DCM

1. UNIT EIGHT
DATA COLLECTION METHODS

2. Major Data collection methods
• Quantitative
– Questionnaire
– Interview
– Observation
• Qualitative
– Focus group discussion
– Interview
• In-depth interview
• Key informant interview
– Observation

3. Quantitative Data Collection
Techniques

4. QUESTIONNAIRE
• A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of
a series of questions for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents
Question types: open-ended and closed-ended questions.
• An open-ended question: asks the respondent to
formulate his /her own answer. E.g. Why did you
decide to stop taking hormone replacement drugs?
• A closed-ended question: has the respondent pick an
answer from a given number of options. E.g., Have
you ever taken hormone replacement drugs? (yes/no)

5. • The response options for a closed-ended question
should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
• Types of Closed-Ended Questions
– Dichotomous questions (yes/no)
– Multiple-choice questions
– Rank-order questions
– Rating questions

6. Question sequence: Questions should flow
– logically from one to the next.
– from the least sensitive to the most sensitive,
– from factual to attitudinal,
– from more general to more specific.

7. Question construction:
• Develop an outline of the instrument’s content
• Questions can be borrowed/adopted from other
instruments
• Carefully monitor the wording of each question
– for clarity, sensitivity to the respondents
psychological state, freedom from bias and reading
level
• Sequence questions in a psychologically meaningful
order that encourages cooperation and openness
• Review of draft instruments by peers and then pretest
with a small sample of respondents

8. Scales can be formatted in a number of ways:
• Dichotomous: respondent has two options
• Nominal-polytomous: respondent has more than two
unordered options
• Ordinal-polytomous: respondent has more than two
ordered options
• Continuous: respondent is presented with a continuous
scale

9. • Advantages:
– Questions are presented in a consistent manner
– Less opportunity for subject bias
– Easier to administer to large groups
– Less costly to use than interviews
– Structured questionnaires are easier to code and
analyze
– Possibility of anonymity
– Lack of interviewer bias

10. Liker scales:
• Consist of several declarative statements (items)
expressing viewpoints
• Responses are on an agree/disagree continuum (usually
5 or 7 response options)
• Responses to items are summed to compute a total
scale score

11. Response Biases and Response Sets:
• Social desirability response set bias: a tendency to
misrepresent attitudes/traits by giving answers that
are consistent with prevailing social views
• Extreme response set bias: a tendency to consistently
express attitudes or feelings in extreme responses(eg
strongly agree)
• Acquiescence response set (yea- sayers): tendency to
agree with statements regardless of their content by
people
• Nay-sayers response set: tendency to disagree with
statements independently of the question content

12. Ways to reduce biases: Biases can be reduced by:
• Counterbalancing positively and negatively worded
statements
• Developing sensitively worded questions
• Creating a permissive, non judgmental atmosphere
• Guaranteeing confidentiality of responses

13. INTERVIEW
Structured interviews:
• The questions the interviewer is to ask are designed and
written before the interview
• Every study subject is asked the same questions in the
same way
• Advantages of Interviews (Compared with questionnaires)
– Higher response rates
– Appropriate for more diverse audiences
– Opportunities to clarify questions
– Opportunity to collect supplementary data through
observation

14. OBSERVATION
• Observation is a technique for collecting data through
visual observation of events.
• It requires the nature of the data to be observable.
• Structured observation of pre-specified behaviors
• The method of data collection chosen for a study should
be appropriate for the type of information required
• Bio physiologic Measures:
In vivo measurements: Performed directly within or on
living organisms (e.g. blood pressure measures)
• In vitro measurements: Performed outside the
organism’s body (e.g. urinalysis)

15. • Phenomena Amenable to Research Observation:
– Activities and behavior
– Characteristics and conditions of individuals
– Skill attainment and performance
– Verbal and nonverbal communication
– Environmental characteristics

16. Qualitative Data Collection Techniques

17. OBSERVATION
• Purpose is to get close enough to study subjects to grasp
their point of view
• The researcher observe socio-cultural context and
obtain insight about daily life
Observer has dual purpose: participate and observe.
Advantages
• Provides deep understanding of the general setting
• Allows to observe whether people do what they say
they do
• Useful to capture a phenomenon and its specific
components in greater detail

18. Disadvantages
• Time consuming and require good skill in local
language, good memory and ability to take note
• Enormous data may be generated
• Time lag between observation and note taking is likely
• Expensive
Concerns in Participant Observation
• Full participation may be impossible for
– Social reasons
– Ethical
– Legal

19. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS
• One-on-one interviews that probe and elicit detailed
answers to questions
– often using nondirective techniques to uncover hidden
motivations.
Advantages
• No group pressure
• Respondent focus attention and feels important
• Long time period encourages revealing new information
• Can probe to reveal feelings and motivations
• Discussion is flexible and can explore tangential issues

20. Disadvantages
• Much more expensive than focus groups
• Do not get the same degree of client involvement
• Arephysically exhausting for the moderator…reduces
the number of people that can be interviewed in a
given time period.
key informant interview:
• Key informant is an individual selected due to his
knowledge, previous experience and social status
– Selection is not random

21. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION(FGD)
• Focus groups are a method of group discussion in
which the interaction between:
– the moderator and the group,
– as well as the interaction between group members,
• serves to elicit information and insights in response to
questions.
• Encourages group interaction
• Important to develop culturally relevant questionnaire
• Complement other methods

22. Advantages
• Do not discriminate against people who can not read
and write
• Encourages participants reluctant to be interviewed
• Participant interaction helps weed out false and extreme
views
Disadvantages
• The results are more subject to interpretive bias and
error
• Analysis process is more time-consuming
• Investigator risks getting too much unnecessary
information

23. • Methods of FGD:
– 8 to 10 people at one time
– Relatively homogeneous groups
– Multiple, heterogeneous groups
– Group dynamics
– Moderator is key
– Relies on general topical guide with plenty of time
for interaction

24. • Requirements for Focus Groups:
• Good group of information-rich participants
– How many people?
– How many groups?
– Characteristics of participants
• Discussion guide and outline
– Ground rules
– Agenda
– Guiding questions
• Qualified Moderator
– Controls flow
– Stimulates discussion

25. • Good Moderator Characteristics:
– Able to break down barriers
– Must be a quick learner
• Good listener
• Absorb content
• Gauge personalities
• Adapt quickly
– Must be in control, but not dominating (guide rather
than lead)
– Must appear to be neither an expert nor naive
– Must be flexible to allow for free flow of discussion
• Don’t concentrate too rigidly on the moderator
guide

26. – Keep the big picture in perspective
– Know what is important and when to move on
Facilitating Group Dynamics:
• Use introductions to set the tone
• State your purpose
• Encourage everyone to participate; no right or wrong
answers
• Use an ice breaker to get everyone comfortable
• State ground rules, procedural details
• Ask for permission to tape
• Ensure confidentiality/anonymity
• Report to contain summary of group, not individuals

27. Getting and keeping productive participation
• Overly talkative (Peacock) :
– The person may be eager or simply show off.
– Don't be embarrassed or sarcastic: you may want to
call on their participation later.
– Slow them down with difficult question or interrupt
them
• Highly argumentative (Lion) :
– The person may have a combative, confrontational
personality or wants to heckle.
• Keep your own temper in check and don't allow
other group members to get excited.

28. • Rambler (Monkey) :
– They talk about everything except the topic.
– When they stop for breath thank and refocus their
attention
• Personality clash (Fighting cock):
– This is when two or more members clash.
• Such a clash may divide the group into factions as
each party gathers support from other members.
– Emphasize points of agreement and minimize
disagreement

29. • Won't talk (Tortoise):
– This person may be board, indifferent, timed,
insecure or may feel superior to the group.
– Depend on what is motivating the individual.
– Arouse interest by seeking the person’s opinion.
• Ask for your opinion (Giraffe):
– There is nothing wrong with participants seeking
your own personal opinion on a topic.
• Avoid solving problems for them let them try by their
own

30. • Wrong subject (Elephant):
– This person does not ramble but is simply off base.
– Restate the last point given.
– Above all don't embrass the individual
• Inarticulate (Parrot):
– Not able to put their thoughts into proper words.
– They may follow the discussion but not able to
convey their own idea.
– Paraphrase what they are saying

31. Pre test
• A PRE-TEST usually refers to a small-scale trial of
particular research components.
• A pretest is a trial run to determine whether the
instrument is clearly worded, free from major biases,
and useful in generating desired information
• When do we carry out a pre-test?
• Pre-testing the data collection 1-2 weeks before starting
the fieldwork so that you have time to make revisions.

32. • Components to be assessed during the pre-test?
– The reactions of respondents to the research
procedures and to questions related to sensitive
issues.
– The appropriateness of study type(s) and research
tools selected for the purpose of the study (e.g.,
validity: Do they collect the information you need?
and reliability: Do they collect the data in a precise
way?).

33. – The appropriateness of format and wording of
questionnaires and interview schedules and the
accuracy of the translations.
– The time needed to carry out interviews,
observations or measurements.

34. QUESTION