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● A theory of learning based on the idea that all
behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
● Behavior is shaped by the environment, and
that it can be studied objectively through
systematic observation and experimentation.
Behavioral Theories
01
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Thorndike’s Trial
and Error Theory
● Trial and error learning is learning
from multiple attempts.
● Consistent with the trial and error
method learning is that the
stamping of correct responses and
stamping out incorrect responses.
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Three Laws
of Learning
Law of Readiness Law of Exercise Law of Effect
Definition
• The degree of
preparedness and
eagerness to learn.
• Things that are most
often repeated are
best remembered.
• The emotional state
of the learner affects
the learning.
Educational
Implications
• Arouse curiosity for
learning.
• Arouse the interest
and desire of the
students to learn.
• Provide different
opportunities for
learners to practice
or repeat the task.
• Should have
constant practice in
what has once been
learnt.
• Reward and
recognition play a
great role in
encouraging the pupil.
• Punishments should
be avoided as far as
possible.
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C. Operant Conditioning
● He is a behaviorist who first described
Operant Conditioning.
● believed that it was not really necessary
to look at internal thoughts and
motivations in order to explain behavior.
B.F. Skinner
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COMPONENTS OF
OPERANT CONDITIONING
● presentation of an adverse
event or outcome that
causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows.
● any event that strengthens
or increases the behavior it
follows.
Reinforcement Punishment
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D. Observational Learning
● He is the proponent of observational
learning.
● Individuals can learn new behaviors and
attitudes by observing the behavior of
others.
● "Bobo doll" experiment.
Albert Bandura
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1. THE MONTESSORI
METHOD
(STRUCTURED PLAY)
Maria Montessori (1870–1952)
• Italian physician, educator, and
innovator
• a great pedagogist of the early 20th
century
• She directed the Psychiatric Clinic at
the University of Rome.
• She opened the first Montessori school
– the Casa dei Bambini, or Children’s
House in Rome.
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What is Montessori Method?
● It is a specific child-centered method of
education that involves child-led activities
(referred to as “work”), classrooms with
children of varying ages and teachers who
encourage independence among their pupils.
● “The more things a child listens to and looks
at, the better for mental development.”
● Instructional emphasis of visual and auditory
activities;
● Children learn at different rates.
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2. COGNITIVE STAGES
OF DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
• Swiss psychologist that presented the
most comprehensive theory of cognitive
development stages.
• He is thought by many to have been
the major figure in 20th century
developmental psychology.
• He was the first to make systematic
study of the acquisition of
understanding in children.
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Cognitive Stages of Development
● The child progresses from reflex
operations and undifferentiated
surroundings to complex
sensorimotor actions in relation to
environmental patterns.
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
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Cognitive Stages of Development
● Objects and events begin to take
on symbolic meaning. The child
shows an ability to learn more
complex concepts from
experience, as long as familiar
examples of the concepts are
provided.
2. Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)
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Cognitive Stages of Development
● The child begins to organize data
into logical relationships and gains
facility in manipulating data in
problem-solving situations. The
child is able to make judgments in
terms of reversibility and reciprocal
relations and conservation.
3. Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to 11)
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Cognitive Stages of Development
● At this stage, there are few or no
limitations on the content of
learning. Learning depends on the
individual’s intellectual potential
and environmental experiences.
4. Formal operations stage (ages 11 and up)
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3. THEORY OF
LANGUAGE AND
CULTURAL
TRANSMISSION
Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)
• a Soviet psychologist best known for
his work on psychological development
in children and creating the framework
known as cultural-historical activity
theory.
• He was an educator first before being
a psychologist.
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Theory of Language and Cultural Transmission
• Learning involves human development
(and potential) as well as cultural
development (or environments shaped by
beliefs and behaviors of previous
generations).
• According to Vygotsky, child
development is a sociogenetic4 process
shaped by the individual’s interactions,
“dialogue,” and “play” with the culture.
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Discovery Learning
• Bruner defined discovery as the learning that
occurs when students are not presented with
subject matter in its final form, when students
rather than teachers organize subject matter.
• Phenix proposed that discovery was a form of
inquiry that dealt with new knowledge,
hypotheses, and hunches. He focused on
defining inquiry, which he defined as the method
of deriving, organizing, analyzing, and evaluating
knowledge.
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5. NINE
MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner
• He is an American developmental
psychologist and the Professor of
Cognition and Education at the Harvard
Graduate School of Education at
Harvard University.
• He is currently the senior director of
Harvard Project Zero, and since 1995,
he has been the co-director of The
Good Project.
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6. STRUCTURE
OF INTELLECT
Joy Paul Guilford (1897–1987)
• He was an American psychologist, one
of the leading American exponents of
factor analysis in the assessment of
personality.
• He is well remembered for his
psychometric studies of human
intelligence and creativity.
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7. CRITICAL
THINKING
● Critical thinking and thinking skills are
terms used to connote problem
solving and related behaviors. Critical
thinking is a form of intelligence that
can be taught (it is not a fixed entity).
The leading proponents of this school
are Robert Ennis, Matthew Lipman,
and Robert Sternberg.
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Ennis identifies 13 attributes
of critical thinkers. They tend to:
1. be open-minded,
2. take or change a position based on
evidence,
3. take the entire situation into account,
4. seek information,
5. seek precision in information,
6. deal in an orderly manner with parts of a
complex whole,
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Ennis identifies 13 attributes
of critical thinkers. They tend to:
7. look for options,
8. search for reasons,
9. seek a clear statement of the issue,
10. keep the original problem in mind,
11. use credible sources,
12. stick to the point, and
13. exhibit sensitivity to others’ feelings and
knowledge level.
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7. CRITICAL
THINKING
● Lipman distinguishes between
ordinary thinking and critical thinking.
Ordinary thinking is simple and lacks
standards while critical thinking is
more complex and is based on
standards of objectivity, utility, or
consistency.
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Lipman wants teachers to help
students change in:
1. from guessing to estimating,
2. from preferring to evaluating,
3. from grouping to classifying,
4. from believing to assuming,
5. from inferring to inferring logically,
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Lipman wants teachers to help
students change in:
6. from associating concepts to grasping
principles,
7. from noting relationships to noting
relationships among relationships,
8. from supposing to hypothesizing,
9. from offering opinions without reasons to
offering opinions with reasons, and
10. from making judgments without criteria
to making judgments with criteria
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Three mental processes that
enhance critical thinking
1. Meta Components - higher-order mental
processes used to plan, monitor, and
evaluate action;
2. Performance Components - the actual
steps or strategies taken; and
3. Knowledge-acquisition Components -
processes used to relate old material to new
material and to apply and use new material.
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8. MEDIATED
LEARNING
EXPERIENCE
(MLE)
• It is a structured approach to learning
whom transforms and organizes stimuli
experienced in the environment to the
learner.
• It allows learners to build and modify their
capacities through structured learning to
which they acquire new skills, behavior
patterns, awareness, and a set of
strategies that can then potentially be
generalized to new experiences and
stimuli.
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Cognitive Theories
03
•Traditional psychologists do not recognize
phenomenology or humanistic psychology
as a school of psychology, much less a wing
or form of psychology. They contend that
most psychologists are humanistic because
they are concerned with people and with
bettering society.
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Cognitive Theories
03
• Moreover, they claim that the label
humanism should not be used to mask
generalizations based on little knowledge
and “soft” research. Nonetheless, some
observers have viewed phenomenology,
sometimes called humanistic psychology,
as a “third force” learning theory after
behaviorism and cognitive development.
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● The study of immediate experiences as one’s reality
is called phenomenology and is influenced by, and
perhaps even based on, an existentialist
philosophy. Most phenomenological ideas derive
from clinical settings; nevertheless, educators are
becoming aware that they have implications for the
classroom.
● Phenomenologists point out that the way we look at
ourselves is basic for understanding our behavior.
Our self-concept determines what we do, even to
what extent we learn.
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GESTALT
THEORY
• Originating in the work of Max
Wertheimer. Field theories derive from
Gestalt psychology of the 1930s and
1940s. The German word Gestalt means
shape, form, and configuration. In the
context of Gestalt theory, stimuli are
perceived in relation to other stimuli within
a field.
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GESTALT
THEORY
● What people perceive determines the
meaning they give to the field; likewise,
their solutions to other problems depend
on their recognition of the relationship
between individual stimuli and the
whole. This relationship is considered
the field-ground relationship, and how
the individual perceives this relationship
determines behavior.
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● In terms of teaching, learning is
conceived as a process of selection by
the student. Curriculum specialists must
understand that learners perceive
something in relation to the whole; what
they perceive and how they perceive it is
related to their previous experiences.
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MASLOW: SELF-
ACTUALIZING
INDIVIDUALS
1. Survival needs
2. Safety needs
3. Love and belongingness
4. Esteem needs
5. Knowing and understanding needs
6. Self- actualization needs
● Abraham Maslow, a well-known
phenomenologist, set forth a classic
theory of human needs. Based on a
hierarchy, and in order of importance,
the needs are as follows:
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● Carl Rogers, perhaps the most noted
phenomenologist, established
counseling procedures and methods for
facilitating learning. According to
Rogers, reality is based on what the
individual learner perceives: “Man lives
by a perceptual ‘map’ which is not
reality itself.”
ROGERS:
NONDIRECTIVE
AND
THERAPEUTIC
LEARNING
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● Rogers views therapy as a learning
method to be used by the curriculum
worker and teacher. The teacher’s role
in nondirective teaching is that of a
facilitator who has close professional
relationships with students and guides
their growth and development.
ROGERS:
NONDIRECTIVE
AND
THERAPEUTIC
LEARNING
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SOCIAL AND
EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
Two Types of Social
Intelligence
● Interpersonal Intelligence
● Intrapersonal Intelligence
● Goleman notes that the root of the
word emotion is motere, Latin for “to
move.” Emotions can drive action,
as is especially clear in young
children. As adults, we tend to prize
reason over emotion and think of
the latter as negative or
dysfunctional.
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● Martin Seligman has been associated
with the “positive psychology”
movement in the 1990s that focused on
strengths rather than weaknesses. He
believed that engagement,
relationships, meaning, and
accomplishment are important to
happiness and that it is not the result of
genes or luck."’ However, happiness
comprises only part of a “good life.”
POSITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY
AND MINDSETS
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ABRAHAM
MASLOW
Human Needs
Six human needs are related to
survival and psychological well-being;
the needs are hierarchical and serve
to direct behavior.
CARL
ROGERS
Freedom to learn
Becoming a full person requires
freedom to learn; the learner is
encouraged to be open, self-trusting,
and self-accepting.
DANIEL
GOLEMAN
Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)
Progress or success depends in large
part to awareness and
understanding of one’s emotions
(intrapersonal) as well as those of
other people (interpersonal).
MARTIN ELIAS
PETER SELIGMAN Positive psychology and well being
One’s well-being relates to his or her
ability to cultivate talent, build lasting
relationships, feel pleasure, and
contribute meaningfully.
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● Phenomenologists view individuals in relation to
the fields in which they operate. In this,
phenomenologists have much in common with
constructivists. But what determines behavior
and learning is mainly psychological.
● The individual’s experiences are accessible to
others only through inferences; thus, such data
are questionable scientific evidence. But to the
phenomenologist, the raw data of personal
experiences are vital to understanding learning.
Perhaps the data cannot be measured
accurately and perhaps they are vague, but
they are “out there.”
PHENOMENOLOGY
AND
CURRICULUM
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MOTIVATION
AND
ACHIEVEMENT
● As previously mentioned, phenomenologists
seek to understand what goes on inside us,
our desires, feelings, and ways of perceiving
and understanding. Although cognitive
functions are recognized by theorists,
teachers and schools must first commit to
dealing with the learners’ social and
psychological factors.
● Learners must feel confident about
performing the skill or task required, be
eager to learn, and feel that what they are
being asked to perform is psychologically
satisfying.
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• We must reform schools not by changing the
length of the school day or year, changing the
amount of homework, or beefing up the
curriculum, but by making school more
satisfying to students and more consistent
with their interests so that they gain a sense
of power, fulfillment, and importance in the
classroom. Affective needs are more
important than cognitive needs.
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THE CONCEPT
OF FREEDOM ● Personal freedom is another
important issue in phenomenology or
humanistic psychology. The idea of
freedom is at the center of Rogers’s
learning theory. The more children
and youth are aware of their
freedom, the more they can discover
themselves and develop fully.
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THE CONCEPT
OF FREEDOM
● Freedom permits learners to probe,
explore, and deepen their
understanding of what they are
studying. It permits them to latitude
to accomplish goals, find the fit
between goals and achievements
and past learning and new learning,
and find the direction for additional
learning.
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● Because each individual has specific
needs and interests related to self-
fulfillment and realization, there is no
generally prescribed humanistic
curriculum. Rather, the learners draw on
those experiences, subject matter, and
intellectual skills necessary to attain full
potential.
IN SEARCH OF A
CURRICULUM
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● School routine and rules should be
minimal; learners should be left alone to
do what they want to do, as long as it
does not harm or endanger anyone.
Frequent evaluation, criticism, and
competition are not conducive to
learning. The essence of many recent
instructional trends, such as academic
time, direct instruction, and mastery
learning are rejected as narrow, rigid,
and high pressure.
IN SEARCH OF A
CURRICULUM
