Sound Waves Lab

Sound Waves Lab
To fully understand how to determine the velocity of sound in air, many concepts have to be
understood prior to the experiment. Sound waves transmitted through a fluid are a type of
longitudinal wave. These mechanical waves are formed when energy passes through a medium and
moves particles in the same direction or parallel to the energy. The particles move in a series of high
pressure and low pressure regions. The energy will compress some areas of the medium, creating a
high pressure region. In between these high pressure regions will be a rarefaction, these are the low
pressure regions (Figure 1). As the energy moves through the medium the sections of high and low
pressure will move. Through a complete process the particles move slightly as they will oscillate
around their original position.
Figure 1: Compression and rarefaction ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is 21m/s below the accepted value of speed in air at 0 ℃. At 24.4 ℃ the accepted value is
345m/s, 35m/s faster than the experimental value. Assuming that the speed of sound at any
temperature can be measured from a simple calculation, this experiment can be used to measure the
frequency of an unmarked tuning fork. By completing the experiment in the exact same process one
can determine the wavelength. Once the wavelength was determined using the temperature the
speed could be calculated. Both wavelength and speed are variables in the velocity of sound formula
(v = ƛf ). Using algebra, frequency could be determined by substituting wavelength and speed. The
percent error for this lab could have been affected by not accurately determining the point of which
the sound reached its loudest point. If the peak of sound was not measured accurately, the
experimental value would be off the actual measurement. This would effect the wavelength which
would in turn directly affect the speed value because the frequency was a given, constant
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Maximum Phonational Frequency Range Case Studies
Maximum Phonational Frequency Range (MPFR) is described as the maximum range of phonation
between a client's lowest modal/chest register tone and highest loft tone/falsetto register. The MPFR
is typically determined by using a pitch – matching procedure. Ms. Noid will be instructed to sustain
a vowel (i.e. /a/) matching the pitch of a presented tone (i.e. sine wave). She will start phonation at a
comfortable frequency level, and will incrementally increase her frequency range production, until
she can no longer sustain phonation. Then, Ms. Noid will be instructed to incrementally decrease her
frequency range until her modal phonation can no longer be sustained.
The rationale for using an MPFR measure is to explore the physical condition of the phonatory
mechanism. Furthermore, it is a way to quantify the client's frequency variability, measured through
an entire range of frequencies (i.e. highest to lowest), which are produced with maximal effort.
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ms. Noid will have a constrained phonational frequency range of approximately 1–2 octaves,
reflecting a physiological limitation and impaired vocal mechanism, due to a unilateral vocal fold
paralysis. She will be unable to transition between low to high frequency ranges, and exhibit a vocal
quality characterized as breathy and hoarse.
3. Frequency Perturbation (jitter) is an indicator of the stability of phonation. It is a measurement of
cycle–to–cycle variability in fundamental frequency. Typically, results are acquired from a three
second mid–segment sample of a sustained phonation task, avoiding phonatory onset and offset.
Fundamental frequency and intensity values should be specified since they vary, affecting the
Frequency Perturbation (jitter) values.
The rationale for measuring jitter is that it provides objective measures for distinguishing a "normal"
from a "disordered" voice, and estimates vocal

Physics Speed of Sound Lab Report
Samantha Mackey 13. 2nd hour
PHYSICS LAB REPORT: SPEED OF SOUND
Purpose:
In this lab, we will be doing 3 major things: 1) Collecting and organizing data to obtain resonant
points in a closed pipe, 2) measure the length of a closed–pipe resonator, and 3) analyze the data to
determine the speed of sound.
Procedure:
1. Fill the graduated cylinder nearly to the top with water, with a tall glass tube open at both ends
(the water level with act as the closed end). 2. Determine the room's air temperature, and also
measure the diameter of the glass tube. Record the data. 3. Select a tuning fork and record the
frequency (in Hz) in the data table. Record the data. 4. Strike the tuning fork against a rubber ...
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These averages we determined from the trials can be compared to the accepted speed of sound
(344.2 m/s in this specific temperature), and we determine the relative error percentages:
344.2 – 302.64 x 100 = 12.07% 344.2 – 318.25 x 100 = 7.54% 344.2 344.2
These sources of error come from a few

Sound Waves Lab
Introduction The purpose of this experiment was to test the effects that different sound barrier
materials (foam, fiberglass, and cork) had on sound absorption at varying frequency levels. It was
hypothesized that foam would be able to absorb the most sound for all frequency levels. Sound is
the mechanical disturbance from a state of equilibrium that propagates though an elastic material
medium, which was air in this project. (1) Air is considered an elastic medium because it tends to
return to its original shape after being deformed through the application of force, which were the
sound waves in this experiment. (2) The type of sound wave used for this experiment was
longitudinal waves in which the vibration occurs along the direction of propagation ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Form and fiberglass were porous materials which allowed them to more greatly affect the
propagation of sound and absorb more of the sound waves. As the frequency increased, so did the
sound absorption of all materials since higher frequencies were supposedly easier to control.
Bibliography
1. Berg, Richard E. "Sound." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014. Web.
11 Nov. 2014.
2. Elert, Glenn. "The Nature of Sound." The Physics Hypertextbook. Glenn Elert, 2013. Web. 11
Nov. 2014.
3. Linder, Cedric J. "Understanding Sound: So What Is the Problem?" Physics Education 27.5
(1992): 258–64. Web.
4. Hillenbrand, James M. "The Physics of Sound." Western Michigan University. Western Michigan
University, 2002. Web. 11 Dec. 2014.
5. Rao, Roma M. "Velocity of Sound in Liquids and Chemical Constitution." The Journal of
Chemical Physics 9.9 (1941): 682. Web.
6. Rossing, Thomas D. The Science of Sound. Reading, MA: Addison–Wesley Pub., 1990. Print.
7. Shore, Steven N. Forces in Physics: A Historical Perspective. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2008.
Print.

Longitudinal Waves Research Paper
I am here to explain an ultrasound, so that way you are not nervous. First, there are different types of
sound waves, and how they travel. There are transverse, longitudinal, and surface waves. The
transverse waves are a mechanical wave which means that the wave travels like an S– wave
sideways. Longitudinal waves travel parallel to the direction the wave travels. When the longitudinal
wave travels it compresses through the particles in the medium that it passes through. Longitudinal
waves are like contractions because they can compress together really high, and or low which could
make the pain hurt more, or hurt very little. Surface waves move in circular motions around the
medium. In an ultrasound you can see your baby move around in your

The Effect Of String Function On An Accidental Of A...
One does not need to use words to convey a message. Dots and lines on a page can convey emotion
just as well, if not better. Music can fill in the context where words cannot. The simple switch
between major to minor, an accidental of a natural or a flat can easily show the motion of a piece.
As a cellist for over six years, I wanted to understand the fundamental idea of why notes were
audible. I asked myself, why do I press down on certain parts of the strings on a cello to produce
certain notes? How are sound waves calculated? With these two questions in mind, I dove in with
the desire to apply a different perspective of music.
Diagram 1
One of the earliest discoveries of how string function comes from the Greek philosopher,
Pythagoras. The wavelength and pinches between strings are what differentiate the varying notes. As
shown in Diagram 1, the wavelengths have specific spacing in between, which are directly related to
mathematics. Nodes, or pinches, are strategically and mathematically placed to resonate precise
pitches, and particular ratios are able to be derived from these intervals. For example, an octave
describes two notes that are eight notes apart. In order to create the perfect first octave, the string is
pinched into perfect halves, making the mathematical ratio , as 2 parts are created from the whole
with one pinch. By pinching the string in half, the frequency becomes twice as fast , producing a
higher tone of the same note. One octave higher than an A

Study of Tractor Vibration and Ergonomic Design of Tractor...
A Report on
STUDY OF TRACTOR VIBRATION AND ERGONOMIC DESIGN OF TRACTOR SEAT FOR
OPERATORS COMFORT
INDEX
|Sr. No. |Content |Page No. |
|1 |Objectives |1 |
|2 |Introduction |2–4 |
|3 |Reviews |5–10 |
|4 |Vibration Studies |11–29 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Vibration transmission has been reported to cause back problems because of tissue failure or from
metabolic interference, or a combination of both.
Vibration occurs in all moving bodies and tractors are no exception. It results from the interaction of
the vehicle with the rough terrain and from the power source. The level of ride vibration on tractors
during normal operation frequently exceeds the internationally accepted levels. The analysis of the
ride vibration is a complex issue especially for off–road condition, as the vibration is in category of
multi–degree of system and cawed by many components, in the system. Operating speed, surface
conditions, wheel air pressure, tire cas stiffness, mounting mechanism of the seat, cab or body parts
cause infirnth variable outcome.
A considerable amount of time and energy has been spent in minimizing this vibration problem.
Suspended seats fitted to most tractors reduce the vertical component of vibration, but the levels are
still undesirably high and there is little potential for further improvement using this technique. A
further reduction in the vibration level may be obtained by introducing wheel suspension, but it
makes the system complicated and costly. Cab suspension is another method of

Electrical Energy Into Mechanical Energy
4.1. Principle of Operation
Ultrasonic sensors are devices deployed to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves which move as a series of compressions and rarefactions
across the direction of wave propagation through the medium [37]. In addition to distance
measurement, they are also utilised in ultrasonic material testing to detect; air bubbles, cracks, and
other defects in products, detection of object and position, ultrasonic mouse, etc [37].
Ultrasonic sound waves are mechanical vibrations that display all of the same features as audible
sound waves, only they operate at higher frequencies. Audible sound wave frequencies range
between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. In contrast ultrasonic waves range from 20 kHz to 800 MHz, Generally,
ultrasonic waves that are used for the testing of materials range from around 0.5 MHz to 20 MHz
[38]. Ultrasonic waves are transferred via vibrating particles; therefore, ultrasonic waves require a
transmission medium whether it is solid, liquid, or gas along which to propagate [3].
The velocity of sound is not constant, but, it alters in dissimilar media and also in the same medium
at different temperature. For instance, it is estimated to be roughly around 331.9272 meters per
second at 0°C in air medium; however, it increased to around 344.4240 meters per second at 20°C in
the same air medium, or an increase of around 0.6248 meters per second for every centigrade degree
rise in temperature [39]. Sound

A Short Note On The Components Of Radar
4.1 COMPONENTS OF RADAR
Radars are extremely intricate electronic and electromagnetic frameworks and complex mechanical
frameworks as well. Radar frameworks are made out of a wide range of subsystems, which
themselves are made out of various segments. There is an extraordinary assorted qualities in the
configuration of radar frameworks taking into account reason, yet the basic operation and
fundamental arrangement of subsystems is the same.
4.1.1 ANTENNA
Recieving wire is an article which utilized as a move between wave spreading in free space, and the
fluctuating voltages in the circuit to which it is joined. A reception apparatus either gets vitality from
an electromagnetic field or transmits electromagnetic waves created by a high recurrence generator
It guarantees that the sign has the obliged example in space. Reception apparatus sources transmit
vitality similarly in all headings. This sort of radiation is known as isotropic radiation. Radar
recieving wire is profoundly directional so more vitality is proliferated in our predefined course.
The vitality emanated from a reception apparatus shapes a field having an unequivocal radiation
design. A radiation example means plotting the transmitted vitality from a reception apparatus and
this vitality is measures at different points at a steady separation from the recieving wire. The state
of this example relies on upon the sort of radio wire utilized. The radiation of a recieving wire is mix
of electric and attractive

Metamaterial Essay
Review of Micro strip patch antenna for Bandwidth Enhancement by using Metamaterial HOMA
AFROZ HUSAIN, PURAN GOUR
NIIST BHOPAL homaafroz22@gmail.com, erpurangour@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
We have Review different research paper. Accordingly it is used to achieve significant bandwidth
enhancement and analyze the matching and radiation properties of sub wavelength resonant patch
antenna filled with double–negative, double positive and single negative meta material block ,quasi
static equivalent circuit model for analysis and design of different types of artificial magnetic
resonator and the possibility of using an active internal matching element in several type of
metamaterial inspired electrically small antenna to overcome their ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Metamaterials offer the potential to create superlenses Such a lens could allow imaging below the
diffraction limit that is the minimum resolution that can be achieved by conventional glass lenses A
form of 'invisibility' was demonstrated using gradient index materials Acoustic and seismic
metamaterial
DUAL MODE MINITIARIZED ELLIPTICAL PATCH ANTENNA WITH µ NEGATIVE
METAMATERIAL
PAI YEN CHEN et al [1] It is used to achieve significant bandwidth enchancement, in principle
overcoming the Chu limit on bandwidth for single mode electrically small antenna.The antenna may
also be tailored to operate as a dual–band electrically small antenna and intriguing polasrization
properties may be envisioned by coupling the two orthogonal mode. The antenna consists of a
metallic patch loaded by a grounded
Inhomogeneous substrate with thickness consisting of a rectangular DPS dielectric shell with
permittivity and permeability and a magnetic material core. Metamaterial based antenna do not
explicitly depend on frequency, passivity and kramers– kronig relation imply that required negative
permeability varies with frequency.This in turn implies that these subwavelength device have
limited bandwidth consistent with general limit. DUAL–BAND OPERATION
PAI YEN CHEN et al[1] The possibility offered by the elliptical geometry to operate as a dual–band
antenna with resonance at design frequency fo=0.4 GHZ and fe=0.6GHZ,fo and fe

Uses And Functions Of Oscilloscopes And The Methods Used...
Statement of Objectives
The objective of this lab was to gain understanding of the use and functions of oscilloscopes and the
methods used to measure a system's time constant. Several methods were used throughout the
laboratory in order to gain familiarity with the equipment as well as investigate characteristics of an
RC high pass filter. The ability to problem solve and critically think was necessary for completion of
this laboratory and therefore an objective.
Apparatus
Table 1. List of Equipment Used During Session 1 and 2 of Laboratory
Device
Manufacturer
0.301μF Capacitor
Unknown
Variable Resistance Box
Omega Engineering
NI Soft Front Panel Oscilloscope
National Instruments
LabVIEW Software
National Instruments
DAQ ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For each resistor/capacitor pair, times required to achieve 63.2 percent of maximum voltage change
and 86.5 percent of maximum voltage change were recorded. For the third method, the oscilloscope
was next set to produce a 300mV sine wave. The oscilloscope was initially set to produce a very low
frequency and amplitude was recorded. Frequency was increased slowly and amplitude was
recorded at each interval. Output amplitude was plotted vs frequency. 휏 was calculated using the
amplitude and frequency results and equation 3. 휏=½*흅*fc (3)
For methods 4 and 5, LabVIEW software was used to record full charge or discharge cycles. The
data recorded was then normalized using equation 4. The natural log of the normalized data results
was plotted against t. For method 4, the linear portion of the result of the plot was –1/휏. For method
5, the normalized data was used without a logarithmic function, plotted against time. An exponential

line of best fit was created resulting an equation equal to e–t/휏. Vnormalized = (4)
For session 2 a low pass filter was set up using the wiring diagram described in the apparatus section
of this report. The same capacitor and resistance values were used as in session one, along with the
associated theoretical 휏 values. Theoretical gain values were calculated using equation 5.
Vout/Vin = (5) The appropriate output signal, as

What Is The Importance Of Reproduculation?
Accordingly, to ensure long–term stability and reproducibility of the properties of the synthesized
light transient for the synthesizer apparatus, PI Hassan opted for both passive and active path length
stabilization. Long–term stability and reproducibility are of paramount importance for reliable
application in high–precision attosecond and high–field experiments. The four–arm interferometer
of Figure 3(a) was realized as a quasi–monolithic setup in which the mounts hosting the optical
components were directly attached to a thermally–stabilized, casted–aluminum baseplate enclosed
into an aluminum housing that protects the optical setup against air fluctuations. Thermal
stabilization was achieved by water flow through the volume of the ... Show more content on
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Such delay can be introduced alternatively by calcite plates. Consequently, to detect spectral
interference, and to trace the relative delay between the pulses in different channels, a small fraction
(~2.5%) of the broadband beam was directed through a Glan–Thomson polarizer to the entrance of a
fiber spectrometer. Because the Glan–Thomson polarizer projects S–and P–polarized components of
adjacent channels on the same axis, and adjusts their relative amplitude depending on its angle, it
can enable their spectral interference. Spectral fringes were recorded between pulses of ChDUV and
ChVIS–UV, ChVIS–UV and ChVIS, as well as ChVIS and ChNIR. Once the two beams were
brought to interference, spectral interferometry was used to derive the relative delays between pulses
in adjacent channels. In order to compensate for the detected drifts in the optical paths among
different channels, a computer program analyzed spectra in real time, and accordingly adjusted the
position of the piezoelectric translational stage in each channel to stabilize their relative optical
length. Utilizing this approach, the achieved (measured) standard deviation of the phase stability
between ChDUV and ChVIS–UV, ChVIS–UV and ChVIS, and ChVIS and ChNIR was ~π/20,
~π/30, and ~π/60, respectively. Thanks to the efficiency of the passive stabilization scheme referred
to above, the active stabilization module was expected to correct drifts at mHz rates only–i.e., delay
adjustments once every few seconds.

Chapter 15: Interference, Diffraction, And Lasers
Chapter 15: Interference and Diffraction Chapter 15 is broken into three different sections;
Interference, Diffraction, and Lasers. Throughout the chapter there are various real world examples.
This chapter introduces the vocabulary words: coherence, path difference, order number, diffraction,
resolving power, and laser. There are inphase and outphase. The first section is titled, Interference.
Interference takes place between waves that have the same wavelengths. A resultant wave is formed
when two waves with the same wavelength interact. The resultant wave is the consequence of the
interference between two waves. With constructive interference, component waves combine and
form a resultant wave with equal wavelengths, but there is

Mini Project
EE2031 Circuit and Systems Design Lab
Mini–Project Report
Voice Disguiser
Presented by:
Friday Room 3 Group 7
Wang Ke (A0105276J)
Wu Jianxiao (A0099910W)
1.Introduction
1.1 Aim
During the 6 hands–on individual labs before this mini project, we have learnt the design and
implementation of filter and oscillator, together with applied characterization of different
components. The objective of Mini–Project was for students to demonstrate their innovative design
skills and implement knowledge learnt in lectures to real–life product design. Therefore, we aimed
to integrate what we learnt in individual labs into one single product, which is a Voice
Disguiser that can solve practical problems of witness protection.
1.2 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Figure 1: Project Flowchart
2.2 Microphone Unit
The microphone was implemented to allow the user to transmit speaker's voice as analog voice
signal from the audio socket. The analog voice signal captured by the microphone is then needed to
pass through an amplifier circuit. The amplitude of this voice signal can be amplified from millivolts
to volts so that the signal becomes easier to for us work with in following implementations. As
figure 2 shown, this amplifier circuit is built by firstly connecting the microphone input through the
positive input terminal of the LM358 chip. Secondly, a feedback loop is built through the output and
negative terminal. Then the analog voice signal captured by the microphone is, therefore, amplified.
Figure 2: Schematic Of Microphone Unit
The resistance values of R4 and R3 is purposely chosen for an amplifier gain of 5.7. As shown in
Figure 3, a significant amplifying effect of the microphone voice signal can been seem afer passing
through the amplifier.

Figure 3: Waveform Of Voice Signal Before (Blue) And After (Yellow) Amplifier
Based on oscilloscope detection, the peak–to–peak value of microphone voice signal before
amplifier is 220mV, while the one after the amplifier is 1.28V. The actual amplifier gain is therefore
5.8 (1.28/0.22), which is very close to the designed value of 5.7.
2.3 Frequency Modification Unit
This

Informative Speech About The Inventors
In order to catch you up am going to tell you about the inventors and how they initiated this project
and where their inspiration came from
First am going to tell you about the inventors and how they got started,
This reminds me of the time I watched a cartoon movie meet the Robinsons, where a boy creates a
machine that looks through people's memories.
According to Richmond Times–Dispatch, a News Website, April 1st, 2015
The students behind this invention are Viet Tran, a computer engineer major and Seth Robertson, an
electrical engineer major.
They are both Undergraduates at George Mason University in Virginia.
Their idea fight fire with sound started as a senior research project.
They didn't like the ideas that their professor proposed thats why they went ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Cnet, News website, March 26, 2015, Informs Us
They connected their frequency generator to a small amplifier and linked the amplifier to a small
electric power source. These are hooked up to a collimator that they made out of a large cardboard
tube with a hole at the end, which narrows the sound waves to a smaller area.
This device was able to extinguish small, controlled fires created with an alcohol accelerant, proving
that the concept is viable
The principle behind the extinguisher is simple: as they are mechanical pressure waves that cause
vibrations in the medium in which they travel.
They discovered that music is unsuitable and the sound waves it produces are inconsistent. sound
waves have the potential to manipulate both burning material and the oxygen that surrounds it.
The sound wave device is free of toxic chemicals and eliminates collateral damage from sprinkler
systems.
Next I will Tell you how the Soundwave Extinguisher works
This reminds me of a magic it just doesn't seem possible the way this device works.
Daily Mail, a News Website, March 26, 2015,

Act 1 Scene 1 Homework Essay
Act I Scene 1 Homework – Graphing a Wave
Name:
A vibration is a wiggle in time; a wave is a wiggle in space and time. In this exercise, you will
explore that connection by transferring the motion of the second hand of a clock (a vibration, even if
a slow one), to a wave.
Print out the image of a clock and open the spreadsheet called Grapher. You will find both of them
in the same item where you found these instructions.
Use a metric ruler to measure the displacement of the tip of the second hand every five seconds.
That's the distance above or below the center line that connects the 3 and the 9.
Count the number as positive if the tip is above the line (towards the 12) and negative if below
(towards the six). Enter each ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Nothing would change at all.
The frequency would change.
The amplitude would change. X
8) If you had plotted the motion of the second hand on your watch instead of the clock that you
printed out, what would change about the graph?
Nothing would change at all.
The frequency would change. X
The amplitude would change.
9) Since you are plotting displacement on the y–axis and time on the x–axis, this is an example of a
_____ graph.
Snapshot X frog–on–a–post 10) Are you old enough to remember the 90's television series Home
Improvement, starring Tim Allen? He was always saying "more power" and blowing up one electric
tool or appliance after another by trying to make it work faster.
Suppose that he was able to make a clock run so fast that the second hand made one full lap in only
one–tenth of a second (0.10 s), and suppose that it tapped a water surface each time it reached the
bottom of its motion. If the waves it produced were 4.0 cm apart, at what speed (in cm/s) would they
travel?

The Waves would travel

Walkie-Talkie Research Papers
We all often wear that curious hat in our life. Sometimes it's very short lived and other times it'll be
stuck there for years together! One such topic which can get buried in our curious hat is to know
how a Walkie–Talkie works.
We all use this simple device so often that we simply negate any question which pops into our mind.
We instantly accept the device as though we all know everything about it. But as a fact , only a few
people who want to quench that thirst of curiosity will get into deep research and know more about
it. Researching on something might be easy for someone but for many even that's a task! So, here is
a very well researched and a complete information article on how a Walkie – Talkie works, which is
much easier to read than ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This was an AM–based framework (on frequencies from 3 to 6 MHz). It worked, however, it was
inclined to corrupt signal quality, which means static and impedance regularly made correspondence
baffling.
The primary outline to hit the war zone in mass numbers, and the first to gather the walkie–talkie
name, was the Motorola SCR–300. The SCR–300 was likewise an FM–based gadget (40 to 48
MHz), and significantly more impervious to obstruction than AM. It additionally extended the
distance, at around 3 to 5 miles (4.8 to 8 kilometers).
AM–based radio signals offered the upside of muffle, which recently implied that the speaker went
quiet until an approaching signal arrived. Before muffle abilities, radio administrators who checked
AM signals needed to persevere through long stretches of the psyche and ear–desensitizing static
when nobody was transmitting on the channel that they were observing.
The SCR–300 wasn't precisely as helpful as your normal pocket–sized cell phone. It required a
rucksack that housed the battery, gadgets and a 33–inch (84–centimeter) reception apparatus, all of
which totaled more than 30 pounds (13.6

Essay On Wifa
In the second part of the thesis, the geometry of the antennas of each WiFi access point is changed to
URA in order to extend the searching area into 2–D search, the well–known subspace MUSIC
algorithm is used for the examination of the received spatial information, and then it estimates each
spatial spectrum in which the Azimuth Angle of Arrival (AOA) and Elevation Angle of Arrival
(EOA) of all the paths at each URA WiFi access point is located. After that, because our system is
considered under very low SNR, a set of spectra at some APs might be influenced, so, a fine–
grained fusion algorithm has been added, it computes the minimum errors between each location in
a known grid dimension and the estimated AOA and EOA at every URA array, ... Show more
A hence about the novel GBSA–MDL source number estimation algorithm and our contribution in
this thesis was set in the first part of the introduction.
In the second part, the wireless based indoor localization which are RSS, TOA, DOA, and TDOA
techniques have been introduced and the grammatical failure of these methods for indoor
localization under the effect of the high existence of multipath signals. Also, we gave a brief
explanation about data fusion multiple sensor techniques and several related works have been
introduced. We motivated our novel indoor positioning algorithm by showing the significant
addition of the multiple sensor data fusion with the recently mentioned wireless based indoor
techniques and the serious need of the 2–D array geometry in the next 5G. At the end, our
contribution in this dissertation has been included.
Chapter 2: Literature Review: In this part, several basic concepts are introduced. We start our
chapter by explaining the meaning of optimization and its two main categories which are local
optimization and global optimization, also the advantages of using the last mentioned category
compared to the first one is mentioned. Accordingly, the most know newly invented global
optimization algorithms based on nature behaviors like the GA, PSO and GBSA are introduced. In
addition of that, the galaxy based search algorithm is studied well and its

Radio Waves Significantly Impact Our Lives as Forms of...
Radio waves, a form of electromagnetic radiation, have had a significant impact on our daily life
because of their use as a form of communication. Radio waves have long wavelengths and have low
energy photon particles. Because they have low energy photons, they have lower frequencies when
compared to other forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as x– rays that have a higher frequency
despite having short wavelengths. Today, radio waves are used as a method to transmit and receive
information. Technology that makes use of radio waves includes telephones, television and more
popularly known the radio, which picks up signals from a radio antenna that is equipped with a
resonator that filters the signals received and as its name implies it resonates only with radio waves
of a certain frequency; this allows people to listen to different sounds at different frequencies. Radio
waves can be emitted by objects in space, such as planets, while radio waves that occur on Earth can
come from lightning.
Because radio waves are an essential aspect of our lives astronomers have been studying radio
waves in space for a long time. While astronomers have been able to detect radio waves from within
the solar system and from within the Milky Way galaxy, they have not been able to detect radio
waves originating from distant galaxies until recently. The National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) has detected radio bursts that come from outside of our galaxy. This
discovery proved

Frequency-Following Response Paper
The paper illustrates the differences among individuals in the Frequency–following response (FFR)
and its connection with pitch perception. Generally, the FFR is presumed to introduce the pitch of a
particular sound perceived by individuals. FFR varies among individuals and the reason of this
variability is still unknown. However, the authors of this paper carried out the investigation to find
out the relation between FFR representation of the frequency of a complex tune and perception of
the pitch of the fundamental frequency.
The FFR to complex sounds varies between all individuals with same characteristics and healthy
body. This gives rise to a question about FFR and its contribution in auditory system such as how
auditory information and cognitive progression is followed by FFR and how these processes are
transformed into behavior tasks which then results in distinguished pathology and health conditions.
To find out the answers, this research was conducted on how unevenness in the ... Show more
In the first experiment before EEG, subjects performed a computerized listening task to measure the
hearing pitch capacity. Global index of their perceptual preference was obtained by presenting them
two harmonic complex tones. The authors assessed the subjects with musical experience to find out
the connection between perceptual bias and neural correlates. Subjects were delivered auditory
stimuli through earphones. To evaluate rank correlations between perceptual bias and measures of
musicianship, Spearman's rho was calculated between f0 strength and perceptual bias. Wilcox on
signed rank test was conducted to evaluate differences among f0 distributions. Each subject was
visually inspected in respect of time and frequency domain data. The authors could not find a
considerable bond between perceptual bias and age but the relationship between perceptual bias and
f0 strength in the MF (missing fundamental) condition was

Wavelength Of Tube Lab Report
Objective: The objective of the lab was to find the natural frequency of the tubes.
Procedure:
We got these materials, 2 Tubes of different sizes, meter stick, tuning fork, a bucket of water, and a
notebook.
We then practiced finding the first harmonic using the smaller tube. We did this by banging the
tuning fork over the tube as we moved the tube up and down in the water.
When we heard the tube start to resonace.
After we heard it resonace we measured the amount of tube that was above the water.
Lastly we did that 5 more times for each tube and recorded the first and third harmonics.
Data Collection:
Data
First Harmonic = L1
Third Harmonic = L2
Trial
Tube Height
Trial
Tube Height
1
0.146m
0.494m
2
0.148m
0.479m
3
0.139m ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Use the following equation. λ = 2 (L2 – L1)
The tubes have a wavelength of 0.658m.
2. Using your calculated wavelength, and the speed of sound = 345 m/s, calculate the frequency of

your tuning fork. 345=f*.658
The calculated frequency of the tuning fork is 524 Hz.
3. The accepted frequency of the tuning fork is was printed on your fork. Using the accepted
frequency, calculate the %error for both measurements. The percent of error of the frequency of the
tuning fork is 2.34%, and the percent error for the wavelength is 1.79%.
Discussion
Were you satisfied with your results? Why or why not?
I am satisfied with the results because using the percent of error we were very close to what the
wavelength and the frequency really is. This shows we did the lab very well, commiting little
mistakes.
What could have been done differently to improve the lab outcome?
We could have improved the outcome by eliminating human error. We could use a stand to hold the
tube so when we get to the exact area we will not have to hold it, eliminating me having to hold the
tube. This would make the lab more

How Optical Antennas Are An Emerging Concept Within...
1. Introduction
Optical antennas are an emerging concept in physical optics. Similar to radio–wave and microwave
antennas, their purpose is to convert the energy of free propagating radiation to localized energy, and
vice versa. Optical antennas exploit the unique properties of metal nanostructures, which behave as
strongly coupled plasmas at optical frequencies.
Electromagnetic (EM) waves from low radiofrequencies (RF) to high optical frequencies pervade
our environment. They interact with matter by coupling directly to the motion of charge carriers.
This carrier motion can be associated with characteristic spectral resonances resulting from
absorption and emission of EM energy.
According to the IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas, an antenna is defined as the
'part of a transmitting or receiving system that is designed to radiate or to receive electromagnetic
waves' [1]. Depending on the resonance properties, environment, and use, an antenna can be
designed in all sizes and shapes including linear dipoles, horns, dishes, apertures, and patches.
Despite the different form factors, all antennas operate under the same principle. They mediate the
transformation between propagating EM energy and localized or confined energy delivered to a load
or emitted from a source via coupling of the EM energy to electron motion. Although originally
conceived for radio waves, the antenna definition above notably does not constrain the frequency
range of operation. The same

A Look At The Sound Of Music
A Look at the Sound of Music As a college student, I have seen innumerable people walking by with
their headphones in, using music to block out the rest of the world. With the convenience of an
iPhone or other smart phone, listening to music has become so casual. With the press of a button,
voila! Miley Cyrus is at the tips of your fingertips. It's become so normalized that these same people
seldom think about the science behind that noise in your ear. A disturbance in space results in a
periodic wave which propagates through that space, usually transferring energy ("Introduction to
Waves"). This transfer of energy can be explained by the conservation of momentum and energy in
collisions. Momentum is never lost; kinetic energy may be lost. If kinetic energy is conserved, the
collision was elastic; if the kinetic energy was transferred, the collision was inelastic.
Momentum is a vector, defined as p=mv, where momentum equals mass times the velocity at which
the mass travels. The rate of change of momentum is that mass's net force, defined as ∑▒〖F=∆p/
∆t〗, where force is equal to change in momentum over a given time interval ("Lecture 12:
Momentum").
Mechanical energy is equal to the sum of kinetic (KE) and potential energy (PE), derived from the
law of conservation of energy, which states that the total energy of a closed system is conserved
(Tuckerman). Potential energy is energy that is associated with some force, and is thus dependent on
its initial position. Potential

Phase Correlation Research
Phase correlation is simply a measurement of how the waveforms that you've recorded line up with
one another.This becomes important when using multiple microphones to record the same sound
source.
The reason phase issues occur in the first place has to do with the speed of sound in relation to the
distance of each microphone from the source.For example, if we're recording an acoustic guitar in a
great sounding room, we may want to capture not only the sound of the guitar but also the sound of
the room. Most of the time for this scenario we would use at least two microphones. If it's an electric
acoustic, we may also use a DI. If so, we now have three independent sources recording the same
instrument. Because the mics are at different distances ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So how do I know if my tracks are out of phase, and what can I do about it if they are?
The easiest way to determine whether one out of two tracks is out of phase is by reversing the
polarity on one of the tracks. This can be easily done with a polarity plugin or with most channel
strip plugins. If the tracks are out of phase,as soon as you switch the polarity on one of them, they
will instantly sound better.You'll hear a more focused sound and often times the bass tones will be
enhanced. The overall sound of the combined tracks will be more full and will more closely
resemble the instrument's live sound.
A place where this trick is especially useful is in checking the phase of drums. Since most of us use
multiple microphones when recording drum kits, it's common for drum mics to be out of phase. I
typically check this by making sure that the overhead drum mics are in phase with one another. Then
I'll bounce them to a bus and compare that bus to each of the other drums individually. Typically,
when I A/B them, the combination with the fullest bass sound is the recipe that's closest to being in

Believer Bottle Analysis
I needed to amplify the sound waves of the song "I am a Believer" using a two liter bottle. In order
to achieve my goal of playing this song clear with, no fuzziness, and no echo I had to look at my
materials. I chose water because the sound waves will resonate off and not absorb into the water,
and then the sound waves will exit through holes that I cut into the bottle. The materials we used to
make this sound amplify is a two liter bottle, an iPod, and water from the sink. One lesson in
particular helped me because it showed me that an open cabinet will have the sound waves bounce
off the walls and exit through the opening and produce a louder nose than a closed cabinet. Another
lesson we did as a class that helped me was the tour around

Wasps Investigation
Scientific investigations have been done to show the effects of certain sounds on wasps. Special
equipment was used to produce sounds of different frequencies. This investigation was done inside
specially constructed glass wasp nests. Each sound was kept at the same loudness during the
investigation. Interpret the table below to learn the results of the investigations.
Sound Frequency
(Hertz (Hz) = cycles per second
Change in
Activity Level
30 Hz to 400 Hz Normal activity level stayed the same
400 Hz to 600 Hz Normal activity level greatly reduced
600 Hz to 900 Hz Wasps completely motionless
900 Hz to 1,100 Hz Normal activity level greatly reduced
1,100 Hz to 21,000 Hz Normal activity level stayed the same
Wasps immediately returned to their normal activity level when the sound was ... Show more
An increase in frequency causes activity level to decrease.
B. An increase in frequency causes activity level to increase.
C. An increase in frequency, causes activity level to decrease and then increase. *
D. An increase in frequency causes activity level to increase and then decrease.
Both scientists made the prediction that if wasps were tested at a frequency of 42,000 Hz, the
following outcome would be observed.
The wasps would slowly become motionless, and they would probably not return to their normal
activity level. Which of the statements below would be the more likely explanation for this
prediction?
A. Such a high frequency would be damaging to the wasps' sound sensors or it would affect their
motion.*
B. Such a high frequency would cause the wasps to sleep.
C. Slowly, the wasps would become accustomed to the high frequency.
D. The wasps would have no sense of the high frequency sound.
During the experiment, the scientists also observed that the wasps generated unique sounds
depending on what activity they were doing at the time. Because of this information, the following

statement was made by a student.
Wasps communicate with each other by

Blowing Bottle Tops: Making Music with Glass Bottles
Have you ever wondered why glass bottles made a sound, kind of like a music note? Well, this paper
will explain how this works. The paper will be talking about sound, sound waves, standing waves,
musical note names and frequencies, resonance, and closed–end air columns. Closed–end air
columns will be a main focus in the paper, studying the physics behind it. Glass bottles are an
example of a closed–end air column. Therefore, the more water inside the bottle, the lower the note,
and less water would be a higher note. Closed–end air can be many things; ranging from brass
instruments, woodwind instruments, organ pipes, and flutes. These closed–end air columns cannot
produce an even harmonic. It has a 1st harmonic, 3rd harmonic, and fifth harmonic. These
harmonics are can be understood as, the 2nd harmonic being twice that of the 1st, and the 4th being
four times that of the 1st .
Sound is a wave, and a wave can be remembered as a medium, carrying energy from one point to
another. The sound wave has a resemblance of a slinky in its nature, for many reasons. The
disturbance goes from one place to another, carried by the medium. Typically, the medium will carry
energy through the air, although it could be any substance like water and steel. There is an original
source of the wave; anything from someone's vibrating vocal chords, or a tuning fork. Then, the
sound is transported through the medium through particle–to–particle interaction. If the sound wave
is moving through the

A Method For Efficiency Enhancement And Size Miniaturization
A Method for Efficiency Enhancement and Size Miniaturization in the design of UWB Planar
Antennas
Laxman Pillalamarri
Assistant Professor in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Radio Frequency and Microwave Laboratory,
Nalla Malla Reddy Engineering College (Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad),
Hyderabad, Telanagana–State, India.
Corresponding Author: laxmanpillalamarri85@gmail.com
Abstract
The printed antenna is one of the most preferred antenna structures for low cost and compact design
of wireless communication systems. In this paper we have investigated a new approach for
improving the radiation efficiency and performance of the antennas with the size miniaturization, in
particular we have simulated two types of UWB printed monopole antennas for proving this
approach with results: circular patch and Compact Miniaturized Semi–Circular patch UWB
monopole antennas and in detail investigation was presented on size miniaturization in order to
achieve very compactness and high radiation efficiency with out degradation of the functional
parameters and overall performance. Simple rectangular microstrip lines are used for feeding the
printed monopole antennas. This UWB monopole antenna designed works well for the whole UWB
frequency band 3.1–10.6GHz.
Key Words: UWB, Semicircular, Miniaturization printed monopole antennas, Microstrip lines.
I INTRODUCTION
Ultra–Wideband (UWB) commonly refers to signal or system that

The Noise Of Sound Waves Through Instruments And How The...
Introduction
Music takes up a large part of our lives, most people listen to it almost every day. It is one of the
only medians between People from completely different walks of life, connecting us all through
major symphonies or just beautifully simple chords. Though many people enjoy the emotion filled
sound that travel to their eardrums, most do not know exactly why. People also do not know why
they dislike some musical sounds. I am very curious as to why there are melodies considered good
or bad. Just as most people, I listen to music on the daily basis. I am also invested in learning how to
play the electric guitar which influences my interest in this topic greatly. I want to find out why
exactly different chords are considered either harmonic or discordant by looking into the consonance
and dissonance in music. In my research on this topic, I will focus mainly on the emission of sound
waves through instruments and how the notes come together. Sound travels as a transverse wave
which means it takes the same shape as sine waves, in mathematics. These waves are used to
produce different volume, frequencies, and timbre in instruments. In music, sound waves have
different frequencies which change the in pitch of notes, and different amplitudes, which change the
volume of notes.
Since I will be focusing on the changing of frequencies in notes, I will represent these changes by
modeling different chords, and notes by using sine waves. This will allow me to demonstrate how

Improvement Of Power Quality Using Pq Theory
IMPROVEMENT OF POWER QUALITY USING PQ–THEORY
SHUNTACTIVE POWER FILTER B. Udayasri 1 P.A Mohan Rao 2 Dasumanta Kumar Mohanta3
PG Student, MVGR College of Engineering, Vizianagaram, Andhrapradesh,India Assistant
Professor of EEE, MVGR College of Engineering, Vizianagaram, Andhrapradesh,India Professor of
EEE, MVGR College of Engineering, Vizianagaram, Andhrapradesh,India(Formerly Professor,
BITS, Mesra)
Abstract: This paper deals with the staging the evaluation of a three– phase Shunt Active Power
Filter for Power Quality improvement. Power Quality problems can be take up using Shunt Active
Power Filters. A simulation model based on mathematical model of a three–phase shunt active
power filter has been developed. The results show an inherent power quality improvement in terms
of reduced Total Harmonic distortion (THD) of source current. It also betrays power factor
correction (PFC) properties to a large extent as the source current and source voltage are in phase.
Keywords– shunt active power filter (SAPFs), Total harmonic distortion (THD), Proportional
integral (PI) and Hysteresis current controller (HCC). INTRODUCTION In the present era of
advanced technologies, power electronics devices have wide applications. These devices are
important for industrial and domestic uses but they generate the power quality problems [1–2].these
problems are created on account of these devices

Essay about Acoustic Theory and Synthesis
Acoustic Theory and Synthesis
Frequency:
Frequency means the number of cycles per second and depending on the amount of cycles per
second determines how high or low pitched the sound is and the time that it takes to complete one
cycle is called the period. Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz). And An average human is able to
hear sounds between 20Hz and 20,000Hz.
As the cycles per second increases, the smaller the wavelengths become, therefore there is a higher
frequency which will cause the pitch of the sound to increase or get higher.
If there is frequency of say 20KHz then it is going to be a much higher pitch than a 20Hz because
there is a lot more cycles per second.
Fundamentals:
A fundamental is the lowest frequency ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sustain: This is how long the volume is sustained for during the main event of the sound. Release:
The is how long it take for the sound to fade out. An Example of a slow and fast release can be
found on track 7 and 8 of my logic session which is with my assessment. Filters: Filters can either
emphasize or reduce some frequencies from a signal. There are different types of filters that can be
used. There are different types of filters that can be used. There are also filters that can reject
frequencies within a certain frequency band e.g. band bass or band reject.
High Pass Filter: A High Pass filter lets through all the frequencies above the cutoff and eliminates
the ones below the cutoff frequency. An example of a HPF can be found on track 10 of my logic
session. !
Low Pass Filter: A Low Pass filter lets through the frequencies below the cutoff frequency and
eliminates the ones above it. An Example of a low pass filter can be found on track 9 of my logic
session which is with my assessment.
!
ESM

The ESM synthesizer is a very basic synth to create simple bass and lead sounds that can emulate
the Roland – TB 303 synth because it is a monophonic synth and you cant play chords . With the
ESM you can only choose between a saw tooth and square wave and it only

Hardware and Sorftware: Major Techniques that Allocate...
Introduction
There are four major techniques that allocate capacity for wireless WAN communications. These
techniques are Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), and Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM). (Goleniewski, L. 2007) Each technique has pros and cons when compared
amongst each other. The following is a summary of why each technique has a need, and some of the
challenges that come with that technique.
Radio Frequency
Radio Frequency or RF is used in our everyday lives whether or not you realize it. Some of the
common uses of Radio Frequencies are:
AM radio – 535 kilohertz to 1.7 megahertz
FM radio – 88 megahertz to 108 megahertz
Short ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The classic RF structure has a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter creates electrical signals
that are called a carrier signal. The carrier signal frequency is determined by the wave length. The
carrier signal is modulated to carry voice by adding a contrast signal to the wave form. The receiver
gets the pair of sidebands and transforms them into speech or other sounds. RF in a wireless
environment can have dead spots due to line of sight issues.
FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is a technique in which each user is assigned to a
different frequency; it is used in older analog cellular systems. (Goleniewski, L. 2007) This allows
everyone to speak at the same time, but it requires a different frequency band for each user. This
creates a limitation of the technique, as each cell can only support 60 users. With the digital
technology of today, FDMA is no longer a viable solution due to the limitation on users. It is also
expensive for the service provider since there needs to be a transceiver for each channel, and
because of the great amount of power that is consumed. FDMA does still serve a purpose today,
though. It is used to divide the allocated spectrum into individual channels, by which other channels
will then enable many users to use one channel. (Goleniewski, L. 2007)
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a technique that takes advantage of FDMA. The
frequency spectrum is first split into

Sound Waves Affecting The Brain's Perception Of Sound
The normal range that humans are able to hear from is 20 hz to 20kHz. The average human can hear
up to 20 hertz, After using the resources provided in Physics class I discovered I can hear between
19hz and 20hz. I could sometimes hear the 20hz but sometimes I could not. I am about average for
the highest frequency I could hear. Sound is made of pressure waves which when they travel
oscillate or vibrate. Each wave travels at a certain frequency based on how much the sound moves.
Sound is created when air molecules are pushed in a certain direction causing them to vibrate. This
creates sound waves. Sound moves by vibrations and are caused by compression or some form of
pressure. The higher frequency at which the wave oscillates the higher the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Based on the second resource in Physics, I could not district between frequencies as well as I
should. My issue was could tell there was a difference in pitch I just could not tell if it was higher or
lower once they got super similar to one another. The biology behind it is that once a pitch has
traveled through the ear and the cochlea has transferred it to the brain, the arcuate fasciculus
produces the process of distinguishing which pitch is higher or lower than another. Some people can
do this better than others based on the way their brain works. But it is all pitch recognition in your
brain. Tiny sound waves inside your ear help you tune the pitch and pick up sound waves. They take
the sound waves and turn them into nerve signals causing the brain to interpret sound. The enter
form the outer ear and travel through the passage of the ear canal. It then reaches the eardrum where
the vibrations translate into the sound we hear. It then goes to the cochlea, a snail–shaped structure
that contains fluid in the ear. The sound causes the liquid inside to ripple. The wave goes across to
the basilar

Low-pass Filter and Critical Frequency Essay
Name:
Alfredo del junco
Date:
2/22/2014
ET 1410 Final Exam
1. 1. An IC op–amp has ________.
a. two inputs and two outputs
b. one input and two outputs
c. two inputs and one output
d. one input and one output
2. In the common mode, ________.
a. both inputs are grounded
b. the outputs are connected together
c. an identical signal appears on both inputs
d. the output signals are in phase
3. If Av(d) = 3500 and Acm = 0.35, the CMMR is ________.
a. 1225
b. 3500
c. 80dB

d. 90dB
4. A certain op–amp has bias currents of 50 μA and 49.3 μA. The input off–set current is ________.
a. 700 nA
b. 99.3 μA
c. 49.65 μA
d. None of these
5. A certain non–inverting ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When 2 low–pass filters are cascaded, the roll–off rate becomes ________.
a. –60 dB
b. –20 dB
c. –10 dB
d. –40 dB
24. When a low–pass and a high–pass filter are cascaded to form a band–pass filter with a gain of 0
dB at center frequency, the critical frequency of the low–pass filter must be ________.
a. equal to the critical frequency of the high–pass filter
b. less than the critical frequency of the high–pass filter
c. greater than the critical frequency of the high–pass filter
d. adjusted in a way that Q becomes 10
25. When the gain of a filter is minimum at its center frequency, it is a ________.
a. band–pass filter
b. band–stop filter
c. Sallen–Key low–pass filter
d. 2nd order high–pass filter
For questions 26 through 30, refer to Figure 3.

26. The circuit in Figure 3 is a ________.
a. band–pass filter
b. low–pass filter
c. high–pass filter
d. band–stop filter
27. The critical frequency is ________.
a. 1.48 kHz
b. 8.84 kHz
c. 491 MHz
d. None of the above
28. If C1 is accidentally replaced with a value 0.15 μF instead of a 0.015 μF, the bandwidth will be
________.
a. doubled
b. divided by 2
c. remain the same
d. divided by 10
29. If C1 is accidentally replaced with a value 0.15 μF instead of a 0.015 μF, the number of poles
will ________.
a. increase by 1
b. decrease by 1
c. remain the same
d. double
30. If

Ultrasonic is the universally accepted technique to study...
Ultrasonic is the universally accepted technique to study the physico–chemical properties of the
liquids, liquid mixtures, electrolytic solutions and polymeric solutions. Liquids, liquid–mixtures and
solutions find wide applications in medical, pharmaceutical, chemical, lather, textile, nuclear and
solvent, solution related industries. The study and understanding of the thermodynamic properties of
liquid mixtures and solutions are more essential for their applications in these industries. The
measurements of ultrasonic velocity in the combination of density and viscosity have been used to
study the molecular interactions in liquid mixtures and solutions.
Proteins are the linear macromolecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acids ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ultrasonic:
Ultrasonic is science of acoustics dealing with generation and use of inaudible acoustic waves. The
sound waves having frequencies ranging above 20KHZ up to several MHZ i.e. human audible
ranges are called ultrasonic waves. The sound waves of low frequencies i.e. below human audible
range are infrasonic waves. Like life, ultrasonic was originated from sea. The five senses of living
beings i.e. hearing, touch, smell, sight and taste are interdependent on each other. Out of these five,
two are important for long rang interaction i.e. sight and hearing and other three have short range
performance. But these things are different under water because long range sight has no use under
water. By default, sound waves have long range sensing functionality under water.
The era of ultrasonic began with the wrecking of RMS Titanic which crashed with ice berg. The
detection of ice berg was done by high frequency waves. In 1915 Langevin (the father of ultrasonic)
invented the underwater SONAR for submarine detection. Sokolov suggested the concept of
ultrasonic metal flaw detection in 1928. After that slow and steady progress was made in the
measurement of propagation constant of material. The propagation of ultrasonic waves through solid
material has been used to detect hidden cracks, porosity, voids and other discontinuities in metal.
The field of ultrasonic has wide application in science, medicine and

Korotkoff Sound Essay
5. Suggest two possible sources of error or variation in the auscultatory technique for blood pressure
measurement?
The point at which the Korotkoff sounds can be heard is subjective as it depends on the individual's
hearing ability. The first Korotkoff sound that can be heard due to the cuff pressure being lower than
the systolic pressure is faint. The sound towards the end when the cuff pressure is decreased, just
before the flow becomes laminar, is also faint. Poor hearing could result in the observer not being
able to hear these faint sounds, therefore it can give inaccurate measure of the systolic and diastolic
pressure. Also, due to a noisy environment the time points at which the Korotkoff sounds first
appear and disappear could be falsely measured, thus giving an inaccurate blood pressure
measurement.
Also due to improper technique, if the cuff wrapped around the upper arm is too loose or large on
the individual it can lead to variation. The cuff should be wrapped around the arm with a 2 finger
space between the cuff and arm. This would lead an inaccuracy of measurement as the cuff would
need to be inflated to a higher pressure in order to occlude blood flow in the artery.
6. Explain the underlying cause of the Korotkoff sounds that you detected with the
cardiomicrophone as the cuff pressure was decreased. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The pulse measurement only detects the systolic pressure whereases the stethoscope can detect the
systolic and diastolic pressure. Pulse measurement cannot detect diastolic as it relies on the ability of
the pulse to be palpated. When the cuff pressure is decreased, close to the diastolic pressure, the
pulse becomes relatively normal and cannot be distinguished from the pulse produced when the cuff
pressure is below diastolic pressure. This makes the diastolic pressure difficult to identify. The
stethoscope can detect diastolic pressure by looking at the point at which the Korotkoff sounds

Thesis Statement On Underwater Communication
Introduction
Now–a–days Wireless communication is a part and parcel of our daily life. Underwater Wireless
Communications is one of them. Many researches have been done since last two decade and still
going on for getting more economy. The world's oceans, sea, river etc has grab the 2/3 part of this
earth. So, wireless information transmission underwater bears great significant.
Goal
Thesis Outline
There are 3 major part of this thesis given below:
First part consist background of underwater communication, various options of underwater
communication, underwater channel as most challenging channels.
The second part consist OFDM implementation for underwater communication including basic
principle of OFDM.
The third part consist the simulation ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For wireless underwater communication, there are several means such as radio waves, optical waves
and acoustics.
Radio waves:
Radio wave has extra low frequency (30 Hz–300 Hz) and it works well to propagate any distance in
sea water. But, for its low frequency, it is needed high transmission power and large antennas.
Optical waves:
An optical wave for wireless communication has big advantage as it exceed 1 Giga bps. It can't
cross water boundary easily, suffers from severe absorption and scattering suspending particles and
planktons is significant Moderate link range (up to tens of meters).
Acoustics:
.As underwater acoustic communication is a technique of sending and receiving message below
water but there are some main limitations and challenges like time variations of the channel,
available bandwidth (small), signal attenuation (strong), multi path propagation, under water
communication is difficult – especially for long distances.
Attenuation of Acoustic Propagation
Absorption is one of the draw backs for underwater acoustic channel caused by the water viscosity,
which depends on temperature and salinity (for larger frequencies), and the chemical composition of
the seawater (for

Nature Vs Nurture
This paper will discuss the explanations for how this special ability is carried out within the brain
and how it is different from ordinary pitch perception. It will discuss this ability within the context
of the nature vs nurture debate. Lastly, it will cover connections found between absolute pitch and
other areas of research within the field of sensation and perception, and where additional research
might lead.
Literature Review A discussion involving absolute pitch first requires some background on how
pitch is perceived. One explanation of pitch perception involves place coding. Place coding utilizes
frequency–to–place mapping, or tonotopy. Tonotopy refers to how the different frequencies present
in a sound stimulate designated regions on the basilar membrane in the cochlea. The various
combinations of levels of stimulation collectively create an output of neural activity that help
represent the pitch of the sound (Oxenham, 2012). While place coding works well for discriminating
higher frequencies, it is unable to code lower frequencies and fails to explain the "missing
fundamental" phenomenon (perception of same pitch despite the removal of the fundamental
frequency) (Mather, 2008). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Certain neurons are more likely fire synchronously with the phase of a sound cycle. In other words,
neurons fire every time the waveform reaches a peak. This process, known as phase–locking,
provides additional information from which the brain can create the perception of a pitch. Because
there is a limit on how many action potentials can occur within a given time period, this phase–
locking process cannot encode higher frequencies (Oxenham, 2012). It is thus suggested that the
brain uses both spatial and temporal information among other things to perceive

Sound Waves Lab

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