0 0 sestertii, the a p p r o p r i a t e a m o u n t o f p r o p e r t y to be registered a s a n
eques at the c e n s u s , o p e n s the w a y t o the h o n o u r s of R o m e .
In the m e a n t i m e the l o w e r o r d e r s in R o m e w e r e a v a s t a m o e b i c body, v a g u e
a n d m u r m u r i n g . T o m o s t o f u s w h a t is m o r e i n v i d i o u s a r e the v i e w s held by
t h a t d a r l i n g o f classicists t h r o u g h the a g e s , C i c e r o . H e w r o t e in a p u n g e n t style
a n d never failed t o flay the city-dwelling c o m m o n e r s , the R o m a n proletarii
w h o h u d d l e d together in tottering tenements built n o t for p e o p l e but for m o l e s ,
often referring t o t h e m , a m o n g s t other t h i n g s , a s 'the city s c u m ' (e.g. Epistulae
ad Atticum 1 . 1 9 . 4 ) . H e a c k n o w l e d g e s the g r i n d i n g p o v e r t y a n d s o c i a l misery
they h a v e t o e n d u r e , b u t , t o a d d insult t o injury, a s it w e r e , he sees it a s their
o w n fault, blithely u s i n g the w o r d egens, d e s t i t u t e , for the p o o r a n d even g o e s
s o far a s t o m e n t i o n 'the destitute a n d f e l o n i o u s ' (egens et improbus, De domo
sua 8 9 ) in the s a m e b r e a t h . Little d i d C i c e r o a p p r e c i a t e t h a t for the p r o l e t a r i a t
o f R o m e , b u r i e d in a m o n o c h r o m e life w i t h o u t p r o s p e c t s , the furthest h o r i z o n
h a d a l w a y s b e e n t o m o r r o w . B u t w h a t o f t h o s e b e n e a t h the s o c i a l pile, that is,
t h o s e of servile s t a t u s ?
14

17. THE SLAVE SYSTEM
Slavery is a n a s p e c t o f a n t i q u i t y t h a t is highly c o n t r o v e r s i a l . It r e m a i n s a n
emotive subject even in the 2 1 s t century, especially a s slavery w a s a facet of
western civilization that h a s raised a m a s s i v e a m o u n t of d e b a t e b u t nevertheless
h a s p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t , albeit g r i e v o u s , p a r t in o u r o w n e c o n o m i c a l a n d
social history.
In the literature o f R o m e s l a v e s a r e ever p r e s e n t , a n d , for i n s t a n c e , the
agricultural writers M a r c u s Porcius C a t o ( 2 3 7 - 1 4 9 BC), k n o w n also as
the Elder t o d i s t i n g u i s h h i m f r o m his g r e a t - g r a n d s o n , a n d M a r c u s T e r e n t i u s
V a r r o ( 1 1 6 - 2 7 BC) b o t h p r e s u m e t h a t the m a i n l a b o u r e l e m e n t w a s the alien
s l a v e . We a l s o find s l a v e s in w o r k s h o p s a n d c o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n s , b u t it
w o u l d be w r o n g o f u s t o a s s u m e t h a t the l a r g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s e r v i l e
l a b o u r w a s i n v o l v e d in p r o d u c t i v e w o r k , e s p e c i a l l y o n l a n d e d e s t a t e s . A s a
m a t t e r of fact, the b i g g e s t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s l a v e s w a s in h o u s e h o l d s , w h e r e
they p e r f o r m e d n o n - p r o d u c t i v e duties a s d o m e s t i c s . R o m a n l a w m a d e a clear
distinction b e t w e e n mancipia rustica a n d mancipia urbana ( i n c l u d i n g t h o s e
in the villa rustica or f a r m h o u s e ) , the latter s l a v e s b e i n g t h o s e w i t h w h i c h the
h e a d of the h o u s e h o l d s u r r o u n d s h i m s e l f for the s o l e p u r p o s e o f his lifestyle,
sua cultus causa.
A l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y the q u e s t i o n a r i s e s : w a s R o m a n s o c i e t y a s l a v e
society? Statistically, s l a v e r y w a s n o t t h a t p r e v a l e n t in the R o m a n w o r l d a n d
l a r g e t r a c t s of the e m p i r e w e r e left u n t o u c h e d by servile l a b o u r . H o w e v e r , w e
c a n n o t a n s w e r this q u e s t i o n by statistics a l o n e . R o m a n s o c i e t y w a s a s l a v e
s o c i e t y s i m p l y b e c a u s e s l a v e r y a s a n i n s t i t u t i o n d o m i n a t e d the R o m a n
mentality. After all, libertas, f r e e d o m , w a s d e f i n e d a s n o t b e i n g e n s l a v e d .
T h o s e w h o w o r k e d in the f i e l d s , m i l l s a n d m i n e s w e r e s u b j e c t t o a n
e x i s t e n c e of h a r d , b a c k b r e a k i n g l a b o u r . In his n o v e l , The Golden A s s , the
African A p u l e i u s offers a n u n c o m p r o m i s i n g g l i m p s e o f the c r u s h i n g c o n d i t i o n
of slaves w o r k i n g in a flour mill:
Their skins were seamed all over with the marks of old floggings, as you could
see through the holes in their ragged shirts that shaded rather than covered
their scarred backs; but some wore only loin-cloths. They had letters marked
on their foreheads, and half-shaved heads and irons on their leg. (The Golden
Ass, 9.12)
T h e s e h a p l e s s s o u l s h a d t o t r u d g e r o u n d a n d r o u n d the m i l l s t o n e in u n e n d i n g
circles, their feet w e i g h e d d o w n in i r o n s . T o m a k e t h e m w a l k their circles
quicker, their b a c k s w o u l d be s t u n g w i t h a l a s h . G r a d u a l l y their eyes w o u l d
g r o w sightless w i t h all the d u s t a n d d a r k .
T h e o w n e r o f s l a v e s e n j o y e d c o m p l e t e p o w e r o v e r t h e m , even t h a t o f life
a n d d e a t h . A horrifying i n s c r i p t i o n (AE 1 9 7 1 . 8 8 ) f r o m the s e a p o r t o f P u t e o l i
a p p e a r s a t first t o be n o t h i n g m o r e i n i q u i t o u s t h a n a l a b o u r c o n t r a c t
(manceps) for the p u b l i c u n d e r t a k e r o f t h a t s a i d t o w n , l a y i n g d o w n his h o u r s
of w o r k a n d r a t e s o f p a y . H o w e v e r , o n c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n the r e a d e r will see
that o n e of the u n d e r t a k e r ' s d u t i e s is t h a t o f 'friendly n e i g h b o u r h o o d s l a v e
t o r t u r e r ' ; a list o f p r i c e s is g i v e n for v a r i o u s n a s t y d e e d s r a n g i n g f r o m
s c o u r g i n g t o c r u c i f i x i o n ( c o l u m n II, lines 8 - 1 4 ) .
T h e r e w e r e g o o d a n d b a d s l a v e o w n e r s , b u t this w a s a m a t t e r o f p u r e
c h a n c e . R o m a n society h a d a n i n g r a i n e d m e n t a l a t t i t u d e t o s l a v e s , a society
w h e r e m a n c o m m a n d e d , w o m a n b o r e , a n d the s l a v e l a b o u r e d , for s u c h w a s

18. Agora of the Italians, Delos. the R o m a n o r d e r o f t h i n g s . I n d e e d , in the eyes o f R o m a n l a w a s l a v e w a s n o t
It is possible that this was a a p e r s o n b u t res, a thing s u b j e c t t o the d o m i n i o n of his or her master. We m u s t
slave market, built as a result
b e c a r e f u l h e r e , h o w e v e r , a s t h e r e w a s n o s u g g e s t i o n t h a t the R o m a n s
of the First Slave War. A
generation before the Romans t h e m s e l v e s c o n s i d e r e d a s l a v e m o r e a s a thing t h a n a p e r s o n , a n d the condition
had made Apollo's sacred t h a t p u t s o n e i n d i v i d u a l a t the m e r c y o f a n o t h e r h a d t o b e r e g u l a t e d , the
island into a free port exempt c e n s o r s , for i n s t a n c e , b e i n g e m p o w e r e d t o c h e c k u n w a r r a n t e d acts of violence
from taxes and soon Delos
u p o n s l a v e s . T h e t e r m res i m p l i e s t h a t a s l a v e h a d n o r i g h t s , pronullo, but
acquired the grim reputation
of being the slave market
d u t i e s , a n d this l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n s e p a r a t e d h i m o r her f r o m o t h e r f o r m s of
par excellence, boasting that s u b o r d i n a t i o n . In his h a n d b o o k o n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s V a r r o , S p a r t a c u s '
it could handle 10,000 slaves R o m a n c o n t e m p o r a r y , e m p h a s i z e s t h a t the bailiff, the vilicus, s h o u l d n o t
a day. (Ancient Art e m p l o y w h i p s w h e n w o r d s will suffice (On Agriculture 1.17.5). Athenaios
& Architecture)
p e r h a p s e x p r e s s e s it b e s t w h e n he e x p l a i n s the principle of servile divide a n d
r u l e , e x p l o r i n g the t e n s i o n b e t w e e n a n o w n e r ' s r i g h t s o v e r a s l a v e a n d the
u n e a s i n e s s o v e r a n o w n e r w h o w a s e x c e s s i v e l y cruel:
There are two safeguards that one may take: first, those who are going to be
slaves must not come from the same country of origin, and in so far as it can
be arranged they must not speak the same language; and secondly, they must
be properly looked after - and not just for their sakes; anyone who wishes to
pay proper regard to his own interests should never behave arrogantly towards
his slaves. (Athenaios 6.265a)
16

19. Slaves w e r e certainly h u m a n b e i n g s , yet t o c o w t h e m into the
n e c e s s a r y docility of a b r u t e b e a s t n e c e s s i t a t e d a r e g i m e o f
calculated brutality and terrorism, especially so on f a r m s ,
w h e r e vilici e x p l o i t e d the s t r e n g t h o f s l a v e s . M o r e t h a n a
h u n d r e d years after the S p a r t a c a n rebellion h a d been c r u s h e d ,
the s e n a t o r a n d p h i l o s o p h e r S e n e c a f o r m u l a t e d the m o s t
liberal set of d o c t r i n e s o n slavery t h a t h a d been a r t i c u l a t e d a t
R o m e . A d v o c a t i n g t h a t m a s t e r s s h o u l d treat their s l a v e s w i t h
lenience, Seneca b r o k e d o w n the artificial distinction b e t w e e n
s l a v e a n d free a n d i n s i s t e d t h a t all m e n s h a r e d a c o m m o n
origin a n d a c o m m o n m o r a l i t y , a s p i r i t u a l b r o t h e r h o o d o f
m a n k i n d if y o u will.
In De beneficiis ( 3 . 1 8 - 2 8 ) he p o s e s the q u e s t i o n whether or
not it w a s p o s s i b l e for a slave t o benefit his master. B e f o r e
a n s w e r i n g , Seneca m a k e s a n interesting distinction a b o u t
terms: a) beneficum, a g o o d deed or favour p e r f o r m e d a s a free
a n d v o l u n t a r y g e s t u r e by a n individual u n d e r n o o b l i g a t i o n
t o the recipient; b) officium, a d u t y p e r f o r m e d by a s o n ,
daughter, wife, etcetera, t o w a r d s a father, h u s b a n d , h e a d o f
household, p a t r o n , etcetera, n a m e l y a n o b l i g a t i o n of duty; a n d c)
ministerium, a n action expected f r o m a slave a s he or she h a s n o other
choice but to p e r f o r m this action. Seneca then cuts to the c h a s e by saying that it Relief (Mainz, Mittelrheinisches
is not the social standing, which w a s simply a n accident of birth, but the intention Landesmuseum) decorating
a column base from the
of that individual b e s t o w i n g the favour, d u t y or whatever. N e v e r t h e l e s s , a
principia of Mainz-Mogontiacum
c o u n t e r a r g u m e n t runs a s follows: a slave c a n n o t be a c c o u n t a b l e to the m a s t e r if showing two naked captives
he or she gives m o n e y or tends h i m w h e n ill, but Seneca immediately ripostes by chained together at the neck.
saying he w a s thinking of the slave w h o fights for the m a s t e r or refuses t o reveal It is conceivable that they
are Gauls, since their horse's
his secrets even under torture. It is a m i s t a k e , e x p l a i n s Seneca, t o believe that a
mane hairstyle indicates the
slave's m i n d is not free even if his or her b o d y is o w n e d . Celtic practice of washing it in
A n o t h e r fascinating p a s s a g e is t o be f o u n d in o n e of Seneca's Moral Letters chalky water and then combing
(Epistulae Morales 4 7 ) , written after his r e t i r e m e n t f r o m p u b l i c life. H e r e the it back from the forehead to the
nape. This was probably done
p h i l o s o p h e r a s k s a friend if he is o n g o o d t e r m s w i t h his s l a v e s , a n d n a t u r a l l y
to enhance fearsomeness on
the friend replies in the a f f i r m a t i v e . S e n e c a then p o i n t s o u t t h a t they a r e still the battlefield. (Ancient Art
s l a v e s , to w h i c h the friend replies y e s , b u t h u m a n b e i n g s all the s a m e . A g a i n & Architecture)
Seneca p o i n t s o u t they are still s l a v e s , a n d s o o n a n d s o forth. A n d then S e n e c a
m a k e s a lunge w i t h the R o m a n p r o v e r b ' s o m a n y s l a v e s , s o m a n y e n e m i e s '
(quot servi, tot hostes, 4 7 . 5 ) , t h a t is t o say, y o u r e n e m i e s a r e the p e o p l e
w o r k i n g for y o u . T h e rule of fear m a y h a v e b e e n the b a s i s o f the m a s t e r - s l a v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t o n e m i g h t r i p o s t e , a s S e n e c a d o e s h e r e , t h a t s u c h fear b r e d a
s a v a g e cruelty in the m a s t e r s a n d t h u s ' w e t u r n t h e m into e n e m i e s ' .
O f c o u r s e all this m o r a l p o s t u r i n g c a m e o u t o f a S t o i c , a n d n o w h e r e in his
v a s t c o r p u s o f w r i t i n g s d o e s S e n e c a a c t u a l l y call for a n a b o l i t i o n o f slavery.
O n the c o n t r a r y , S t o i c i s m , the d o m i n a n t s c h o o l o f p h i l o s o p h y since the late
R e p u b l i c , p r o m o t e d the belief t h a t w h a t d i d n o t affect the inner m a n w a s a n
irrelevance. S o w a r , w h i c h w a s a d i s t u r b a n c e o f c o s m i c h a r m o n y , c a u s e d b y
m a n ' s w i c k e d n e s s or w r o n g j u d g e m e n t , a n d its h o r r o r s , s u c h a s d e a t h a n d
e n s l a v e m e n t , w e r e irrelevant t o a g o o d m a n . T h u s w a s the S t o i c a free m a n ,
h a v i n g c h o s e n t o be free. It w a s a r g u e d t h a t it w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o e n s l a v e a
m a n a g a i n s t his will - he h a d t o c o n s e n t t o be a s l a v e , o t h e r w i s e he m i g h t
c h o o s e t o die a free m a n . T h e g o a l w a s p r o g r e s s , n o t p e r f e c t i o n .
In C a i u s ' Institutiones, an introduction to R o m a n jurisprudence written
a r o u n d AD 1 6 1 , w e find a l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n o f s l a v e r y : ' t h e s t a t e t h a t is
17

20. r e c o g n i z e d b y ius gentium in w h i c h s o m e o n e is s u b j e c t t o the d o m i n i o n of
a n o t h e r p e r s o n c o n t r a r y t o n a t u r e ' ( 1 . 3 . 2 ) . T h e ius gentium w a s a l a w o n the
c u s t o m s a n d p r a c t i c e s f o u n d in all k n o w n p e o p l e s a n d n o t a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
legal c o d e a s s u c h . B u t w h y c o n t r a r y t o n a t u r e ? B e c a u s e , a s C a i u s r e a s o n s , the
s t a t e o f f r e e d o m is w h a t is n a t u r a l even if p e o p l e a r e b o r n s l a v e s . In other
w o r d s , s l a v e r y is a h u m a n i n v e n t i o n a n d n o t f o u n d in n a t u r e . I n d e e d , it w a s
t h a t o t h e r h u m a n i n v e n t i o n , w a r , w h i c h p r o v i d e d the b u l k o f s l a v e s , b u t they
w e r e a l s o the b o u n t y o f p i r a c y (e.g. S t r a b o 1 4 . 5 ) or the p r o d u c t of b r e e d i n g
(e.g. C o l u m e l l a On Agriculture 1.8.19).
It h a s a l w a y s b e e n a s s u m e d t h a t the s t u r d y p e a s a n t - f a r m e r w o r k e d the
l a n d for h i m s e l f a n d his family. T h e G r e e k p o e t H e s i o d , a s m a l l - s c a l e f a r m e r
himself, tells u s t h a t the three vital t h i n g s n e e d e d by a f a r m e r ' a r e a h o u s e ,
a w i f e a n d a p l o u g h i n g - o x ' (Works and Days 4 0 5 ) . N a t u r a l l y , in the h o m e l y
p a r s i m o n y o f H e s i o d , the w i f e s e r v e s a s a n o t h e r s o u r c e of l a b o u r p o w e r , b u t
at w h a t point d o w e witness landowners resorting to slave labour?
U n d e n i a b l y , there w a s a h u g e i n f l u x o f s l a v e s into the Italian p e n i n s u l a
f o l l o w i n g R o m e ' s s u c c e s s f u l e x p a n s i o n i s t w a r s . E q u a l l y , s o m e o f the figures
in the t a b l e b e l o w o f t h o s e c a r r i e d off t o the R o m a n s l a v e m a r k e t , given by
the a n c i e n t a u t h o r s for the s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, a r e i m p r e s s i v e a n d d a u n t i n g :
Date Ethnicity Source
177 BC 5,632 Istrians Livy 41.11.8
167 BC 150,000 Epeirotes Livy 45.34.5
146 BC 55,000 Carthaginians Orosius 4.23.3
142 BC 9,500 Iberians Appian Iberica 68
101 BC 60,000 Cimbri Plutarch Marius 27.5
O f c o u r s e , c l i o m e t r i c s h a v e l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n for antiquity, a s ancient
a u t h o r s cited n u m b e r s s y m b o l i c a l l y n o t statistically. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it h a s been
e s t i m a t e d t h a t a t the e n d o f first c e n t u r y BC the b o d y o f s l a v e s in Italy
a m o u n t e d t o b e t w e e n t w o a n d three m i l l i o n p e o p l e o u t o f a t o t a l of six to
s e v e n - a n d - a - h a l f m i l l i o n (including G a l l i a C i s a l p i n a ) , or r o u g h l y one-third of
the p o p u l a t i o n (Brunt 1 9 7 1 : 1 2 4 , H o p k i n s 1 9 7 8 : 1 0 2 ) . B u t did this m a s s i v e
i m p o r t of s l a v e s h a v e s e r i o u s r e p e r c u s s i o n s o n the o r g a n i z a t i o n of agricultural
l a b o u r in the p e n i n s u l a ?
S t r a n g e a s it m a y a p p e a r , it c a n be a r g u e d t h a t slavery is n o t the o b v i o u s
m e t h o d w i t h w h i c h t o e x p l o i t the l a n d . A g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k is s e a s o n a l w o r k ,
b u t s l a v e l a b o u r h a s t o b e k e p t a n d fed all y e a r r o u n d . It h a s n o w been
r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a lot m o r e free l a b o u r w a s w o r k i n g the l a n d in Italy ( G a r n s e y -
Saller 1 9 8 7 : 75-77). A r i s t o c r a t i c l a n d o w n e r s c o u l d , a n d d i d , divide their l a n d
into p l o t s a n d rent t h e m o u t t o t e n a n t p e a s a n t - f a r m e r s , w h o in turn m a n a g e d
the t e n a n c y w i t h the h e l p o f their o w n f a m i l i e s or even t h a t of s e a s o n a l
hired l a b o u r . In fact, the t e n a n t p e a s a n t - f a r m e r h a d a l w a y s been p a r t of the
a g r i c u l t u r a l s c e n e a n d he w a s a v i a b l e alternative t o s l a v e l a b o u r even in the
s e c o n d a n d first centuries BC. A s a l r e a d y n o t e d , b o t h C a t o a n d V a r r o a s s u m e
in their a g r i c u l t u r a l treatises t h a t s l a v e s will f o r m the c o r e o f the p e r m a n e n t ,
b r u t e l a b o u r f o r c e o n the f a r m (e.g. C a t o On Agriculture 2.2-7, 5.1-5).
H o w e v e r , they w e r e w r i t i n g for a p a r t i c u l a r m i l i e u , the s e n a t o r i a l l a n d o w n e r
w i t h a l a n d e d e s t a t e t h a t w a s p l u g g e d i n t o a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r k e t of
s u r p l u s e s , a m a n like C i c e r o (De officiis 1 . 1 5 1 ) , w h o p r a i s e s a g r i c u l t u r e b o t h
a s a s o u r c e o f w e a l t h a n d o n m o r a l g r o u n d s . F o r these big m e n of v a s t m e a n s
w a s there ' a n y l a n d ' , in the r h e t o r i c a l w o r d s o f V a r r o , ' m o r e fully cultivated
t h a n I t a l y ? ' (On Agriculture 1.2.3).

21. S o investment f a r m i n g , a s o p p o s e d t o the p r e v a i l i n g p r a c t i c e of s u b s i s t e n c e
a g r i c u l t u r e , w a s only really a p p l i c a b l e t o the n a r r o w c o a s t a l l a n d s o f central
a n d s o u t h e r n Italy a n d the i s l a n d o f Sicily. H e r e a f e w w e a l t h y l a n d o w n e r s
held l a n d in the f o r m of h u g e t r a c t s o f a r a b l e - c u m - p a s t u r e - l a n d , the latifundia
or ' w i d e fields' of R o m a n literature, w h e r e l a r g e s l a v e p o p u l a t i o n s w e r e f o u n d
in three a r e a s : a) viticulture a n d olive g r o w i n g ; b) l i v e s t o c k r a i s i n g ; a n d c)
cereal p r o d u c t i o n .
This leads us on to a discussion of R o m e as a 'slave e c o n o m y ' . There are
a n u m b e r o f w a y s o f l o o k i n g a t this i s s u e . W e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t a s l a v e
e c o n o m y o n l y e x i s t e d w h e n the m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e i n v o l v e d in t h a t society's
e c o n o m y w e r e s l a v e s , b u t in t h a t c a s e there h a s never b e e n s u c h a n e c o n o m y .
E v e n the D e e p S o u t h o f the p r e - C i v i l W a r U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t m e e t this
criterion. M u c h m o r e p r o d u c t i v e is the n o t i o n t h a t a s l a v e e c o n o m y is o n e in
w h i c h the d o m i n a n t m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n sets the p a c e for the r e s t , t h a t is,
slave p r o d u c t i o n or n o t . T h u s s l a v e s w e r e a m a j o r e n g i n e o f the e c o n o m y o f
the D e e p S o u t h , a s they w e r e o f t h o s e o f c l a s s i c a l G r e e c e , the H e l l e n i s t i c e a s t
a n d R o m e . In other w o r d s , n o t e v e r y b o d y o w n e d s l a v e s b u t if the m o n e y w a s
a v a i l a b l e e v e r y b o d y w o u l d b u y s l a v e s , w i t h the s l a v e - r u n e s t a t e b e i n g seen a s
the ideal. O f c o u r s e a n e c o n o m y c o u l d e x i s t w i t h o u t the institution o f slavery.
If w e l o o k f o r w a r d into the late R o m a n w o r l d w e w i t n e s s a n o t h e r f o r m o f
s u b o r d i n a t e l a b o u r a r i s i n g in w h i c h free m e n w e r e tied t o the l a n d , t h a t is t o
say, the institution of f e u d a l i s m , w h i c h s e r v e d t o p r o d u c e a s u r p l u s s o a s t o
a l l o w a n elite g r o u p t o e x i s t .
We s h o u l d a l s o c o n s i d e r the a c t u a l c o s t o f a s l a v e . A c c o r d i n g t o P l u t a r c h ,
the elder C a t o 'never o n c e b o u g h t a s l a v e for m o r e t h a n 1 , 5 0 0 drachmae,
since he d i d n o t w a n t l u x u r i o u s o r b e a u t i f u l o n e s , b u t h a r d w o r k e r s , like
h e r d s m e n ' (Cato major 4 . 4 , cf. 2 1 . 1 ) . T h e drachma w a s the G r e e k e q u i v a l e n t
of the R o m a n denarius, w h i c h m u s t h a v e b e e n the t e r m C a t o h i m s e l f u s e d .
Since at this t i m e (it w a s t o be retariffed at 1 6 t o the denarius a t the t i m e o f
G r a c c h i ) there w e r e 1 0 asses t o the denarius, the s u m o f 1 , 5 0 0 drachmae was
e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 5 , 0 0 0 asses. C o m p a r e this w i t h t h e l e g i o n a r y stipendium,
a l l o w a n c e , w h i c h in C a t o ' s d a y w a s five asses p e r d a y (to c o v e r r a t i o n s ,
c l o t h i n g , a n d r e p a i r s t o a r m s a n d e q u i p m e n t ) . S o the c o s t o f a n a g r i c u l t u r a l
slave m i g h t e q u a l 3 , 0 0 0 d a y s ' w o r t h o f stipendium. So slaves were not cheap,
even at the height o f the w a r s o f c o n q u e s t .
A c c o r d i n g t o his o w n t e s t i m o n y C a t o (On Agriculture 1 0 . 1 , 11.1)
reckoned a n olive g r o v e of 2 4 0 iugera (c. 6 0 h a ) s h o u l d be w o r k e d by 13 s l a v e s ,
a n d a v i n e y a r d o f 1 0 0 iugera (c. 2 5 h a ) w o r k e d by 1 6 s l a v e s , a n d V a r r o (On
Agriculture 1 . 1 8 ) , after d i s c u s s i n g the l i m i t a t i o n s o f C a t o ' s m a t h e m a t i c s ,
basically agrees with h i m . O n e slave a l o n e m u s t h a v e been a c o n s i d e r a b l e prize
for a l e g i o n a r y in war. T h u s the fact t h a t s l a v e n u m b e r s w e r e h u g e d o e s n o t
a l l o w valid d e d u c t i o n s t o be m a d e a b o u t the g r e a t e r o r lesser a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
slaves in the p o p u l a t i o n a s a result o f w a r f a r e , a b o u t the p r o p o r t i o n o f s l a v e s
in the p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o l e , or a b o u t the p r o p o r t i o n o f citizens w h o o w n e d
slaves - they are rather a sign of the i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w e a l t h in a
small n u m b e r o f p a r t i c u l a r h o u s e h o l d s .
In The Banqueting Sophists (Deipnosophistae), an enormous compendium
of the conversations of p h i l o s o p h e r s at a b a n q u e t s u p p o s e d l y held in A l e x a n d r i a
a r o u n d the year AD 2 0 0 , A t h e n a i o s u p h o l d s the m y t h t h a t the v i r t u o u s R o m a n s
of o l d , n o b l e s s u c h a s S c i p i o a n d C a e s a r , o w n e d a m e r e h a n d f u l o f s l a v e s
( 6 . 2 7 3 a - b ) . H o w e v e r , he d o e s a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t s o m e R o m a n s l a v e - h o l d i n g s
w e r e e x t r a v a g a n t l y l a r g e . Yet clearly A t h e n a i o s t h o u g h t t h a t the p u r p o s e

22. o f o w n i n g s u c h v a s t n u m b e r s of s l a v e s w a s p r i m a r i l y t o d e m o n s t r a t e one's
w e a l t h , a n d since w e a l t h w a s linked to s t a t u s , it c o u l d be advertised t h r o u g h
c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n ( 6 . 2 7 2 e , 2 7 3 c ) . T h i s w a s not only true of R o m a n s .
A n t i o c h o s IV, for i n s t a n c e , s o u g h t t o i m p r e s s his s u b j e c t s by o r g a n i z i n g a
p r o c e s s i o n involving h u n d r e d s if n o t t h o u s a n d s of slaves (Polybios 3 0 . 2 5 . 1 7 ) ,
a n d it w a s a m a r k of e x t r e m e indignity for the exiled Ptolemy V I to arrive at
R o m e a c c o m p a n i e d by just four slaves ( D i o d o r o s 3 1 . 1 8 . 1 - 3 ) . B u t then a g a i n ,
these m e n w e r e k i n g s . C a i u s C a e c i l i u s I s i d o r u s , a R o m a n l a n d o w n e r w h o
flourished in the g e n e r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the S p a r t a c a n rebellion a n d w h o himself
w a s a f o r m e r s l a v e , h a d c o m e t o o w n 3 , 6 0 0 p a i r s of o x e n , 2 5 7 , 0 0 0 other
Relief (Rome, MNR Palazzo l i v e s t o c k a n d 4 , 1 1 6 s l a v e s a t the t i m e o f his d e a t h in 8 BC (Pliny Historia
Massimo Alle Terme, inv. Naturalis 33.135).
126119) depicting 'Samnites'
in the arena, dated c. 30-10 BC
Each is armed with a gladius
and carries a scutum, and PIRACY AND THE SLAVE TRADE
appears to wear one greave
on the left or leading leg.
W h e n s t r o n g k i n g d o m s w i t h p o w e r f u l n a v i e s e x i s t e d , s u c h a s t h o s e of the
A triangular loincloth is tied
about the waist, pulled up Hellenistic kings, piracy w a s usually reduced to a m i n i m u m . Yet the last hundred
between the legs and tucked years of the R o m a n R e p u b l i c s a w o n e of the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t s of
under the knot at the front p i r a c y t h a t the M e d i t e r r a n e a n h a s k n o w n , w h e n f r o m m e r e f r e e b o o t e r s the
and secured by a broad belt.
p i r a t e s o r g a n i z e d t h e m s e l v e s into a p i r a t e - s t a t e w i t h h e a d q u a r t e r s in Cilicia
(Fields-Carre Collection)
a n d C r e t e . It w a s the m o r e r e m a r k a b l e that the sea w a s controlled by a single
p o w e r , w h i c h , w h e n it p u t f o r t h its s t r e n g t h u n d e r a c a p a b l e leader, h a d n o
difficulty in p u t t i n g a n end t o a m a l i g n a n c y in such a short s p a c e of time. T h e
e a s e with w h i c h P o m p e y finally achieved its s u p p r e s s i o n h a s naturally led to a
severe c o n d e m n a t i o n of R o m e ' s negligence a n d a p a t h y in permitting piracy to
f l o u r i s h for s o l o n g a p e r i o d . T h i s is especially s o w h e n the alliance f o r m e d
b e t w e e n M i t h r i d a t e s a n d the p i r a t e s o f Cilicia h a d given the Pontic king
c o m m a n d of the A e g e a n , w h i c h h a d been nearly fatal to Sulla (First Mithridatic
War, 8 9 - 8 5 BC).
T h i s w a s p a r t l y d u e t o the t u r m o i l o f the t i m e s , w h i c h h i n d e r e d policing of
the s e a s , a n d p a r t l y d u e t o the influence of R o m a n slave d e a l e r s w h o tolerated
the p i r a t e s a s w h o l e s a l e p u r v e y o r s o f s l a v e s . T h e m o r e t h a t the e c o n o m y
w a s g l u t t e d w i t h s l a v e s , the m o r e d e p e n d e n t it b e c a m e o n t h e m . W h e t h e r
c o n v e y i n g v i c t i m s o f w a r or t h o s e o f k i d n a p p i n g , there c a n be n o d o u b t a b o u t
the i m p o r t a n t r o l e p l a y e d b y p i r a t e s in m a i n t a i n i n g the level of the R o m a n
s l a v e supply, directing their h u m a n c a r g o e s t o d e s t i n a t i o n s such a s Sicily where
t h e y w e r e n e e d e d . T h e p i r a t e s w e r e the m o s t c o n s i s t e n t s u p p l i e r s . A p p i a n
w r i t e s t h a t the p i r a t e s o p e r a t e d 'in s q u a d r o n s u n d e r p i r a t e chiefs, w h o w e r e
like g e n e r a l s o f a n a r m y ' (Mithridatica 9 2 ) . A t this level of o r g a n i z a t i o n they
w e r e c a p a b l e o f r a i d i n g r o a d s a n d b e s i e g i n g t o w n s a l o n g the c o a s t s of Italy.
T h e y even s t a g e d p r e d a t o r y r a i d s into the w e s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n , w h e r e they
w e r e r e p u t e d t o b e in c o n t a c t w i t h v a r i o u s i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s , including
S e r t o r i u s in Iberia a n d , a s w e shall see later, S p a r t a c u s in Italy.
GLADIATORS - MEN OF THE SWORD
W h e n P e r u s i a ( P e r u g i a ) c a p i t u l a t e d t o O c t a v i a n u s a n d the s u r v i v o r s w e r e
r o u n d e d u p , he allegedly t o o k 3 0 0 rebel s e n a t o r s a n d equites a n d , in the w o r d s
o f S u e t o n i u s , 'offered t h e m o n the Ides o f M a r c h a t the altar of D i v u s Iulius,
a s h u m a n s a c r i f i c e s ' ( Divus Augustus 15.1). N o t long afterwards, Octavianus
20

23. h a v i n g m e t a m o r p h o s e d i n t o A u g u s t u s , V i r g i l h a s the e m p e r o r ' s l e g e n d a r y Funerary painting from
a n c e s t o r , the p i o u s A e n e a s , p e r f o r m h u m a n s a c r i f i c e a t the f u n e r a l o f the Paestum (Gaudo Tomb 7 North
Slab, c. 340 BC) depicting a duel.
y o u n g prince P a l l a s :
Such paintings were not mere
decorative elements, as they
Then came the captives, whose hands he had bound behind their backs to send reflect the values and ideals
them as offerings to the shades of the dead and sprinkle the funeral pyre with of the Lucanians who now
controlled Paestum. This scene
the blood of their sacrifice. (Virgil, Aeneid 1 1 . 8 1 - 8 4 West)
represents the final moments
of a competition, with a judge
H i s t o r i c a l l y it w a s the E t r u s c a n s , a p e o p l e r e g u l a t e d b y a h i g h l y r i t u a l i z e d standing behind the winner
religion, w h o m a d e it their c u s t o m t o sacrifice p r i s o n e r s o f w a r t o the s h a d e s about to place a wreath on
his head. These duels were
of their o w n fallen w a r r i o r s . L i v y s a y s t h a t in 3 5 8 bc a t o t a l o f 3 0 7 R o m a n
not to the death. (Fields-Carre
soldiers w e r e t a k e n p r i s o n e r a n d s l a u g h t e r e d a s h u m a n sacrifice in the f o r u m Collection)
of the E t r u s c a n city of T a r q u i n i i ( T a r q u i n i a ) ; in r e v e n g e 3 5 8 c a p t i v e s , c h o s e n
f r o m the n o b l e s t families o f T a r q u i n i i , w e r e d i s p a t c h e d t o R o m e three y e a r s
later a n d publicly f l o g g e d in the F o r u m a n d then b e h e a d e d ( 7 . 1 5 . 1 0 , 1 9 . 2 - 3 ) .
T h e T a r q u i n i e n s e s m a y h a v e b e e n e n a c t i n g a f o r m o f h u m a n sacrifice, b u t the
R o m a n r e s p o n s e - if historical - w a s a n a c t of v e n g e a n c e , n o t cultic o b l i g a t i o n .
S o g l a d i a t o r s p e r h a p s o r i g i n a t e d f r o m s u c h E t r u s c a n h o l o c a u s t s in h o n o u r
of the d e a d : they w e r e s o m e t i m e s k n o w n a s bustuarii, funeral m e n , a n d the
c o n t e s t w a s c a l l e d a munus f r o m b e i n g a d u t y p a i d t o the d e c e a s e d b y his
descendants. T h e African Christian Tertullian, writing a r o u n d AD 2 0 0 , describes
these c o m b a t s of the a m p h i t h e a t r e a s the m o s t f a m o u s , the m o s t p o p u l a r
spectacle of all:
21

24. Crucial to the development The ancients thought that by this sort of spectacle they rendered a service to
of the spectacle of gladiatorial the dead, after they had tempered it with a more cultured form of cruelty. For
combat were the lanistae. They
of old, in the belief that the souls of the dead are propitiated with human
were indispensable operators
who functioned as slave traders, blood, they used at funerals to sacrifice captives or slaves of poor quality.
managers, trainers, and Afterwards, it seemed good to obscure their impiety by making it a pleasure.
impresarios all in one. However, So after the persons procured had been trained in such arms as they then had
they were seen by their fellow
and as best they might - their training was to learn to be killed! - they then did
citizens as utterly contemptible,
some think like an unpleasant them to death on the appointed day at the tombs. So they found comfort for
cross between a butcher and death in murder. (Tertullian De spectaculis 12)
a pimp. Sculptural relief (Selcuk,
Arkeoloji Muzesi) showing a
S o R o m e t u r n e d munus, in the fiery a n t i - p a g a n e l o q u e n c e of T e r t u l l i a n , into
lanista armed with baton and
shield. (Fields-Carre Collection) a ' p l e a s u r e ' a n d a ' m o r e c u l t u r e d f o r m o f cruelty'. A s well a s p u n i s h m e n t a n d
s a c r i f i c e s , munera b e c a m e p u b l i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t .
Alternatively, 4th-century t o m b paintings a n d v a s e paintings f r o m C a m p a n i a
s e e m m o r e o b v i o u s l y t o d e p i c t a r m e d single c o m b a t s , a n d literary s o u r c e s
d o refer t o C a m p a n i a n c o m b a t s a t b a n q u e t s (e.g. S t r a b o 5 . 4 . 1 3 , A t h e n a i o s
4 . 1 5 3 f - 1 5 4 a ) . In these C a m p a n i a n c o m b a t s elite volunteers c o m p e t e d for prizes,
fighting only to the p o i n t of first b l o o d s h e d . T h e R o m a n s b e c a m e familiar with
C a m p a n i a n g l a d i a t o r i a l c o m b a t s at the tail end of the s a m e century. Livy s p e a k s
of a battle in 3 0 8 BC of R o m a n s a n d C a m p a n i a n s a g a i n s t the S a m n i t e s , w h o
f o u g h t w i t h inlaid shields, p l u m e d helmets, a n d g r e a v e s o n the left leg. A s they
a d v a n c e d into battle, the S a m n i t e s 'dedicated themselves in the Samnite m a n n e r '
while the R o m a n c o m m a n d e r , w h o w a s p o s t e d o n the left w i n g , m e t them head-
o n 'declaring that he offered these m e n a s a sacrifice to O r c u s ' (Livy 9 . 4 0 . 1 2 ) .
C e l e b r a t i n g the victory, the R o m a n s a d o r n e d the F o r u m with c a p t u r e d a r m s :
' T h u s the R o m a n s m a d e use of the splendid a r m s of their enemies to d o h o n o u r
t o the g o d s ; while the C a m p a n i a n s in their p r i d e , o u t of h a t r e d to the Samnites,
e q u i p p e d the g l a d i a t o r s w h o p r o v i d e d e n t e r t a i n m e n t at their b a n q u e t s with
similar a r m o u r a n d g a v e t h e m the n a m e of S a m n i t e s ' (ibid. 9 . 4 0 . 1 7 ) .
22

25. W h a t e v e r its true o r i g i n s , the first g l a d i a t o r i a l fight t o o k p l a c e in R o m e in Initially, gladiator duels took
2 6 4 BC, the year w h e n the first w a r w i t h C a r t h a g e b e g a n . A t the funeral o f place in whatever public spaces
a town might possess. Under
D e c i m u s I u n i u s B r u t u s S c a e v a his t w o s o n s , M a r c u s a n d D e c i m u s B r u t u s ,
the emperors, however, the
for the first t i m e e x h i b i t e d , in the m a r k e t c a l l e d F o r u m B o a r i u m , t h r e e characteristic scene for such
s i m u l t a n e o u s g l a d i a t o r i a l fights. It m a y h a v e b e e n a m o d e s t affair by later displays was the amphitheatre.
s t a n d a r d s , b u t half of R o m e a p p a r e n t l y t u r n e d o u t t o w a t c h the fight. T h e The first known permanent
amphitheatre is not in Rome
f o l l o w i n g statistics s h o w h o w fast the i d e a c a u g h t o n
but Pompeii (c. 70 BC), an
enormous structure for
Date Numbers Source
a provincial town with its
264 BC 3 pairs of gladiators Valerius Maximus 2.4.7
seating capacity of 20,000
216 BC 22 pairs of gladiators Livy 23.30.15 places. A view of the
200 BC 25 pairs of gladiators Livy 31.50.4 amphitheatre looking
60 pairs of gladiators Livy 39.46.2 north-west with Vesuvius
183 BC
in the distance. (Fields-Carre
174 BC 74 pairs of gladiators Livy 41.28.11
Collection)
Beginning a s a grandiosity o c c a s i o n a l l y a d d e d t o a n aristocratic funeral, the
g l a d i a t o r s themselves being t a k e n f r o m a m o n g s t the p e r s o n a l s l a v e s o f the
d e c e a s e d a n d e q u i p p e d in m a k e s h i f t f a s h i o n , over t i m e the c o m b a t s w e r e
extended to public celebrations. A n d s o it w a s by Cicero's d a y the m a s s e s , a s he
says (Pro Sestio 1 0 6 , 1 2 4 ) , c o u l d e x p r e s s themselves at a s s e m b l i e s , elections,
g a m e s (ludi) a n d gladiatorial contests (munera).
23

26. In 1 0 5 BC, for the first t i m e , the t w o c o n s u l s of
t h e y e a r g a v e a g l a d i a t o r i a l s p e c t a c l e officially.
Indeed, one of them, Publius Rutilius Rufus, began
the practice of e m p l o y i n g gladiatorial trainers
to instruct n e w a r m y recruits (Valerius M a x i m u s
2 . 3 . 2 ) . It s o o n b e c a m e c u s t o m a r y for g l a d i a t o r i a l
d i s p l a y s t o be p u t o n n o t only by v i c t o r i o u s g e n e r a l s ,
a s a f e a t u r e o f their t r i u m p h s , b u t a l s o by officials of
every r a n k . S u c h s p e c t a c l e s , o b v i o u s l y b u t n o t solely,
w e r e p o l i t i c a l d e v i c e s u s e d by R o m a n a r i s t o c r a t s to
gain support. T h e functionaries k n o w n as aediles,
for e x a m p l e , s o u g h t t o a t t r a c t p o p u l a r i t y by giving
ludi honorarii, supplementary g a m e s attached to
theatre a n d circus performances.
It w a s a s o n e o f the a e d i l e s of 6 5 BC t h a t
C a e s a r , in m e m o r y o f his l o n g - d e a d father, g a v e a
m a g n i f i c e n t g l a d i a t o r i a l spectacle. H o w e v e r , at a time
w h e n the m e m o r y o f the S p a r t a c a n r e b e l l i o n m u s t
h a v e b e e n still f r e s h in p e o p l e ' s m i n d , he ' h a d
c o l l e c t e d s o i m m e n s e a t r o o p o f c o m b a t a n t s that his
terrified political o p p o n e n t s r u s h e d a bill t h r o u g h the
S e n a t e , limiting the n u m b e r t h a t a n y o n e m i g h t k e e p
in R o m e ; c o n s e q u e n t l y far fewer p a i r s f o u g h t t h a n
h a d b e e n a d v e r t i s e d ' ( S u e t o n i u s Divus lulius 1 0 . 2 ) .
C a e s a r w a s u n d a u n t e d . H e m a d e certain everyone in
R o m e k n e w t h a t it w a s the S e n a t e t h a t h a d r o b b e d
t h e m o f the m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r g a m e s of all t i m e . All
the s a m e his d i m i n i s h e d t r o u p e o f g l a d i a t o r s still
a m o u n t e d to 3 2 0 pairs, and each m a n w a s equipped
In 1874 Raffaello Giovagnoli w i t h a r m o u r specially m a d e f r o m s o l i d silver.
(1838-1915), who had fought It w a s f r o m s u c c e s s i v e w a v e s o f p r i s o n e r s o f w a r c o n s c r i p t e d a s g l a d i a t o r s
with Garibaldi, published his
t h a t the p r o f e s s i o n w a s t o inherit its b i z a r r e , e x o t i c u n i f o r m s , w h i c h w a s o n e
epic novel Spartaco. The
comparison between ancient o f the s o u r c e s o f p u b l i c e n j o y m e n t . F r o m R o m e ' s b r u t a l w a r s of e x p a n s i o n
and modern is made explicit d u r i n g the s e c o n d a n d first c e n t u r i e s BC, w h i c h e l i m i n a t e d m o s t o f its s e r i o u s
by the author, and Garibaldi c o m p e t i t o r s for power, there w a s a ready supply of foreigners w h o had
himself wrote the preface. The
s u f f e r e d the f a t e o f s l a v e r y t h r o u g h c a p t u r e in w a r f a r e . T h e s e w e r e t r i b a l
illustrations were executed
by Nicola Sanesi, and here w a r r i o r s o r t r a i n e d s o l d i e r s w h o c o u l d b e p u s h e d i n t o the a r e n a w i t h little
we see Spartacus, brave yet n e e d for p r e p a r a t i o n , b e i n g m a d e t o fight w i t h their n a t i v e w e a p o n s a n d in
compassionate, sparing the their e t h n i c s t y l e s . M a n y o f t h e s e m e n , it is t r u e , w e r e s i m p l y w r e t c h e d
life of his friend Crixus in
c a p t i v e s h e r d e d b e f o r e the b a y i n g , b l o o d - m a d d e n e d s p e c t a t o r s , b u t v a r i o u s
the arena. (Reproduced
from R. Giovagnoli, Spartaco,
c l a s s e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l g l a d i a t o r l i k e w i s e c a m e f r o m this c a t e g o r y , especially
Rome, 1874) t h e w a r h a r d e n e d . T h e s e e a r l i e s t t r a i n e d killers a p p e a r e d in the a r e n a a s
p r i s o n e r s t a k e n d u r i n g the w a r w i t h the I t a l i a n allies, the S o c i a l War, a s it is
g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d , o f 9 1 - 8 8 B C , a n d w e r e chiefly f r o m the S a m n i t e s o f central
e a s t e r n Italy, d r e s s e d in the heavy, r e s p l e n d e n t a r m o u r of the S a m n i t e warrior.
S o o n after the S a m n i t e s , G a u l s s t a r t e d t o a p p e a r in the a r e n a . A g a i n these
w e r e o r i g i n a l l y p r i s o n e r s o f w a r t a k e n f r o m the tribes o f G a u l . By a b o u t the
early seventies BC these t w o h a d b e e n j o i n e d by a third type of g l a d i a t o r b a s e d
o n a n o t h e r f o r e i g n f o e , the T h r a c i a n .
C i c e r o ' s m e t a p h o r i c a l u s e o f g l a d i a t o r i a l r e t i r e m e n t in the Second
Philippic ( 2 9 ) is the first k n o w n reference t o a w a r d i n g the rudis or w o o d e n
s w o r d o f f r e e d o m , the c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n b e i n g t h a t by his d a y g l a d i a t o r s w e r e
24