Dark Matter's Mysterious Hold On The Universe

The Matter Of Dark Matter
Dark Matter Some scientists now believe it is not the matter we see, but the matter that hides in the
dark that holds the true secrets of the universe. There is a mysterious dark matter that binds stars and
galaxies together, and this matter might be made up of WIMPS, MACHOS, and axions. Physicists
continue searching for dark matter, and particles that make up dark matter. Dark matter has strange
characteristics and behaves quite differently from ordinary matter. Understanding dark matter is
essential to understanding how the universe behaves. Scientists assume that dark matter is real.
Gravitational theory requires dark matter to explain why our universe looks the way it does. Without
dark matter in the galaxies, the circular force of the galaxies would push stars out of their orbits and
off into space. Scientists also assume dark matter is plentiful. Scientists theorize that there should be
five or six times more dark matter than the matter we now detect. Scientists also theorize that dark
matter must be made up of particles that obey all or some of the known laws of physics.
Scientists have hypothesized that surrounding most galaxies are huge amounts of matter called dark
matter. "Dark matter is matter that is invisible and does not emit light, heat or radio waves. Dark
matter does not interact with ordinary matter, and possibly billions of dark matter particles pass
through ordinary matter every minute" (Hawking 186–188). Dark matter holds galaxies, stars, and
solar
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Is Matter A Big Controversy?
Introduction
Definition of matter was a big controversy in science. Approximately two and third millennium ago,
the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 BC –322 BC) wrote that matter consist of fire, wind, earth and
water and that different compounds are obtained by different combinations of these elements
(Laycock, 1979). Around 2000 years after that and through many contributions from many
scientists, William Odin categorised the elements based on their atomic number and stated that these
elements combine with one another to create different compounds (Scerri, 2007). At present, around
100 elements react with one another to form thousands of known and unknown compounds.
However in the last century, it was found that these elements and compounds only represent 4.9% of
the universe. The other 95% is dark matter (26.8%) and dark energy (68.3%) (Francis, 2013). This
means that scientists spent more than two millennia trying to understand the smallest portion of the
universe. Hence, scientists are new to the concept of dark matter and dark energy. So what is dark
matter and dark energy that represent the majority of the universe and what are the theories that
illustrates their behaviour in the universe, causing dark matter and dark energy be accepted
hypothesis to explain the different observation? Figure 1 shows how small the ordinary matter is in
the vast universe
Dark Energy
In the eighteenth century, Immanuel Kant proposed that there could be other galaxies and systems
like

Dark Matter and Dark Energy
Dark matter and dark energy are two entities that have very little known about them, except that
they make up about 95 percent of the universe. Even though this is a large part of the universe, it
wasn't even thought about until the 1960's or the 1970's. This is because of the fact that it is very
hard to detect and almost impossible to see. Although it is impossible to see, we can see the effects
of them both in our galaxy. One way that we can "see" the dark matter is the movement of the Milky
Way Galaxy. While studying the Milky Way, scientists noticed that the outer rings of the galaxy
were moving at the same speed as the inner rings ("Dark Energy, Dark Matter", n.d.) . This may
seem normal, but, due to the law of gravity, the outer ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
MACHO's may be neutron stars, black holes, or brown dwarfs. The reason why they think that
MACHO's may be dark matter is because neutron stars and black holes are big enough to cause the
gravitational changes, but the downside to these theories is that, both neutron stars and black holes
are caused because of supernovae, which are not common occurrences, and they should put off high
amounts of energy and elements, but there aren't any signs of these things in sufficient amounts in
the halos of galaxies. but it could also be the MACHO brown dwarf, which are stars that are one
eighth of the mass of the sun. Astronomers have found brown dwarfs around other stars and planets,
but there isn't any evidence of large enough clusters to cause the gravitational changes caused by
dark matter. Dark matter could also be WIMP's, which are subatomic particles that aren't made out
of regular matter. These could be neutralinos, axions, and neutrinos. Neutrinos were originally
thought to not have mass, but in 1998, a neutrino was found that has mass, but it doesn't have
enough mass to contribute to dark matter. Axions may have small amounts of mass, but it is stated
that there would be large amounts of it that were made by the big bang. They are now searching for
axion particles in our solar system's halo and in the sun. Neutralinos are particles that are

Basic Understanding Of Dark Matter
INDEX
1) Abstract
2) Basic understanding of Dark Matter
3) Types of Dark Matter A) Baryonic Dark Matter B) Non–Baryonic Dark Matter
4) Observational Evidence A) Galaxy Rotation Curves B) Velocity Dispersion Of Galaxies C)
Analysis of Cosmic Microwave Background
5) Search For The Composition of Dark Matter
6) Detection Methods A) Direct Detection approach B) Indirect Detection approach
7) Substitute Theories A) Modified Gravity B) Mass in Extra Dimensions C) Quantised Inertia
8) Conclusion
Abstract
Dark Matter, one of the mysteries of Science that has us puzzled even after nearly 70 years of it's
initial prediction. Why? Has it got us on the edge of our seats so often. The answer lies in the sheer
magnitude of the Dark Matter all around us. If certain predictions are true, then even right now as I
write this , and when you read, billions of Neutrinos (hypothesized Dark Matter particle) are passing
through us , without us even feeling them. Various astronomical techniques such as Gravitational
Lensing, and Galaxy Rotation Curves have revealed that the mass of the celestial clusters such
galaxies andd galaxy clusters is majorly composed of something other than what we observe from
our conventional observation techniques. That is to say all the planets, stars and gas we observe in a
particular galaxy, contribute to a mere 4.6% of the total mass of the universe.
It's simple mass predictions of the

Essay Investigation of Dark Matter
Investigation of Dark Matter
Introduction
Throughout the years, scientists have been looking for the missing mass of the universe; it has yet
remained an unsolved mystery. Using different methods, scientists have tried to determine the mass
of the universe and surprisingly found a discrepancy suggesting that ninety percent of the mass of
the universe is nowhere to be found. Then here comes the term "dark matter", referring to this
unfound matter of the universe. It is called dark because it gives off no light and matter because it
has to have some mass to be able to explain the effects that they produce. There have been different
perspectives about dark matter. Some scientists think that dark ... Show more content on
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The path that they make around the earth is called deferent while their movement about themselves
is called epicycle. He also moved the planets off the center. Although this was wrong, it was helpful
in predicting the position of the planets.
Copernicus and his Explanation ==============================
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer, and his explanation about how the solar system
moves around the sun became the groundwork of modern astronomy. Furthermore, he proposed that
the sun is the center of the universe. He said that if one assumed that the sun is the center of the
universe, it would be simpler to describe the positions of the other planets and their movements, too.
And with Galileo Galilee's invention of the telescope, it was proven that Copernicus' theory was
valid.
Johannes Kepler and the Planetary Motions
=========================================
Johannes Kepler was an assistant of Tycho Brahe. Brahe had been recording his observation from
the stars in the sky and Kepler had been wise enough to examine these observations. He was able to
make three laws governing the motions of the planets. Kepler's first law of planetary motion says
that the planets traveling in ellipse with the sun at one of its focus. Kepler's second law states that if
there were a straight line connecting the sun and a planet, the line

Does Dark Matter Exist
Dark matter, the unsolved mystery has become a focal point in current research. Scientists have
inferred that 5 percent of the universe is made of ordinary atomic matter (stars and galaxies), 72
percent is made of dark energy and 23 percent is made of dark matter [1]. Ordinary matter is easily
detected as it emits or reflects light but dark matter is an invisible entity so how do we know it even
exists?
Fritz Zwicky was one of the first astronomers to suspect the existence of dark matter through
observations of the Coma Cluster, a galactic cluster. Zwicky determined the mass of the Coma
Cluster using the velocities of galaxies and then determined the mass based on their light output. He
found that the mass calculated based on the velocities was ten times greater than the mass based on
the light output.[2] This suggests that there is some unseen, unaccounted for mass that provides
enough gravitational force to keep the rapidly moving galaxies bound in the cluster [3]. This unseen
mass was dubbed 'dark matter.'
Nevertheless the scientific community were only convinced by the theory of dark matter after ...
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This has led to new theories such as modified Newtonian dynamics, a modified law of gravity,
which tries to explain the gravitational discrepancies seen in the motions of galaxies [7]. However
researchers have made measurements of the influence of gravity in our solar system which fits our
current understanding of gravity. Consequently the modified gravity law would have to preserve the
observed behaviour of gravity in our solar system as well as explain the gravitational discrepancies
and no such solution have been found. So dark matter can be considered the most viable solution to
this problem as evidence of its gravitational effects is enough to indicate its

Matter Word Assignment
Matter Word Assignment 1.) Matter is anything that has mass (a measure of the quantity of an object
(g, kg)) and volume (a measure of space taken up (mL, L)). Matter is also made up of tiny particles
and can be found as solids, liquids, gas, plasma, and bose–einstein. 2.) Aristotle proposed Earth,
Water, Air, and Fire as the 4 states of matter. 3.) The 4 states of matter that we now accept in modern
time are solids (a substance in a solid phase is relatively rigid, has a definite volume and shape. The
atoms or molecules that comprise a solid are packed close together and are not compressible.)
liquids (Liquids have a definite volume, but are able to change their shape by flowing. Since the
liquid molecules can move, they will take the shape of their ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The freezing point of water is colder than the boiling point is an example. While a Quantitative
observation is a numerical measurement. The freezing point of water is 0 c and boiling point is 100
c. 15.) The terms reactant and product can be used to describe constituents of individual enzymatic
reactions or entire metabolic pathways. Reactants (or 'substrates') are the starting materials for a
reaction, In the generic reaction shown below, A and B are the reactants. C and D are the products.
16.) The Law of Conservation of Mass is a relation stating that in a chemicalreaction, the mass of
the products equals the mass of the reactants. Antoine Lavoisier stated, "atoms of an object cannot
be created or destroyed, but can be moved around and be changed into different particles". 17.) The
law of constant composition is a chemistry law which states samples of a pure compound always
contain the same elements in the same mass proportion. The law of definite composition states that
chemical compounds are formed of constant and defined ratios of elements as determined by

Dark Matter Essay
There is perhaps no current problem of greater importance to astrophysics and cosmology than that
of "dark matter". The controversy, as the name implies, is centered on the notion that
there may exist an enormous amount of matter in the Universe that cannot be detected from the light
that it emits. The evidence of dark matter is from the motions of astronomical objects, specifically
stellar, galactic, and galaxy cluster/supercluster observations.
The basic argument is that if we measure velocities in some region, then there has to be enough
mass there for gravity to stop all the objects from flying apart. When such velocity measurements
are done on large scales, it turns out that the amount of inferred mass is much more than ... Show
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The particles include photinos, neutrinos, gravitinos, axions, and magnetic monopoles, among many
others. Of these, researchers have detected only neutrinos –– and whether neutrinos have any mass
remains unknown. Experiments are under way to detect other exotic particles. If they exist, and if
one has a mass in the correct range, then that particle might pervade the universe and constitute dark
matter.
The MACHO Project is a collaboration between scientists at the Mt. Stromlo & Siding Spring
Observatories, the Center for Particle Astrophysics at the Santa Barbara, San Diego, &
Berkeley campuses of the University of California, and the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. Their primary aim is to test the hypothesis that a significant fraction of the dark matter
in the halo of the Milky Way is made up of objects like brown dwarfs or planets: these objects have
come to be known as MACHOs, for MAssive Compact Halo Objects. The signature of these objects
is the occasional amplification of the light from extragalactic stars by the gravitational lens effect.
The amplification can be large, but events are extremely rare: it is necessary to monitor
photometrically several million stars for a period of years in order to obtain a useful detection rate.
For this purpose they must have built a two–channel system that employs eight CCDs, mounted on
the 50 inch telescope at Mt. Stromlo. The high data rate (several GBytes per night) is

Dark Energy Vs Dark Matter
"Dark energy comprises 69% of the universe, dark matter makes up 25%, and ordinary atomic
matter only makes up 5%," (Spergel). For centuries, scientists have been gathering innumerable
amounts of information to comprehend the elaborate universe. A handful of these observers have
detected invisible forces comprising space. Countless amounts of astronomers have tried to explain
this dark mystery. In 1917, Albert Einstein was able to add the cosmological constant to his general
theory of relativity, which explains the existence of inconspicuous forces in the universe (Grim). As
stated in the article "The Dark Side of Cosmology..." the cosmological constant implies the
existence of both dark matter and dark energy. Dark matter and energy are still ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the 1920s, Hubble discovered evidence that showed the universe was expanding and by the 90s,
supernova observers reported that the expansion rate was not constant but accelerating (Spergel).
General relativity implies this expansion but cannot function solely without the cosmological
constant countering gravity and keeping the universe stable (Spergel). Both general relativity and
the cosmological constant use the theories of dark energy and matter to complete their functions
(Spergel). Though dark matter may be involved in this, Spergel says that it is present in CMBs,
Galaxy cluster observations, and supersymmetric particles relying on each other to work alone
(Spergel). Dark matter is everywhere holding galaxies together and creating light in quasars for the
universe (Spergel), but this matter is considered cannot be seen (Spergel). If it was made up of
atoms, in the early universe it would have been made of ions and electrons and would have left an
imprint on the microwave sky, so dark matter must be non baryonic –or invisible– and therefore
"dark"

The Theory Of Dark Matter
Introduction–
Earth can be seen as a grain of sand on the beach once we compare it to the whole universe. The
question is what possible could occupy the majority of the universe, just within the Solar System we
can see that the planets are orbiting around the Sun. We can determine where the planets are by
calculating how fast the planet moves and where it is at in a certain time. So if the planet isn't where
you calculated it to be at what are the causes? One possibility is that we still don't fully understand
all laws of gravity or there is extra mass within the Solar System that is causing the planets to alter
their trajectory. This lead scientists to believe in the existence of dark matter and so began
investigations and experiments to learn whether it actually existed or not (Start with a bang, 2013).
Concepts and differences–
The theory of dark matter stems from the fact that there is not enough normal matter, as the gravity
of normal matter isn't strong enough to form galaxies and complex structures. The stars will more
likely be disorganized and not form galaxies. Hence we know there is some exterior reason,
something that does emit or reflect light, something dark. All we know is that there is something out
there, there is a lot of it and it has something to do with gravity. The most popular idea is that within
the cosmos there is a dominant source of gravity which is an unidentified type of mass which cannot
be seen by the naked eye known as dark matter. Dark matter

Essay about Daniel Miller's Material Cultures: Why Some...
In the introduction to Material Cultures: Why Some Things Matter, Daniel Miller describes the book
as part of the second stage of the development of material culture studies. The first stage was the
recognition by writers such as Appadurai and Bourdieu as well as Miller that material culture is
important and worthy of study. The second stage is the argument made in this book: that it is crucial
to focus on "the diversity of material worlds" without reducing these material worlds to symbols for
"real" social processes nor cloistering them in sub–studies of like objects. That things matter has
already been ascertained; this books intends to investigate "why some things matter" more than
others and in particular contexts.
Miller claims a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Here, by contrast, through dwelling upon the more mundane sensual and material qualities of the
object, we are able to unpick the more subtle connections with cultural lives and values that are
objectified through these forms, in part, because of the particular qualities they possess. (9)
I find particularly important in this approach the stress on the sensual qualities of the objects under
study: the emotions elicited by the way the sound of a radio fills a space, the color of a carpet or
lawn, the texture and weight of a piece of paper in the hand, the shape of a bowler hat. If we are
truly to understand people's involvement with and decision–making regarding things, it may be
through investigating these bodily experiences, elusive because they are naturalized, but crucial
elements in the formation of likes and dislikes, nostalgia, memory, and attraction.
The focus on the diversity and specificity of material objects and their significance is suggested by
the book's subtitle: Why Some Things Matter. Miller says that the word "matter" was consciously
chosen to evoke the sentimental associations that the subjects of study might have with the objects
in their lives; it puts the stress on emic not etic perspectives. Miller suggests further that this stress
on the emic parallels a shift in attention from processes of production to those of consumption, a
recognition that identities are often constructed in relation to acts of consumption.

Dark Matter Research Paper
Dark Matter: The Number One Mystery in Our Universe
Dark matter is a mystery in astrophysics that could not be explained until the 1970s. Even now, with
the understanding of space we have, cosmologists do not know a plethora of knowledge about dark
matter. Dark matter is non–baryonic matter that cannot be detected in normal ways and was not
discovered until the 1930s, but is one of the main components of our universe. Dark matter makes
up about 27 percent of our entire universe (Dark Energy, Dark Matter – NASA Science), and
another 75 percent of all matter (Dunbar). Dark matter forms in giant, unevenly spread clumps
around celestial bodies, mostly galaxies. One theory of how the clusters of dark matter form is the
Weakly Interacting Massive ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Since when the dark matter particle collide and produce gamma rays, cosmologists can use gamma
ray telescopes to detect the placement of dark matter clumps. Another way to disclose the location
of dark matter clusters is to use gravitational lensing. Light behind galaxies is distorted by the
intervening invisible dark matter within the cluster (Hubble's Dark Matter Map). In the 1930s, an
astronomer named Fritz Zwicky theorized dark matter. He studied the "Coma" galaxy cluster,
specifically how fast the cluster revolves. The speed of the revolution depends on the weight and
position of the matter within the cluster. The speed that Zwicky measured implied that the cluster
had more matter than what matter was observable. Then, in the 1970s, Vera Rubin and her team
justified Zwicky's idea by studying galaxy rotation with better technology. The work of Rubin
helped to establish the notion of dark matter (Dunbar). Dark matter is one of the main mysteries in
the universe, that cosmologists still do not know much about. Dark matter is non–baryonic matter,
discovered in the 1930s, that is a main component of our known cosmos. Dark matter is made after
WIMPs, colliding, making gamma rays. Using the gamma rays emitted, astrophysicists detect the
placement of dark matter. With the next technological advancements in the studies of our universe,
cosmologists can acquire new information about dark

Aristotle Substance And Matter
ARISTOTLE ON DISTINCTION BETWEEN SUBSTANCE AND MATTER
INTRODUCTION
Aristotle was both a political thinker and a philosopher. So, we can see their effects on his writings.
Moreover, he was hugely influenced by his great teacher Plato, who was in turn a disciple of the
great thinker Socrates.
He discussed about Substance and Matter in his book 'Metaphysics' mainly, apart from discussing
them in his book 'Ethics'. Generally, substance and matter are understood to be the same thing. But
philosophically, they are different.
ON SUBSTANCE
Epistemologically, from the definition of substance it follows:
1. that substance is its own cause
2. that it is infinite
3. that it is the only substance
4. that it is eternal
e.g., idea, soul, consciousness, God, respectively have been revered as substance by different
philosophers. For Aristotle, substance (ousia), i.e. what is in the fullest sense, is an individual person
or thing. Or rather, he normally describes the individual as substance in the primary sense. But
logically and epistemologically, the individual is less knowable than the species to which it belongs;
this is because the individual is a concrete whole, a combination of form and matter; and only the
formal element is constant and definable, and therefore knowable. Hence he often identifies
substance with the form or essence of a thing; and this seems to be the outcome of his long and
careful discussion in Book 7 of the 'Metaphysics'. He has been accused of not

A Study Of Dark Matter
A Study Of Dark Matter Contribution to the Universe and Dark Matter Candidates
Aditi Sharma, Boris S. Kalita, Harshit Sharma, Rohit Kumar Singla
Abstract
Dark Matter has been one of the most researched topic in the recent era of science. Even though we
have observed e ects of this exotic entity, we are yet to understand its structural form. Thus we are
forced to hunt for clues that would help in a better understanding of this component which forms
26:8% of the entire universe. This report delves into the problems that led to the introduction of the
concept of Dark Matter. The at Rotation Curve Problem of velocity distribution of galaxies and the
Virial Problem have been discussed. The contribution of Dark Matter in the formation of Large
Scale Structures have also been looked into. We have also attempted to give an idea about the
probable number densities of three Dark Matter candidates assuming that they make up the Dark
Matter halos of a Supercluster at redshift, z 0:91 (Kim et al. 2016). We have then discussed the signi
cance of understanding the constituents of Dark Matter and its possible beni ts for humanity
regarding the generation of energy using annihilation.
A report presented to
Dr. Rahul K. Gairola
Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee
India
2
1. Introduction
Dark Matter is an unidenti ed form of matter that is present in our universe along with visible
(baryonic) matter, radiation and dark energy. It makes up around 26.8% of the whole universe (from

Informative Speech On Dark Matter
Specific Purpose Statement: To inform my audience what dark matter and dark matter is by
explaining what they are and do.
Thesis: Dark Energy and Dark Matter have been puzzling phenomena in astronomy ever since their
discovery in the 1900s. To better understand dark matter/energy, I will give information about when
and who discovered them, what we learned from them since their discovery and what scientists are
doing to further study them.
Organizational Pattern: Chronological Pattern
Introduction
I. Attention Getter:
Matter as we know and see every day: cars, homes, plants, animals, us. This type of matter only
makes up 5 percent of the known universe, so what is the rest of the 95 percent? The rest of the
universe is made up of 25 percent of dark matter and 70 percent of dark but what are dark matter
and dark energy? What do they do?
II. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Credibility Statement:
For the past few weeks, I have had the time to research what dark matter, dark energy is, and why it
is such a puzzling phenomenon.
III. Reveal the Topic or State the Thesis or provide Significance Statement:
Dark matter and dark energy are two things that have confused scientists and astronomers since their
discovery around the 1900s but we are slowly learning what they are.
IV. Preview Statement:
Today, I will be talking about the discovery of dark matter and dark energy, what we learned from
dark matter/energy since their discovery, and how scientists are further studying them.
(To start us off, I will give information on when and how dark matter/energy was discovered back in
the 1900s.)

Dark Matter
15. Dark Matter and Dark Energy (1500 to 2000 not including references)
Explain both concepts and the differences between them. Describe the observations that led to the
hypothesis that dark matter is an important component of the Universe. Describe the suggested
constituents of the dark matter.
There have been many attempts to understand the world we live in, ranging from studies of objects
as small in size as DNA to the study of massive objects as galaxy clusters and even the whole
universe. Being focused on only what can be observed, it had been thought that the universe is
completely of visible matter for most of the past (1) (2). However, after many researches it has been
found that the universe composites of 68% dark matter, 27% dark ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
During the 1970s, dark matter had been discovered accidentally by astronomers Vera Rubin and
Kent Ford, they were observing galaxies and they noticed that stars far from the galaxy centre had a
velocity similar to the celestial objects closer in. The observation was unexpected due to the visible
mass of galaxies lacking the required gravity to keep the further stars in the orbit, therefore the
astronomers were faced with a "missing mass" problem and the concept of dark matter had been
created (16). The main problem with dark matter is that we can't observe it directly, we must
indirectly study its interaction with normal matter to be learn more about it (17). There may be a
misconception between what is observed and what is known to be there, for example; if a man is
floating mid–air, due to the fact that humans are unable to fly; it can be concluded that there must be
something holding the man up there (2). In 1997, Hubble Space Telescope revealed light from far
galaxies bent due a mass of 250 times greater than the visible mass which that scientists believe dark
matter is the reason for (18). Also, NASA's Chandra X–ray observatory had been used by
astronomers to measure the allocation of dark matter in an immense constellation of galaxies located
around a billion light year from earth, the cluster is engulfed by a significant amount of clouds of
hot gas, from the observation it had been found that the amount of dark matter is a hundred trillion
more than the mass of the sun which held the cluster of gravities together (17). Comprehending dark
matter is an important task to understand the most vital aspects of the

The Dark Matter, By Sir Isaac Newton
"The universe is made mostly of dark matter and dark energy, and we don't what either of them is," a
quote by Nobel Prize winning astrophysicist Saul Perlmutter. Dark Matter is currently a conundrum
for modern physicist. Only 4% of our universe is known to us, which means 96% is still a mystery.
This paper will focus on the dark matter that currently makes up 27% of our current universe. To
understand dark matter, we must understand how we came to identify dark matter. From there we
can understand where it came from, are there certain types of dark matter, the current theories of
dark matter and finally where do we go with our current understanding.
Sir Isaac Newton, in 1687 published "Principia" which would profoundly changed the way we ...
The fact that the stars are confined within the galaxy, even though their vertical velocities are
measured to be high enough, necessitates the presence of unseen mass in the galaxy" . Swiss
astronomer, Fritz Zwicky, in 1933 was investigating a galaxy cluster. "While making his
investigations in the galaxy cluster at Coma constellation 90 Mega parsecs (one million parsecs)
away and also at the cluster in Virgo constellation and calculated its gravitational mass using the
"Virial Theorem." (2T=n{Vtot} "He then used the mass–luminosity relation of the stars of the
individual galaxies and estimated the mass of the luminous matter in each of the clusters. He came
up with a huge discrepancy between these two masses and predicted the existence of dark invisible
matter. " He would call this invisible dark matter, dunkie Materie. At the time of this proclamation
was not widely accepted until a "Bullet Cluster" was observed. "Authors report that the cluster is
undergoing a high–velocity (around 4500 km/s) merger, evident from the spatial distribution of the
hot, x–ray emitting gas, but this gas lags behind the sub cluster galaxies. Furthermore, the dark
matter clump, revealed by the weak–lensing map, is coincident with the collision less galaxies, but
lies ahead of the collisional gas. This and other similar observations allow good limits on the cross–
section of the self–interaction of dark matter." Now that we have an

Annotated Bibliography On The Dark Matter
Annotated Bibliography
Basak, Tanushree, and Tanmoy Mondal. "Constraining Minimal U(1) B − L Model from Dark
Matter Observations." (2013): n. pag. Cornell University Library. Web. 10 Nov. 2015. Tanushree
Basak's journal is peer reviewed, and she works in a physics research laboratory so her article is
credible. This source is used in the paper to help introduce the concept of dark matter. It helps
describe what percentage of the universe is made up of dark matter. Additionally, it provided
information on how dark matter was formed at the beginning of the universe.
Basulto, Dominic. "Dark Matter: What We Know and Why You Should Care." The Washington
Post. N.p., 7 Nov. 2013. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.
The author of the article is the least credible resource used in the paper because he works for the
Washington post. This means the author isn't expert in the field of physics. This article helps to
explain the relevance of dark matter today. It describes what dark matter is, and how we know that it
must exist. The source also explains how scientists are currently trying to observe the effect of dark
matter. Feldstein, Brian, and Felix Kahlhoefer. "A New Halo–independent Approach to Dark Matter
Direct Detection Analysis." Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 8 (2014): n. pag. Web
of Science. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.
The journal is peer reviewed and published at the University of Oxford, so the resource is credible.
The sole purpose of this article is to show how scientists

Dark Matter
Dark Matter – First Draft In the scientific community, many ask what forces drive the shaping of
galaxies and the universe. This question is difficult to answer because physicists realized there was
missing mass when they were looking at galaxies in the universe. Galaxies simply could not exist
without accounting for additional mass. However, scientist Fritz Zwicky theorized a solution for this
problem in the 1930's (Basak). He used the abstract idea that this missing mass could be accounted
for with undetectable dark matter. Unfortunately, scientists still are not sure what exactly these dark
matter particle are, but they confirm they must exist. Without dark matter the universe would not
have formed into the shape it is in currently. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Luminous matter is matter that humans can easily observe through sight, touch, smell, sound, and
taste. The rest of the universe is made of two other substances: dark matter and dark energy.
Scientists theorize the rest of the universe is made up of 71.4% dark energy and 24% dark matter
(Basak 2). Dark energy is mostly responsible for the movement of galaxies relative to each other,
and dark matter is responsible for the shape and formation of galaxies after the big bang. Therefore,
focusing just on dark matter helps scientists understand why galaxies are shaped the way they are in
the universe. It is important to understand the two candidate particles scientists are investigating as
dark matter. The first contender that could be dark matter is a neutralino. A neutralino is a weakly
interacting massive particle that has a mass of about one–thousand hydrogen atoms (Zioutas 1485).
Although this particle is relatively bigger than a hydrogen atom, a particle scientists can easily
observe, neutralinos are extremely hard to detect because they don't emit an electromagnetic
spectrum. In simpler terms, neutralino's are very difficult to detect because they are weakly
interacting particles that don't produce any color or radiation. Although, neutralinos have not yet
been observed directly scientists are formulating ways to observe the particle. The first way
scientists are

Even though dark matter is in existence we don't have the instruments available to detect it yet. A
theory suggests that dark matter is what actually makes up a large portion of our universe. Even
though we can't detect it, we know dark matter exists because it can interact gravitationally with
visible matter and radiation. A professor from New York stated that dark matter plays a large role in
causing geological catastrophes as well as mass extinction.
` An example of when dark matter played a role in a large catastrophe is the extinction of Dinosaurs
65 million years ago. As the solar system moves around in a cyclic motion it passes through a
largely crowded galactic disk that contains lots of dark matter. Our planet is orbiting around

How Does Dark Matter Exist
Many people have heard of dark matter, however most will admit that they do not have a clear
understanding of its existence. To most, dark matter remains a mystery or just a science fiction term.
Dark matter is a matter–simply meaning that it has mass. Many people find it hard to comprehend
the term dark matter because it cannot be seen. It is not visible because it does not interact with light
(meaning it does not give off light or absorb light). Therefore, if we cannot see it, how can we
believe that it exist. Experiments and observations have been conducted to build evidence that dark
matter exists. The information and explanations gathered present convincing evidence for dark
matter. This evidence is found within the speed of galaxy ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Space time means in addition to the normal three space dimensions, the universe is composed of
fourth dimension which is time. The four demensions become distorted and curve due to interaction
with mass or with light, which also moves in the same way. This interaction causes gravity and
things to bend or move in a curved path resulting in gravitational lensing–also referred to as bending
light. In other words, a star can be in front of another star, and the light of the back star light can
bend around the front one and still be visible. They can be completely in line, but the back star will
appear to be on one side or the other or both sides. Gravitational lensing gives astronomers the
ability to measure and observe the large amount of mass that they are unable to physically detect.
They are able to compare the bending of light from galaxies which are in line with each other to
measure the distribution and amount of dark matter. The theory of using gravitational lensing to
explain the matter that we cannot see, helps us to better support the evidence for dark

The Effects Of Dark Matter On The Universe
The universe is the entirety of space, time, matter and energy. Today scientists theorize that the
universe is dominated by invisible matter rather than visible matter. What is this mysterious
invisible matter that makes up the majority of our universe? Scientists call it dark matter. But other
than the fact that exists, scientist know very little about it, and are more certain about what it is not
than what it is (Dark Energy, Dark Matter, n.d.).
Dark matter is matter than does not emit any light or any other types of detectable radiation (Dark
Matter, n.d.). Dark matter is undetectable by any type of electromagnetic radiation. It cannot be seen
as visible light, or be detected at the low or high end of the spectrum (DarkMatter, n.d.). Scientists
believe that it was created over 14 billion years ago, after the big bang. Studies of how galaxies form
suggest that dark matter is made up of particles with masses that could range from that of a proton to
a hundred times more (Dark Matter, n.d.).
Dark matter was first introduced in 1933 when Fritz Zwicky, a Bulgarian Swiss American scientist,
concluded its existence. Zwicky used Newton's laws and the speeds of individual galaxies to
determine the mass of galaxy clusters. He also used the brightness of individual galaxies to
determine the amount of visible matter in the galaxy clusters. The calculations showed that there
was much more invisible matter than visible matter. But after Zwicky's discovery, dark matter did
not receive

The Universe: Dark Matter And Dark Energy
The Universe: Dark Matter and Dark Energy
1. Fritz Zwicky is credited with being among the first to grasp the significance of dark matter in
1933. He found this "missing matter" by measuring the motions of the Coma Cluster. Sean Carroll
states that Zwicky began his measurements by "estimate(ing) how much mass there was in that
cluster. Then he compared it to how much mass you could actually see by looking at the galaxies."
(The Universe) The narrator continues by reporting that something was wrong with the calculations.
"There should have been a hundred and sixty times more illuminated mass to account for the
random speeds of galaxies in the cluster." (The Universe) Richard Ellis concludes that "(Zwicky)
concluded that the cluster could not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Albert Einstein concluded that the universe must either be expanding or contrasting after he could
not find balance in the equation of his Theory of Relativity to match a static universe. Therefore, he
proposed the Cosmological Constant.
9. The Cosmological Constant is a proposition that a "repulsive vacuum energy would hold the
universe in balance with attractive gravity." (The Universe)
10. Alex Filippenko reports that "when the dark energy completely dominates over dark matter, the
universe will enter a stage known as exponential expansion." (The Universe)
In The Universe episode Dark Matter and Dark Energy, scientists discuss what dark matter and dark
energy is and how it effects the universe.
The Universe episode Dark Matter and Dark Energy, provided an interesting but not challenging
presentation of information on dark matter and dark energy. The information provided seemed to be
watered down to the level of a younger audience or an audience that is not very familiar with this
topic. Usually, this style would not bother me, but it made the ten facts learned from the video
portion of the assignment rather difficult.
Source
The Universe: Dark Matter and Dark Energy. Dir. Douglas J. Cohen. By Rebecca Graham Forde.
Perf. Erik Thompson. History Television Network Productions, 2008. Youtube. Google, 12 May
2014. Web. 26 Apr. 2017.

Dark matter and dark energy are imperative links to the building blocks of our universe, yet
presently we know so little about them. In reality scientist know more of what dark matter and dark
energy could not be than what it could be. Dark matter and dark energy are two utterly separate
components, but work together as one unit. Dark matter is what holds the universe together, and
dark energy is what draws the universe apart. However without both dark matter and dark energy
our universe would not exist. Dark Matter is revealed in many ways and one example of dark matter
in action is how it holds our galaxies together. This is known because even though dark matter does
not emit or absorb light or electromagnetic radiation, it does exert a gravitational force upon other
galaxies, stellar clusters, and many other substances through the universe. One example of how
amazing dark matter is is how it exerts a gravitational force upon stellar clusters. Stellar clusters are
clusters of individual stars that move at rapid speed that are gravitationally bound. But it has been
scientifically proven that the individual stars are moving too fast to be held together by the
gravitational attraction of other stars. In this case dark matter provides the extra vigor that is needed.
Dark matter is a puzzling theory; we can not see it, hear it, or feel it yet some astronomers declare
that it exists. Astronomers are striving to find concrete evidence for dark matter other than the

States of Matter
States of matter are the distinct forms that different phases of matter take on. Historically, the
distinction is made based on qualitative differences in bulk properties. Solid is the state in which
matter maintains a fixed volume and shape; liquid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed
volume but adapts to the shape of its container; and gas is the state in which matter expands to
occupy whatever volume is available.
This diagram shows the nomenclature for the different phase transitions.
More recently, distinctions between states have been based on differences in molecular
interrelationships. Solid is the state in which intermolecular attractions keep the molecules in fixed
spatial relationships. Liquid is the state in which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Solids can also change directly into gases through the process of sublimation.
[edit]Liquid
Main article: Liquid
Structure of a classical monatomic liquid. Atoms have many nearest neighbors in contact, yet no
long–range order is present.
The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant. When a solid is heated above its
melting point, it becomes liquid, given that the pressure is higher than the triple point of the
substance. Intermolecular (or interatomic or interionic) forces are still important, but the molecules
have enough energy to move relative to each other and the structure is mobile. This means that the
shape of a liquid is not definite but is determined by its container. The volume is usually greater than
that of the corresponding solid, the most well known exception being water, H2O. The highest
temperature at which a given liquid can exist is its critical temperature.[5]
[edit]Gas
Main article: Gas
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of intermolecular forces is
small (or zero for an ideal gas), and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much
greater than the molecular size. A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire
container in which it is confined.

Although scientists still don't know what exactly dark matter is, they can confirm that it is affecting
the shape and structure of galaxies in the universe. Observations of luminous matter in the universe
show that it clumps together to form galaxies. However, there isn't enough luminous matter to
gravitationally keep itself together. This is how scientists confirm dark matter exists, by seeing how
it keeps regular matter together through gravity (Basulto). Currently, physicists know that galaxies
form around dark matter halos. When dark matter was created at the beginning of the universe, it is
thought to have clumped together pretty easily. Reddick suggests, "Galaxies form in the
gravitational potential wells of dark matter halos, and our modern understanding ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
These clusters are disk shaped in structure, and their effects are observed in the center of galaxies.
Since dark matter halos have a disk like shape they are mainly observed in spiral galaxies, but can
be seen in all types of galaxies (Treu 739). The dark matter halos have their own gravity, which
directly interacts with the gravity of luminous matter. Essentially, dark matter halos provide a seed
which allows regular matter to grow on. As the dark matter and regular matter clump together, their
seed expands and they begin to attract even more matter with their accumulated gravity. Over
extended periods of time, this attraction between matter and dark matter particles forms the galaxies
that exist today. Together the gravity produced by the masses of both dark matter and luminous
matter keep galaxies together. Without dark matter halos galaxies would fly apart because there
would not be enough mass to keep itself together. Clearly, scientists know that these dark matter
halos must exist because through their observations of the gravitational effects it has on luminous
matter

Dark Energy Vs Dark Matter
Dark matter and dark energy are some of the most mysterious phenomena in the universe, sparking
interest in many astronomers and physicists today. Although we haven't yet found any way to
directly observe either dark matter or dark energy, scientists have been able to see it's effects and
confirm the existence of these abstract forces.
First of all, dark energy and dark matter are not as similar as you may think. They both are
extremely difficult if not impossible to detect and very little is known about either but the
similarities end there. Dark matter is the word we use to explain the large amounts of matter that's
gravity keeps galaxies from ripping themselves apart. Dark energy, unlike dark matter is the force
that counteracts gravity ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Essentially, it is the undetectable matter that influences the gravity of galaxies and the way we
perceive light from distant galaxies. This gravitational effect is the only way we know that dark
matter is there. This is because without a considerable amount of matter in addition to the regular
matter in the universe, large galaxies would not be able to the forces of gravity and makes up more
of the universe than dark matter and regular matter combined (about 68% of the universe)
One theory on this is the possibility that the expansion of the universe is just a property of "empty
space". This theory has to do with the fact that empty space is not empty and may have its own form
of energy that makes galaxies continually spread out. A similar theory suggests that the universe's
expansion is due to the virtual particles popping in and out of existence in an incredibly short
amount of time. This theory suggests that these particles give off a small amount of energy that
could expand the universe. Another theory claims that dark energy is an energetic fluid that fills
empty space and expands all of space.
In conclusion, Dark matter and dark energy cannot be observed but affect our universe in strange
ways, and even though we know there effects are still quite a mystery scientists

Light Vs Dark Matter
Did you know that we have a Dark Matter in the Galaxy? The world we see and are familiar with
comprises of Ordinary Matter. Everything made out of particles is viewed as Ordinary Matter.
Typical Matter makes up of five percent of all matter. So what makes up whatever is left of the
ninety–five percent? Dark energy makes up approximately seventy percent of our universe while
Dark Matter makes up the last a quarter century. What is Dark Matter? Dark Matter is the main
clarification we have for why our universe grows in the way it does; however, we have no clue what
makes it up. Dark Matter does not cluster up like Ordinary Matter, so it doesn't make up anything
that we discover imperative; for example, planets and life shapes. Rather Dark Matter is spread out
over our world or in another ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In our universe, there is stars, galaxies and other they are made of protons and neutrons and also
electrons bundled together into atoms. Most of the universe is it appears is made of something that
we don't know about only when there was invisible substance is called dark matter that we did not
know about it is 25% of all matters and there is another substance a force that can repel gravity it is
known as the dark energy and it is made of 70% of all matter so that makes up 5% of matter of the
universe. Dark Matter is different from Dark Energy, Dark Matter can not be seen with the light it is
invisible but, according to NationalGeographic.com that "making dark matter impossible to detect
with current instruments. But scientists are confident it exists because of the gravitational effects it
appears to have on galaxies and galaxy clusters". For Dark Energy scientist they don't know why,
what, how do they know that Dark Matter exists in spaces, Dark Energy is way different from
normal matter "dark energy has negative pressure, and it's this negative pressure that makes gravity

Dark Matter And Dark Energy
Dark matter and dark energy are some of the most mysterious forces in our universe. They
encompass around 95 percent of our universe, however, the human race is blinds to the truth of their
existence. What we truly know about the mystery that is a majority of our universe is near
insignificant compared to the possibilities that exist. We know that they exist and that they do
something. Their discovery wasn't even a sign of humanities dawning intellect, it was a mere
accident.
The scientific community had no inkling that the universe was made up of more than what we can
see until the 1930's. A Swiss astronomer–Fritz Zwicky–was measuring the speed of the orbits of
galaxies in the Coma Cluster (Ferris). His calculations indicated that the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
As the search for the true identity of dark matter goes nowhere, scientists call the dark matter
WIMPs–weakly interacting massive particles (Ferris). The scientist don't know exactly what they
are looking for, so they named it after one of the confounding properties possessed by this hidden
substance. Scientists have a slightly greater idea of the properties of dark matter than they do its
identity. The name WIMPS–weakly interacting particles–comes from then fact that dark matter
barely interacts with "normal" matter or itself (Ferris). Evidence of this is found in the Bullet cluster,
where two clusters are colliding (Ferris). Astronomers found clumps of has gas at the center–
ascribed to the collision of normal matter (Ferris). However, they also found a large concentration of
mass for each cluster far from the center of the collision (Ferris). They believe that the more massive
parts of the clusters that are made up of dark matter are continuing on (Ferris). The dark matter is
seemingly unaffected by the massive collision of multiple galaxies, indicating that it is neither
pulled along by the normal matter surrounding it nor attracted to its dark counterpart. Other
investigations indicate that the formation of galaxies is due to the gravity of dark matter pulling
materials together early in the formation of the universe (Ferris). If this is true, than the presence of
dark matter is responsible for every cohesive body of mass in the universe. Our lives

Dark Matter Character Analysis
Dark Matter Character Analysis To start off, the book I read was Dark Matter, by Blake Crouch. To
give you some understanding of the plot, and how there is many more than just one Jason Dessen in
this book, you're going to need some background. This story follows a seemingly normal guy in the
beginning– married, one child, stable job. However, at one point in his life, Jason was on the verge
of a scientific breakthrough. He was studying quantum physics, which is basically fancy talk for
discovering a way into the multiverse. The multiverse is a long–running theory that every time
someone makes a decision, another world splits off from that point on; essentially creating infinite
worlds. Jason could never continue with his research because his girlfriend, and future wife, was
pregnant, so at that point he decided on a family instead. To make a long story short, a Jason from a
different world (Jason2), who had decided on a career instead of a family, already invented a box
that can take you through the multiverse. He abducted Jason1, and they swapped lives, in an effort
to obtain what the other never had. One got the chance at a family and one got to experience the ...
All of them were very well developed by the author, Blake Crouch. With some of the featured
people in the book, you knew everything about them– their daily habits, pet peeves, regrets,
basically everything that they knew about themselves you were made aware of. Whereas with other
characters, you didn't know much– their name, career, and if you're lucky, a little back story. This
made the book much more pleasurable, because when the mysterious sides of characters came out, it
was more shocking and kept you more engaged. All in all, the characters in this story made the plot
one to remember and much more gratifying than if they were portrayed in a different

Dark Matter Within The Universe
more about dark matter in unknown rather than known. we know how much dark matter there is
because of its effect on the expanse of the universe, but besides that, it 's a complete mystery. but it
is important we figure it out, because dark energy takes up about 68% of the universe. dark matter
takes up approximately 27%,everything else, like the earth, and all of our observed universe and all
normal matter, takes up less than 5% of the universe. yet even though it takes up so little of the
universe we still call it "normal. dark matter is technically hypothetical since we can 't directly
observe it with our telescopes, but the matter takes up the large majority of space itself. It can only
be observed by its effect on visible objects in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scientists are sure that it exists because of the observable gravitational effect that it exhibits on
galaxy clusters and galaxies.
One way to explain how space acquires energy comes from the Quantum Theory of Matter.
According to this theory; the "empty space" is really full of temporary particles that evolve
continuously until they disappear. For instance, a theory in standard physics states that stars at the
edges of a spiraled galaxy should move much slower than those near the center of the galaxy, where
the galaxy 's visible matter is more concentrated. But, observations show that stars tend to orbit at
somewhat of an equal speed, no matter where they are positioned in the galaxy. This puzzling theory
makes sense if one assumes that the stars at the borders of galaxies are affected by the gravitational
pull of an unseen mass–dark matter– in a halo around the galaxy. Another explanation for dark
energy is that it is a new kind of dynamical energy fluid or field that fills all of space but something
whose effect on the expansion of the Universe is the opposite of that of matter and normal energy.
Some dark matter possibilities could still be probable. If it was tied up in brown dwarfs or in small
chunks of heavy element, they could still be made up of baryonic matter. These possibilities are
known as massive compact halo objects, or "MACHOs". The more common view is that dark matter
is not baryonic at all, but that it is

Dark matter is a very mysterious concept and scientist are not sure what it is . Dark matter is a
substance that we do not know exactly what it is. Dark matter is something that is matter but is
invisible to the best machines.Some of them are x–ray telescopes and dark matter is too cold for the
machines to see. Can you believe that you can't see dark matter with our technology?
Dark matter makes up more precinct then all the matter on the periodic table. Matter on the periodic
table only makes up 5% of the universe the other 95% is dark energy and dark matter.Dark matter
makes up 25% and dark energy makes up 70% of the universe. The effects of dark matter are big
one of the effects is the gravitational theory. Dark matter might change the theory on gravity because
of dark matter defining some of the laws of gravity.Also that dark matter may make big clouds of
invisible matter that could be the reason for pictures of faraway galaxies with strange half circles of
light.
What does dark matter makeup? Dark matter makes up the big solar clouds that scientist think are ...
Dark matter helps with the expansion of the universe scientist think and dark matter fills the
universe like a fluid said some scientist.When was dark matter discovered? Dark matter was first
found in 1930. Dark matter was first thought of in 1930 when astronomers realized that galaxies
could not have the needed gravity to retain their structures from just their visible matter.
Why do people care about dark matter?Dark matter is important and it has many mysteries and
people want to discover what it is so we can learn more about our universe.Dark matter is also one
of the universe 7 unsolved mysteries.One other reason why dark matter is so important to scientist is
that it may change the theory on gravity because the universe is getting bigger by acceleration and
dark matter does not work with all of the laws of gravity so Albert Einstein theory on gravity may
have to be

Essay on States of Matter and How Matter Changes
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and can be perceived by one or more senses; a
physical body, a physical substance, or the universe as a whole. There are four distinct states of
matter: solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. There are other states of matter such as Bose–Einstein
condensates and neutron degenerate matter, but those states can only be found under extreme
conditions.
These phases can go from one to another when affected by certain things, which is known as phase
changes. To switch from a solid to a liquid, the solid must melt. On the other hand, to switch from a
liquid to a solid, freezing must occur. Furthermore, to switch from a liquid to a gas, a process known
as evaporation must take place. In contrast, to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Solids have a definite volume and definite shape. The reason solids have a definite volume and
shape is due to how closely packed the particles are together. The forces between the particles are so
strong that do not allow the particles to move freely but to vibrate. Examples of solids are wood,
bricks, and baseballs ("States of Matter"). One type of solid is crystalline solid. In a crystalline solid,
the particles are in a repeating pattern. These patterns are known as crystal lattice structures. There
are many types of lattice structures which include: cubic, hexagonal, triclinic, monoclinic, trigonal,
orthorhombic, and tetragonal. An example of a crystalline solid is carbon. These solids have
characteristics of geometrical shapes ("Properties of Matter").
Another type of solid is an amorphous solid. These solids are formed when a liquid is suddenly
cooled. An amorphous solid has no regular crystal structure but does have definite volume and
shape. Amorphous solids are classified as viscous, or slowly flowing, liquids. These solids do not
have sharp melting points. Also, amorphous solids have a wide range of melting points. Examples of
amorphous solids are butter, plastic, rubber, and coal ("States of Matter").
Many outside forces may bend a solid out of its original shape. The ability of a solid to return to its
original form after

The Study of Dark Matter
"Dark matter is a hypothesized form of matter particle that does not reflect or emit electromagnetic
radiation. The existence of dark matter is inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter, such
as stars and galaxies"(Andrew Zimmerman Jones). Dark matter is crucial to the study of the
universe and the existence of the human race. Since either dark matter or dark energy have neither
been actually observed and all theories, we will be evaluating them from scientific standpoint. Since
most of the light in the universe is not seen or can be seen because of the existence of dark matter,
no one can really tell what exactly it is. This is why "dark matter" is the generic term used to
describe the part of the universe in which light is neither absorbed nor reflected. Through the
evaluated articles, we can deduce that the theory was first proposed by Astronomer Jon Oort in 1932
and further examined in 1933 by Fritz Zwicky. While studying, he made note of a large portion of
"missing mass" within the galaxy. Jan Oort was studying the matter in the galaxy and noticed that
there has to be more mass then that could be seen but figured that he made an error. Astrophysicist
Fritz Zwicky made a similar observation when using mathematical equations to calculate the mass
of the universe and noticed that there was evidence of invisible matter. Both men basically theorized
that there is something in the universe thats invisible and abundant that provided enough gravity to
hold

The Effects Of Dark Matter On A Galaxy 's Matter
Dark matter is the idea of unseen matter in the universe that affects the gravitation and mass of
varying objects, such as stars and galaxies. Dark matter is hard to see and find because unlike
matter, it does not reflect or emit light. It also does not affect the electromagnetic fields in the
universe (CERN 1). Dark matter can either be "hot" or "cold." "Cold" dark matter means when the
big bang occurred it was not moving fast enough to affect the formation of galaxies. Dark matter can
also be "hot," meaning it was moving fast enough to affect a galaxy's matter (White 1). Fritz Zwicky
was a swiss astronomer who lived from 1898 to 1974 was unrecognized, as well as, disliked by his
colleagues for his aggressiveness toward them. An example ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Also, in the 1940s he earned the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Truman for his work with rocket
propulsion during World War Two. He also earned the Gold Medal of Britain's Royal Astronomical
Society. After World War Two, Fritz collected and donated over 15 tons of scientific books and
papers to destroyed scientist libraries between Europe and Asia. He was also the director of the
Pestalozzi Foundation of America and helped support orphanages all over the world. Fritz dead in
Pasadena on February 8, 1974, and his grave is in Mollis, Switzerland. Asteroid 1803 Zwicky and
lunar crater Zwicky were both named after Fritz as a way to honor him and what he has brought to
science.
Fritz was also married twice and he had three daughters. The first time he married Dorothy Vernon
Gates on March 25, 1932,they got divorced in 1941 and he took six years to move on. On October
15, 1947 he got remarried to Anna Margarita Züucher (Dictionary 1). At one point, his youngest,
Barbarina, had to defend him against Freeman Dyson's accusations. Dyson called Zwicky's ideas
radical and extravagant. He called Zwicky prickly, arrogant, abrasive, and always ready to fight with
his co–workers. His co–worker even accused Zwicky of calling Blaade a nazi and claiming he was
going to kill Blaade. (Astronomy 1).

Dark Matter, By Fritz Zwicky
Dark Matter was first proposed by Fritz Zwicky in the 1930's when he observed the motions of
galaxies and he noticed that the amount of visible objects could not account for the observations he
made. There had to be some "invisible" mass holding these galaxies together. It is known that 25%
of our universe is made up dark matter versus 4% of the visible matter we know and interact with
every day. The leading candidates for dark matter are MACHOs and WIMPS. Gravitational lensing
is one of the ways we can infer the presence dark matter, since we cannot see it directly. With the
discovery of dark matter, the standard model of physics no longer answers all the questions. For
that, we need another model, called supersymmetry.
Dark matter ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This didn't make any sense as we would expect orbits to be slower the further from the center they
are located (The University of Texas McDonald Observatory). With the discovery of dark matter,
and discovering the "missing mass," the thought was that the universe would end in a "Big Crunch."
However, that is not the case because something else is causing the expansion of the universe at an
accelerating rate, this is known as Dark Energy. We've also been able to measure the cosmic
microwave background radiation from the after effects of the big bang. The microwave radiation
tells us the composition of the universe, including that there must have been dark matter (Powell,
2013). The two leading culprits of dark matter are MACHOs, or MAssive Compact Halo Objects,
and WIMPS, or Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (Newman, 2009). MACHOs are baryonic
matter, meaning they consist of protons and neutrons, which include black holes, brown dwarfs, and
neutron stars (Newman, 2009). These objects produce a phenomena known as gravitational lensing
(Goldsmith). Gravitational lensing happens when objects, like a black hole, brown dwarfs, or
neutron star, pass in front of a star or a galaxy and cause light itself to bend. That is, from Earth we
observe a black hole and directly behind that is a galaxy, the light emitted from the galaxy gets bent
around the black hole. There is almost a halo–like appearance around the black hole due to the
distortion of

The Fourth State Of Matter Summary
The Fourth State of Matter Idea Critique
The Fourth State of Matter by Beard shows the emotional and mental state of people when they lose
control of their lives. The coming together of three stories into one is remarkable and continues to
support the view of confusion in life since no one can fully control it. The best thing to do most of
the time is accept change and try as much as possible to enjoy life. Beard's life seems to be going
out of control, but through time and effort she realizes that she can take control of her emotional and
mental state.
In this story, there is a dying dog which Beard refuses to euthanize. The dog is associated with her
inability to let go of her husband and other loved ones. There is a family of squirrels living in her
bedroom upstairs where she keeps things belonging to her almost ex–husband. These animals create
problems by creating loud noises through the night. The squirrels represent her unstable state of
mind over the relationships in her life. Lastly, there ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All these relationships appear perfect compared to hers. Chris consoles her after hearing about the
separation with her husband. He says, "You'll do fine" (Beard, 1996). Lack of sleep affects her
concentration at work as shown by the drawings on the blackboard. She draws abstract images about
her life instead of discussing astrophysics. In fact, she gets upset when someone erases the
blackboard so that they can draw a celestial body. Her connection to Chris is another point that
shows her strange state of mind. She talks about Chris and his family and seems envious. How she
writes about Chris seems to hint that she wants more than just friendship but had to accept reality
that it isn't going to happen between the two of them. Her constant drinking of whiskey is also a sign
of depression, which shows her current mental

Dark Matter is a form of matter that is believed to account for approximately 90% of the matter in
the universe. The majority of dark matter is non–baryonic in nature, being made up of some
undiscovered particles. Dark matter has not been directly observed, but its presence is seen in a
variety of astrological theories, including gravitational effects that cannot be explained unless more
matter is present than can be seen. Most astrologists believe dark matter to be all over the universe
and to have had a strong influence on its structure and evolution. The primary evidence for dark
matter is that studies show that many galaxies such as our own would spread instead of rotating, or
would not have formed or move as they do, if they did not contain ... Show more content on
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Dark matter does not interact directly with radiation, but it does affect the CMB by its gravitational
potential (mainly on large scales). Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are regular, periodic
fluctuations in the density of the visible baryonic matter (normal matter) of the universe. These are
predicted to arise in the Lambda–CDM model due to the early universe's acoustic oscillations in the
photon–baryon fluid and can be observed in the cosmic microwave background angular power
spectrum. As the dark matter and baryons clumped together after recombination, the effect is much
weaker in the galaxy distribution in the nearby universe, but is detectable as a subtle (~ 1 percent)
preference for pairs of galaxies. Cold dark matter offers the simplest explanation for most
cosmological observations. This is the focus for dark matter research, as hot dark matter does not
seem capable of supporting galaxy or galaxy cluster formation, and most particle candidates slowed
early. The constituents of cold dark matter are unknown. Possibilities range from large objects like
MACHOs (such as black holes[102]) or RAMBOs (such as clusters of brown dwarfs), to new
particles such as WIMPs and

Dark Matter and Dark Energy Essay
Dark Matter and Dark Energy are important. They can help us know how the universe began. These
two are the mysteries of the universe; they compose about 90% of the universe. They are mysteries
because we believe that they exist but we can't see them or detect them. People question whether
they manifest to be the same thing. Astronomers know very little about their constitution so they
cannot assume they are related. Dark Energy is a mysterious force that drives the expansion of the
universe. Astronomers states that the universe is expanding and the expansion is accelerating, so the
unknown anti–gravity force at work is termed dark energy. Dark energy has important consequences
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Once the temperature of the Universe dropped below the neutron–proton mass difference, neutrons
began decaying into protons. If the early baryon density was low, then it was difficult for a proton to
find a neutron with which to make helium before too many of the neutrons decayed away to account
for the amount of helium we see today. So by measuring the He/H ratio today, they can calculate the
necessary baryon density shortly after the Big Bang, and, consequently, the total number of baryons
today. It turns out that you need about 0.05 M total baryonic matter to account for the known
proportion of light isotopes. So only 1/20 of the total mass of the Universe is baryonic matter. This
is probably the reason why Astronomers claim that Dark matter must exist to account for the gravity
that holds galaxies together. If the only matter in the universe was matter we could directly detect,
galaxies would not have had enough matter to have ever formed. The galaxies we observe today
would fly apart because they wouldn't have enough matter to create a strong enough gravity to hold
themselves together. Dark matter is also responsible for amplifying small fluctuations in the Cosmic
Microwave Background back in the early universe to create the large scale structure we observe in
the universe today. Astronomers are still in the hunt of the Dark energy and dark matter but they
haven't found none. They are undetectable which makes it

Dark Matter's Mysterious Hold On The Universe

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Dark Matter's Mysterious Hold On The Universe