Major Project (B. Pharm) OPIUM POPPY PROJECT.pdf

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THE OPIUM POPPY PLANT
A Project Report Submitted
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
For the award of the Degree of
BACHELOR OF PHARMACY
Mr. RAHUL PAL
Enrollment No- 181091
Under the Supervision of
Mrs. Maulshree B. Deopa
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACY
INVERTIS UNIVERSITY
INVERTIS VILLAGE, BAREILLY, UP. 243123, INDIA
2021-2022

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CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in dissertation entitled
“OPIUM POPPY PLANT”. Submitted Department of Pharmacy, Invertis
University, Bareilly in the fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Pharmacy in drug design embodies the original research work carried
out by RAHUL PAL. This work has been completed under my supervision and
guidance.
This is further stated that no part of this dissertation has been submitted previously
either in part or full, for the award of any degree to this or any other university
Supervisor Head of Department
Mrs. Maulshree B. Deopa Mrs. Surabhi Sharma
Assistant Professor (HEAD OF DEPARTEMENT)
Department of Pharmacy Department of Pharmacy
Date: 23 April, 20222
DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACY,
INVERTIS UNIVERSITY, BAREILLY

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DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I, RAHUL PAL, here by, declare that the present work entitled “OPIUM POPPY PLANT”
And is based on the research work carried out by me under the supervision of Mrs. Maulshree
B. Deopa in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of Bachelor of
Pharmacy from DEPARTEMENT OF PHARMACY, INVERTIS UNIVERSITY,
BAREILLY, during the Academic year 2021-2022.
It is further stated that no part of this project work has been submitted previously either in part
or full, for the award of any other degree by me, to this or any other university.
Place: Bareilly RAHUL PAL
Date…………. Enrollment no.181091
Roll No. 1810601006

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This is to certify that Mr. Rahul Pal has completed his completed his project of the degree of
Bachelor of Pharmacy on the topic “OPIUM POPPY PLANT”. I further certify that the work
done by him is of his own and original and tends of the general advancement of knowledge. The
work was carried out under my supervision and guidance at, Department of Pharmacy, Invertis
University, Bareilly during the academic year 2021-2022. This work is up to my satisfaction.
Head of Department External Examiner
Mrs. Surabhi Sharma
Department of Pharmacy
Invertis University, Bareilly
Date…………….

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Coming up with an idea is not difficult for anybody, but giving it a start and taking it to the
completion is a different story all together. So here I am bound to be grateful to the numerous
people who made it possible for me to give shape to the idea which I considered as my project.
I’m RAHUL PAL feel immense pleasure in praising the almighty for his grace, guidance, strength
and blessing showered on me to complete this project work as a part of B. Pharm. Curricula at the
“Department of Pharmacy, Invertis Village, Invertis University, Bareilly.
I am extremely thankful to Mrs. Maulshree B. Deopa was always there to help me in solving my
problems, sharing fruitful discussion, supportive cooperation and affectionate behaviors during
my project period. And I would also like to say thanks to all teaching and non-teaching staff of
Department of Pharmacy, Invertis University, Bareilly for providing me some common help
during my project time.
I take pride in acknowledging the solicitous help and concern of who have given their effort in
guiding me in achieving my goal as well as their encouragement to maintain my progress on track.
I take this golden opportunity to express my heartfelt thanks to my friends who remained
constantly a source of inspiration in hard time during the course. Finally, my efforts will remain
incomplete, if I fail to acknowledge the support of my family, in giving me love, care and moral
support that I need in life.
They were always ready to extend all possible help which give me great encouragement. What I
am today is because of love, care, support and all blessing of my family members.
Thanks to all for what I am today
Date: 23 April, 2022.

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CONTENT
TOPIC PAGE NO.
 Opium Poppy
o Synonyms
o Biological Source
 Conversion of Heroin base to Heroin
 The Opium Poppy Plant
 Facts About Opium Poppy Laws
 Area for growing Opium Poppy in Some Area Map
 Introduction
 Basic conditions for Cultivation
o Climate
o Soil
o The fruit
o The seed
 Disease affecting the Opium Plant
o Fungal disease
o Seed borne disease
o Disease caused by bacteria
o Disease caused by Viruses
o Disease associated with Nutritional Deficiencies
 History
 Opium
 Largest opium procedures During the 1990s
 Former producers
 Cultivation conditions for Opium Poppy (Mansfield 1999)
 Climatic requirements
 Labor-Intensive Crop
 Countries currently cultivating opium or coca
o Afghanistan
o Cultivation Area
o Myanmar
o Thailand
o Columbia
 Coca
 Opium
 Cannabis

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 Other Opium and Coca (Cannabis) Producing Countries
o Guatemala
o Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan
o Mexico
 Countries That Have Produced Opium and Coca
o Africa
o Bulgaria
o China
o Ecuador
o India
o Iran
o Kashmir
o Macedonia
o Nepal
o Turkey
 Potential New Area for Large Scale Drug Cultivation
o Africa
 Central Asia, Caucasus and Southern Russia
 Cultivation and Collection
 Chemical Constituents:
 Heroin Abuse
 Chemical Tests and Uses
 Isolation of Opium Alkaloid and Isolation
 Thin Layer Chromatography of Opium Alkaloids Opium:
 PAPAVERACEAE
 Some terms to define
 AUTHORITIES AND OFFICERS
 Officers of Central Government
 The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
 Power of Central Government to Permit, Control, and Regulate:
 Power of State Government to Permit, Control and Regulate
 Control of certain Operations by State Government:
 National Fund for Control of Drug Abuse
 OFFENCES AND PENALTIEs
 Production and Supply of the Opium
 Procedure with regard to measurement of land cultivated with opium poppy
 Sale to State Governments or Manufacturing Chemist.
 Manufacture of Manufactured Drugs
 THOUGHTS
 CONCLUSION
 REFERENCE.

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OPIUM POPPY
Unorganized Drugs do not have the morphological or anatomical organization as such. These
are the products which come directly in the market but their ultimate source remains the plants,
animals or minerals. Microscopical studies are not required for such crude drugs. These includes
products like plant exudates as opium.
Its’s an example of Dried latex Opium more important part of this class. Opium are
Phenanthrene type Alkaloid which are consisting more important examples are morphine and
codeine.
The opium is an annual plant and can reach 1-5 meters (3-16 feet) tall. It has lobed or toothed
silver-green foliage and bear blue-purple or white flowers some 13cm (5 inches) wide.
Synonyms: - Crude Opium; Raw Opium; Gum Opium; Afim; Post.
Biological Source: - Opium is the air-dried milky latex obtained by incision from the unripe
capsules of Papaver Somniferum Linn, or its variety P. album Decand., belonging to family
Papaveraceae. Opium is required to contain not less than 10% of morphine and not less than
2.0% of codeine.
The thebaine content is limited to 3%. Geographical Source It is mainly found in Turkey, Russia,
Yugoslavia, Tasmania, India, Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Burma, Thailand and Laos. In
India, Opium is cultivated in M.P. (Neemuch) and U.P. for alkaloidal extraction and seed
production.
Red-flowered and double and semidouble strains have been developed as garden ornamentals.
 The raw opium which is collected from the opium poppy pod is placed in an open cooking
pot of boiling water where the sticky glob of opium alkaloids quickly dissolves.
 The process of extracting morphine from opium involves dissolving opium in hot water,
adding lime to precipitate non-morphine alkaloids and then adding ammonium chloride to
precipitate morphine from the solution.
 Morphine is usually extracted from opium in small clandestine "laboratories" which are
typically set up near the opium poppy fields.

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THE OPIUM POPPY PLANT
The opium poppy, Papaver Somniferum, is an annual plant. From a small seed, it grows, flowers,
and bears fruit (a "pod") only once. The entire growth cycle for most varieties of this plant takes
about 120 days.
The main stem of a fully-matured Papaver Somniferum ranges between two and five feet in
height. The green leaves are oblong, toothed and lobed and vary between four to fifteen inches in
diameter at maturity.
Opium poppies generally flower after about 90 days of growth and continue to flower for two
to three weeks. The petals last for two to four days and then drop to reveal a small, round, green
fruit which continues to develop. These fruits or pods (also called "seedpods," "capsules,") are
either oblate, elongated, or globular and mature to about the size of a chicken egg.
Only the pod portion of the plant can produce opium alkaloids. The skin of the poppy pod encloses
the wall of the pod ovary. The ovary wall consists of three layers: the outer, middle and inner
layers.
Cultivators tap the opium from each pod while it remains on the plant. After the opium is scraped,
the pods are cut from the stem and allowed to dry. Once dry, the pods are cut open and the seeds
are removed and dried in the sun before storing for the following year's planting.

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Facts About Opium Poppy Laws: -
The Poppy Control Act of 1942 was repealed in the 70’s, but it is still illegal to grow poppies
from which narcotics can be made. I know they are gorgeous and it seems a shame. In fact, there
are many varieties that are offered in gardening catalogs. That is because it isn’t illegal to sell or
purchase seeds. They have a minimal amount of the opiate.
So, its’s legal to get an oppy seed bagel, for instance. Do keep in mind that the ingestion of poppy
seeds may affect a drug test.
Cultivation of opium poppy plants is illegal and a federal crime. Even having dried opium poppy
seed pods or stalks on your property is a crime.
There are plenty of other poppied that are legal to grow-
Corn Poppy (Papaver Rhoeas): common poppy.
Oriental Poppy (Papaver Orientale): which grow in the garden.
Iceland Poppy (Papaver Nudicale), California Poppy (Eschscholzia Colifornica).

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Poppy seed oil is straw-yellow in color, odorless, and has a pleasant, almond-like taste.

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INTRODUCTION
Opium is a highly addictive narcotic drug acquired in the dried latex form the opium poppy
(Papaver Somniferum) seed pod. Heroin is derived from the morphine alkaloid found in opium.
Traditionally the unripened pod is slit open and the sap seeps out and dries on the outer surface of
the pod. The resulting yellow-brown latex, which is scraped off of the pod, is bitter in taste and
contains varying amounts of alkaloids such as morphine, codeine, thebaine and papaverine.
Other synthetic or semisynthetic opium derivatives include fentanyl, methadone, oxycodone and
hydrocodone.
In the U.S., opium is rarely grown and cultivated for illicit commercial use. Most supplies in the
U.S. come from Latin American and Afghanistan. Afghanistan is the worldwide capital of opium
cultivation, leading to about three-quarters of the world's heroin supply.
Opium Tincture (Paregoric) is a prescription medication in the opioid class, and is classified as a
Schedule II or III narcotic. This medication is used to decrease control diarrhea by the reducing
the number and frequency of bowel movements.

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It works by increasing smooth muscle tone and decreasing fluid secretions in the intestines. This
slows the movement of bowel matter through the intestines.
 Survey and statics so that use of drugs and alcohol has been on the rise especially among
the youth. This is really a cause of concern as I could result in many harmful effects. Proper
education and guidance would enable youth to safeguard themselves against these
dangerous behavior patterns and follow healthy lifestyles.
 The drug which are commonly abused are opioids, cannabinoids and coca alkaloids.
Majority of these are obtained from flowering plants some are obtained from fungi.
 Opioids are the drugs, which bind to specific opioids receptor present in our central
nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
 Heroin commonly called smack is chemically diacetylmorphine which is a white,
odourless, bitter crystalline compound. This is obtained by acetylation of morphine, which
is extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver Somniferum. Generally taken by
snorting and injection, heroin is a depressant and slows down body functions.
This paper presents basic information on where opium poppy and coca bush are cultivated or have
been cultivated. It also describes shortly some characteristics of the two plants; their requirements
for the climate and soil as well as their advantages over other cultivated plants.
The paper seeks to also identify changes in cultivation areas and to give an idea when each country
or region began to produce opium or coca.
Therefore, this paper gives an idea where (and when) opium and coca have been cultivated. It also
covers cannabis to an extent but since cannabis is cultivated throughout the world, the scope of
coverage is more limited than for the other drug plants.
It is worth to note that a part of opium and coca cultivation is legal and the products are, for
example, used for medical purposes.

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Basic Conditions of Cultivation
Climate. - Climate is a highly important factor among the conditions of cultivation. The climatic
conditions of the People's Republic of Macedonia are suitable for growing the opium poppy. These
are a mild and damp winter, sometimes with a covering of snow, rapid transition to a very hot and
dry summer.
The plant can withstand temperatures as low as - 5°C for short periods.
A protective layer of snow is a very favourable factor, and in those conditions, it can withstand a
temperature of - 10°C. Spring frosts are very dangerous because they can destroy the young
plants.
Soil. - The plant does not need especially good soil and can grow on ground which is unsuitable
for most other crops; however, it thrives better in manured, crumbly and light soil, exposed to the
sun and protected from northern winds. Heavy and clayey soil, as well as waterlogged soil, are not
suitable. Waterlogged soil yields unduly thin latex, which gradually trickles down the capsule.
The soil is usually enriched with horse and cattle manure and the manure of small domestic
animals; of late, fertilizers have been used (up to 300 kg of nitrogenous fertilizer and up to 700
kg of superphosphate per hectare). The fertilized soil often yields more than twice the number
of seeds, oil and opium than unfertilized ground. The composition of the soil is an essential factor
on which the morphine content depends
If all other conditions are fulfilled, the poppy flourishes best at altitudes not greatly above sea-
level. Most of the cultivation is at less than 500 meters above sea-level.
The Fruit
The fruit is a roundish or oval hollow capsule, 2.5 to 5 cm in diameter. On the upper part of the
fruit, there is a radiate sear, remains of stigma, usually with 10 to 14 sides. The pedicle is short
and is attached to the stem by a small bulging ring. The unripe pericarp is grey-green or blue-green
in colour, while the ripe pericarp is yellowish.
The Seed
The seeds are obtained from selected, well-developed capsules. There are cultivators who leave
some capsules uncut and take the seeds from them when they are quite ripe, because they believe
that seeds from incised capsules are less likely to germinate
Seeds vary greatly in colour, from greyish white to light brown. In selecting seeds for sowing, no
attention is paid to their colour or shade.

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Diseases affecting the Opium Plant
Opium poppy crop is susceptible to a number of diseases which affect the opium yield, most of
which can be classified as fungal diseases. The other diseases caused by bacteria, virus and those
associated with nutritional deficiencies. During the crop cutting experiment in 1993-94 in Uttar
Pradesh one poppy crop was affected by downy mildew and the opium yield stopped after the
second lancing. A description of the diseases is summarized below: -
a) Fungal Diseases
i. Downy Mildew - The entire leave surface is covered by brown powder. The stem,
branches and even capsules are also attacked resulting in premature death of the plants. In
India, the disease appears annually on the crop from seedling stage to maturity in opium
poppy growing areas of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The formation of
capsules is adversely affected due to infection. Consequently, opium yield is significantly
reduced.
ii. Powdery Mildew - is another minor fungal disease, however, it caused severe damage
to opium crop in Rajasthan in 1972. It is general noticed at later stage of growth of plant
and is characterized by white powder on leaves and capsules. Field sanitation is important
to control this disease.
b) Seed Borne Disease –
There are a few seed borne disease. It attacks the capsules and seeds only. The infection causes
serious reduction in germination and seedlings decay. Some of them are:
Leaf Blight - The symptoms of the disease appear defused yellow spots, followed premature
drying of infected leaves. During the course of parthogenesis, toxins are released by the parasites
enabling it to assimilate the requisite nutrient. This disease is favored by high temperature and
heavy rainfall.
Leaf Spots - This disease is characterized by chlorotic areas on the leaf, often accompanied by
curling. However, all the leaf spot diseases observed till now on this crop were of minor
importance, though there is a distinct correlation between leaf spot infection and decline in
morphine, codeine and thebaine content of the poppy plant.
Capsule Infection - This disease causes large velvety black spots to appear on the green
capsule. It reduces the morphine, codeine and thebaine contents in opium poppy capsule. Capsule
rot of opium poppy caused by a particular fungus entailing in severe damage is prevalent in
Rajasthan. A severe capsule rot caused by another fungus was also observed in opium poppy crop
grown at Lucknow.

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c) Diseases caused by Bacteria
Bacterial diseases cause considerable damage to the crop. The symptoms are systematic in nature.
One such bacteria gains its entry to the host through stomata and water pores. In later stages it
penetrates the vascular system and multiplies.
The seeds from infected plants are discolored and malformed. Another bacterium attacks all organs
of opium poppy plant, the general characteristics of disease being brown to black brown spots on
poppy seeds.
d) Diseases caused by Viruses
Several viral diseases caused extensive damage to opium poppy. Cabbage ring spot virus was
observed to be capable of infecting opium poppy. The infection rapidly becomes systemic and
causes yellowing of plants and elongation of stem. Opium poppy is also susceptible to beat yellow
virus. The symptoms appear as irregular chlorotic band along the veins which spread very fast all
over the interveinal areas, leaving green strips along the veins.
Infected plants were found to be stunted. The virus is transmitted mechanically from poppy to
beans and from naturally infected beans to poppy. A mosaic disease of opium poppy was observed
in India. The disease caused stunting vein banding and deformed capsule formation. The virus is
readily transmitted from the sap. The disease was also found to be transmitted by aphids.
e) Diseases associated with Nutritional Deficiencies
Boron deficiencies in poppy plants result in floral and capsule malformation, seed necrosis and in
severe cases, inhibition of growth in early stages. The symptoms cause stunting, dark purple or
brown discoloration, distortion and crinkling of leaves accompanied by partial yellowing or
blackening of veins. The symptoms of heart rot were associated with rotting of leaves,
discoloration and decay of plants.

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History: -
The cultivation of opium dates back to 3400 B.C. in Mesopotamia and by 1300 B.C. Egyptians
began the cultivation of opium the baicum. Hippocrates ‘the father of medicine’, (460–357 B.C.)
prescribed drinking the juice of the white poppy mixed with the seed of nettle and also
acknowledged its use as narcotic and styptic in internal diseases.
It was Alexander the Great, who introduced opium to India and Persia. During the 17th century
tobacco smoking was introduced in China, which resulted in its extensive.
 It was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans as a potent pain reliever. It was grown in
Southeast Asia.
 Opium dens were places where opium could be bought and sold, and were also found
worldwide, especially in Southeast Asia, China and Europe.
 In the U.S. in the 1800's, opium dens sprang up in the west, such as in San Francisco's
Chinatown, and spread east to New York.
In 1800 control on opium supply and prices was brought and in 1805 Friedrich W. Seiturner
(German pharmacist) isolated and identified the chief chemical constituent of opium.
Eventually many other constituents like codeine (1832) and papaverine (1848) were also isolated
and identified. Due to the uncontrolled use of opium in China (late 18th century) the imperial court
had to ban its use.
Later on, during the war, the Union Army were provided with enough amount of opium pills,
laudanum, morphine sulphate, etc., which made opium addiction known as the ‘army disease or
the ‘soldier’s disease’. By 1870s, substitute for morphine by acetylating morphine were prepared
and in 1898 a German company manufactured 3, 6-diacetylmorphine (Heroin) in bulk quantity.
In December 1914, Harrison Narcotics Act which called for control of each phase of the
preparation and distribution of medicinal opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine, and any new
derivative with similar properties, was enforced by the United States Congress.
The Federal Controlled Substances Act of 1970 is the redefined act of the Harrison Act. In 1999,
opium was declared as the Bumper crop of Afghanistan by producing 75% of world’s heroin. In
December 2002 the U.K. government under the health plan.

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GENERAL
During the 1990s, there were eight main producers of opium poppy: Afghanistan, Myanmar, Laos,
Pakistan, Mexico, Colombia, Thailand, and Vietnam. Virtually all coca leaves came from three
countries: Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru.
In 1999 United Nations International Drug Control Programmed (UNDCP) estimated that
Afghanistan alone produced almost 80 % of all opium in the world and Colombia more than 65 %
of all coca leaf. In total, over 90 % of illicit opium and coca originated from Afghanistan,
Myanmar, Laos, Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru.
Opium and coca cultivation require low capital investments and yield high value-to-weight
products that are non-perishable and therefore storable.
Both can be cultivated in conditions that are too demanding for most other crops. They are also
suitable for regions that suffer from land shortage since the value of yield per hectare is much
higher than from the legal crops.
Opium and coca can be grown in a same plot for 15 years (coca up to 40). This allows the
producers to use the same plot significantly longer than in case of other crops.
Furthermore, opium requires less than a half-year to mature and it can be alternated with other
crops. For example, same plot can be used for maize cultivation for the other half of the year.
Therefore, often opium poppy and coca bush outperform alternative crops and the cultivation often
concentrates in regions with land shortage and harsh conditions.
The fact that opium and coca can be stored up to several years without that they lose their value,
they are often used as a form of household savings.
In some areas opium and coca can be the only crops that can be profitably produced for the outside
markets.

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OPIUM
Lanced poppy pods oozing raw opium resin. Photos from UNDCP pages; http://www.undcp.org (to the
left) and from Photo Essay on Cultivation of Opium in India; http://www.ieo.org/opm_mass.html.
Opium poppy can be grown in the most parts of the world, up to latitude 56 N. Opium poppy is
not only grown for opium but also for its seeds that have high oil content. It is also grown for its
flowers like other poppy varieties that do not contain opium.
For example, opium poppy can and has been cultivated in Europe for its seeds (European opium
poppy “belt” reaches from northern France, Netherlands, and Belgium, over the southern
Germany, Switzerland, Austria and to Bulgaria, Romania, and Ukraine).
However, Macedonia is the only region where opium has been produced in significant amounts
(Opium Production throughout the World 1949).
In addition to Macedonia, in Bulgaria and Soviet Union opium poppy has been cultivated for the
sake of opium (Dalev et al. 1960).

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Picture 2. Opium poppy field. Source: Photo Essay on Cultivation
of Opium in India; http://www.ieo.org/opm_mass.html.
Largest Opium Producers During the 1990s:
• During the recent years there has been shift in production from South-East Asia
(Myanmar, Thailand, Laos) to South-West Asia (Afghanistan).
• The largest producers are (not in order) Afghanistan, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam, Pakistan,
Thailand, Colombia, and Mexico. Of these countries Pakistan produced virtually no
opium 2000, and Vietnam and Thailand have ceased to be major producers.
• According to ODCCP (2001), 70 % comes from Afghanistan, 23 % from Myanmar,
5 % from other Asian countries (primarily Laos and Thailand) and 2% from Latin
America (Colombia and Mexico).
Other countries and regions currently producing opium and mentioned by different sources are:
Egypt, India, and Central Asia.
The extent of production in Central Asia (the former Soviet states Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) and Caucasus (Georgia, southern Russia) is unclear. Wild
opium poppy and cannabis grow over vast areas in these countries.

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Former Producers
Before the 1970s and 1980s, largest producers were Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey. Iran, however,
was the largest market for opium and imported opium.
In the 1930 and 1940s largest producers were Iran, Turkey, and India.
Cultivation Conditions for Opium Poppy: (Mansfield 1999)
• Efficient cash crop that tolerates well harsh conditions. Cultivated in areas that are not
suitable for other crops
• Does not require irrigation
• Up to 3000 meters
• Tolerates a variety of soil and climatic conditions.
Climatic Requirements
• In early stages requires cool climate (3 – 10 Celsius degrees) and high humidity (rain is not
necessarily if there is enough humidity that condense, for example, during the nights).
• Sun is important during the flowering period and after flowering dry soil is necessary. Rain
and wind destroy the plants during these later stages.
• Harvesting is possible only during hot and sunny days.
These climatic requirements may explain why, for example, opium has never been cultivated in
southern Thailand (climate is cool enough only on the mountains in the northern parts of the
country). One has to note also that Cambodia is not mentioned by any of the sources as an opium
cultivating country even though all its neighbors produce opium.
This may be explained by the fact that the climate prohibits the cultivation in Cambodia. In
contrast, Cambodia has been mentioned as cannabis exporter, and cannabis is also widely
cultivated in the lowland Thailand and southern Thailand.

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Labor-Intensive Crop
• Cultivation extremely labor-intensive.
• Harvesting period is very short and requires some skill.
• Estimated, that in Thailand, harvesting of a 0.2-hectare plot requires one month for one
person. (Mansfield 1999)
• In Laos and Thailand total labor required for one hectare of opium field is estimated to
vary between 300 and 486 person days. (Mansfield 1999)
• In Afghanistan cultivation requires 350 person days for a hectare compared to 41 for
wheat.
COUNTRIES CURRENTLY CULTIVATING OPIUM OR
COCA
Good maps for coca and opium cultivation areas in Latin America, Central Asia, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and South-East Asia can be found in a report by UNDCP 1997: Supply of and
Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 1996,
http://www.undcp.org/technical_series.html.
Afghanistan
• In 1972 Turkey abolished opium production and in 1979 Iran effectively prohibited
opium cultivation. Consequently, Afghanistan became an alternative source for opium
(ODCCP 2001).
• Between 1979 and 1989 warfare destroyed the country and opium cultivation emerged
as an alternative for other crops and important source of cash. (ODCCP 2001)
• In the 1990s Afghanistan became the largest opium producer in the world. Opium has
been cultivated in Afghanistan throughout the last century but the dramatic increase in
cultivation did not take place before the mid-80s. The annual growth rate of production
has been estimated to be 23 % since 1986. (ODCCP 2001)

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• In 1999 Taliban ordered the cultivators to reduce opium fields by one third (however,
area decreased only by 10 %). Later, combined with severe drought, the production
dropped almost by 30 %. (ODCCP 2001)
• In 2001 there was a dramatic drop in opium production when Taliban effectively
prohibited opium poppy cultivation. (UNDCP 2002)
• Opium is smuggled via Balkan route (Iran, Turkey, Balkan) or Silk route (via Central
Asia)
• In Afghanistan and Pakistan opium is mainly cultivated by Pashtoons (an ethnic group),
except in Badakhshan (Mansfield 1999).
Cultivation Areas
• In 1924, opium was cultivated in Herat, Badakhshan, and Jalalabad (Nangarhar) Districts
(ODCCP 2001).
• For the 1940s, Herat and Nangarhar are mentioned as main cultivation areas (Opium
Production throughout the World 1949).
• Before and during the 1970s opium was cultivated in Nangarhar and Badakhshan
Districts. During the 1970s cultivated also in Helmand. (Gobar 1976)
• During the 1990s the cultivation concentrated in Helmand and Nangarhar. Also, Uruzgan,
Quandahar, and Badakhshan produce large amounts of opium. New production areas
were Baghlan, Balkh, and Jawzjan that all are located in the northern Afghanistan. Also,
provinces in the eastern Afghanistan produced some opium. (UNDCP 2002)

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Myanmar
• Second largest opium and heroin producer in 2002.
• Production takes place in the eastern and northern Myanmar (Kahcin and Eastern Shan
states) on the mountains (where climate is cool enough for the first phase of the growing
season).
• Often cultivated by the minorities
• The same areas producing opium and heroin now also produce Amphetamine Types
Stimulants (ATS).
Cultivation period: September - March dry season
Opium cultivation came to Myanmar from Yunnan region in China during the 19th
century (or
earlier). Opium cultivation was prohibited 1912 in China and the production moved to Kachin
and Shan regions in northern Myanmar. In Myanmar the ban on opium cultivation was effectively
introduced as late as in the mid-70s. (ODCCP 2001)
After independence in 1949, ethnic minorities in Myanmar rose against the central government
and at least Shan separatists used opium money to finance their uprising. Over the time the
warfare has turn to struggle to secure the income from opium production to the clashing groups
rather than to pursue political targets. (ODCCP 2001)
During the 1950s, Kuomintang (defeated Chinese Nationalists) began to regroup in Shan area to
invade Southern China (Yunnan). Their attempts failed and instead they took control of Shan and
the most important opium producing areas there (Wa, Kokang and Kengtung). Kuomintang was
pushed to Thailand in 1961 but it continued to control opium production in the Shan region.
(ODCCP 2001)
Burmese Communist Party that fought against the military government took control of Shan
during the late 1970s. They came to control 80% of the opium fields. (ODCCP 2001)
New market for opium opened during the Vietnam War; up to 34 % of all US troops in Vietnam
used heroin and therefore the heroin production developed in the area. Kuomintang controlled the
heroin production and heroin was mainly produced near Thailand border in Myanmar.

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Thailand
• Opium cultivation concentrated on the mountains in the northwest Thailand.
• In the 40s opium was cultivated in the northern Thailand in the border regions to
Myanmar and Laos.
• Cultivated on the altitudes over 1000 m.
• Growing season: from September to March.
Cannabis is also widely cultivated in the lowland Thailand and southern Thailand
Columbia
In addition to coca, Colombia also produces opium and cannabis.
Coca
• Cocaine processing started in the 1970s, but most coca leaves were imported from Peru
and Bolivia
• Coca cultivation expanded especially during the 90s when coca leave production declined
in Peru and Bolivia.
• Coca is mainly cultivated in south-central Colombia. Departments with the highest
concentrations for coca production are Guviare, Caqueta, Putumayo, Bolivar, Meta,
Cauca, Nariño, Vichada, Guania, and Vaupes. (NADP 2000)
• In contrast to Peru and Bolivia, coca bush is cultivated on large plantations owned by
absentee landlords.
Opium
• Cultivated from the late 1980s
• Grown in high Andean valleys (southwestern Highlands) on small plots on the altitudes
between 2000-3000 m (Armstead 1992).
• Concentrated in Tolima, Huila, (Cauca and Nariño) departments.
Cannabis
• Cultivated during the 1960s and 1970s, since then overshadowed by coca production.
(ODCCP Colombia Country Profile 2001)

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• Cultivated in Santa Marta region (Sierra Nevada) department and on the Perija mountains
in
Serrana department (both in the northeast Colombia). (Armstead 1992)
Cultivated on the altitudes between 1000-2000 meters.
Figure 2. Coca buss, opium poppy and cannabis cultivation in Colombia 1990-1999 (hectares). Source:
http://www.undcp.org/colombia/country_profile.html
1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990
Coca
122,500 79,500 79,500 67,200 50,900 44,700 39,700 37,100 37,500 40,100
Opium 7,500 6,100 6,600 6,300 6,540 20,000 20,000 20,000 1,344 0
Cannabis
5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 4,980 4,986 5,000 2,000 2,000 1500
Other Opium and Coca (Cannabis) Producing Countries
Guatemala
Opium poppy cultivated in San Marcos department, however production classified as minor as a
result of successful eradication.
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan
For opium, see maps in Supply of and Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
1996 (UNDCP 1999), http://www.undcp.org/technical_series.html (pages 14 - 16). However, in
ODCCP 2000 it is stated that the earlier fears of existence of large opium poppy areas in Central
Asia were unfounded.
In the 1930s there was legal opium production in Kazakhstan (southeast of Lake Balkhash) and
Kyrgyzstan (on the mountain ranges Tian Shan and Alataus) (Opium Production throughout the
World 1949).
Cannabis cultivation in Kazakhstan cultivation is concentrated in Jambul region (ODCCP 2000).
Mexico
Illegal opium production began in the 1930s. Report Opium Production throughout the World
(1949) lists Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Lower California Chihuahua, Jalisco, Nyarit, and Guerrero
as cultivation areas during the 30s and 40s.
According to (Armstead 1992), in the late 1980s Southeast Chiapas emerged as a new area where
opium poppy was cultivated. He mentions that earlier also regions such as Sinaloa, Durango,

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Chihuahua in northern Mexico produced opium (according to him, in these areas cultivation had
been successfully eradicated and therefore production had moved to Chiapas.
COUNTRIES THAT HAVE PRODUCED OPIUM AND
COCA
Africa
Tunis and Egypt are reported to have produced opium during the 1940s (Opium Production
throughout the World 1949). Both produced small amounts and production was illegal in both
countries. During the 1990s Egypt (South Sinai) produced minor amounts of opium for domestic
use.
Lebanon was a major producer of opium and cannabis in the Middle East in the 1970s and 1980s.
In 1991-1993 Lebanese and Syrian forces eradicated illicit cultivation in the Bekaa Valley.
Subsequently Lebanon gradually transformed from a producer country to a regional hub for
cocaine and heroin trafficking. (http://www.undcp.org/egypt/country_profile_lebanon.html)
Bulgaria
Opium was cultivated in western Bulgaria in the regions of Blagoevgrad, Mikhailovgrad, Plovdiv
(Dalev et al. 1960).
China
Production and consumption of non-medical opium has been illegal since the 1912 in China.
However, in the 1940s illicit cultivation was thought to be common in mountainous and backward
regions but exact information for this is not available. Apparently, at least in Yunnan, opium
production was high during the 1940s and only the eastern Provinces were estimated not to have
any opium production at the time. (Opium Production throughout the World 1949)
Ecuador
Coca leaves produced during the 1970s but production small and declining during the 80s
(Abruzzese 1989). Ecuador is not mentioned in the production figures for 1990s.
India
During the first half of the 20th
century India was one of the major opium producers (Opium
Production throughout the World 1949). The areas under opium poppy cultivation are shown in
Map 1. Asthana (1954) mentions that at least following regions had opium cultivation: Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Rajasthan, and Himachal in the early 1950s. Today, opium poppy is
grown and opium produced in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, and Rajasthan, however, tightly

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under government control (Photo Essay on Cultivation of Opium in India 2002). However, some
opium finds its way to illicit channels (http://www.undcp.org/india/country_profile.html).
Iran
Iran was until 1979 one of the chief opium producing and exporting countries. The Report
“Opium Production throughout the World” (1949) lists Khorassan, Luristan, Isfahan, and
Fars’s provinces as largest producers and Kermansha, Hamadan, Yazd, and Kerman as significant
producers. The production was thus located in the northeastern, west-central, and southwestern
parts of Iran.
Kashmir
According to the Report “Opium Production throughout the World” (1949) Kashmir produced a
little opium during the 30s and 40s. (See Map 1)
Map 1. Cultivation areas for opium poppy in Indian and Kashmir in the 1940s. (Opium Production
throughout the World 1949).

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Macedonia
Opium poppy was cultivated in the central and eastern parts of Macedonia (Kusvíé 1960).
Map 2. Opium poppy cultivation areas in Yugoslavia during the first half of the 20th
century. Grown in
the central and eastern parts. Source: Opium Production throughout the World 1949.
Nepal
According to the Report “Opium Production throughout the World” (1949) Nepal had been a
major opium producer but that in the 40s there was no longer Nepalese opium in the international
markets. In Nepal opium was cultivated in the tropical lowlands.
Turkey
Turkey was one of the largest exporters during the 1940s in the world. Production was mainly
legal and tightly controlled and Turkey exported opium only to countries where opium was
further manufactured. (Opium Production throughout the World 1949). For production areas,
Map 3. Opium poppy areas in Turkey in the 40s. (Source: (Opium Production throughout the World 1949).

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POTENTIAL NEW AREAS FOR LARGE SCALE DRUG
CULTIVATION
Africa
Export oriented cannabis cultivation is spreading fast in the Africa. Morocco is already the largest
supplier for the European markets and production in West (Nigeria, Congo (Zaire) and Ghana)
and Southern Africa (South Africa, Malawi, Lesotho, Swaziland and Mozambique) has grown
beyond just satisfying domestic demand. In addition, countries such as Uganda, Kenya, and
Ethiopia have experienced a remarkable increase in cannabis production in the recent years.
There are also reports of experimental cultivation of opium poppy at least in Kenya and Egypt.
Central Asia, Caucasus and Southern Russia
The drug cultivation situation in these areas is unclear. Both Cannabis and opium poppy grow
wild in these countries and the regions have long traditions to produce these for local use
(although not necessarily for drugs but for opium seeds that are used in baking). The production
potential is huge and cultivation may shift to these areas if it is eradicated successfully in other
Asian countries.
In contrast, opium production for exporting has much longer history in Asia. For example, during
the first half of the 19th
century Brits forced China to keep their borders open for opium exports
from British India (so called Opium War).
In the Golden Triangle that composes of northern Thailand, northeastern Myanmar, south
Yunnan (China) and northern Laos, opium cultivation and trade has been widespread at least
since the 19th
century.

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Cultivation and Collection: -
Opium is cultivated under license from the government. Its seeds are sown in October or March
in alluvial soil. After germination of seeds snow falls. In spring the thin plant attains the height
of 15 cm. Fertilizers are used for better crop.
The poppy of first crop blossoms in April or May and the capsule mature in June or July.
When the capsules are about 4 cm in diameter, the colour changes from green to yellow; they are
incised with a knife about 1 mm deep around the circumference between midday and evening. The
knife, known as a ‘nushtur’ bears narrow iron spikes which are drawn down the capsule to produce
several longitudinal cuts.
The incision must not penetrate into the interior of the capsule otherwise latex will be lost. The
latex tube opens into one another. The latex, which is white in the beginning, immediately
coagulates and turns brown. Next morning it is removed by scrapping with a knife and transferred
to a poppy leaf. Each capsule is cut several times at intervals of two or three days. After collection
the latex is placed in a tilted vessel so that the dark fluid which is not required may drain off. By
exposure to air the opium acquires a suitable consistency for packing.
The dried latex is kneaded into balls, wrapped in poppy leaves and dried in shade. The principal
commercial varieties of Opium are Turkish Opium, Indian Opium, Chinese Opium,
Yugoslavian Opium and Persian Opium.

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Chemical Constituents: - Opium contains about 35 alkaloids among which morphine (10–
16%) is the most important base. The alkaloids are combined with meconic acid. The other
alkaloids isolated from the drug are codeine (0.8–2.5%), narcotine, the-baine (0.5–2%).
noscapine (4–8%), narceine and papaverine (0.5–2.5%). Morphine contains a phenanthrene
nucleus.
The different types of alkaloids isolated are:
1. Morphine Type: Morphine, codeine, neopine, pseudo or oxymorphine, thebaine and
porphyroxine. Morphine consists of alkaloids which has phenanthrene nucleus whereas those of
the papaverine group has benzylisoquinoline structure. Protopine and hydrocotamine are of
different structural types. The morphine molecule has both a phenolic and an alcoholic hydroxyl
group and acetylated form is diacetyl morphine or heroin. Codeine is ether of morphine. Other
morphine ethers which are used medicinally are ethylmorphine and pholcodine.
2. Phthalide Isoquinoline Type: Hydrocotarnme, narcotoline, 1-narcotine, noscapine,
oxynarcotine, narceine, and 5’-O-demethyl-narcotine.
3. Benzyl Isoquinoline Type: Papaverine, dl-laudanine, laudanidine, codamine and laudanosine.
4. Cryptopine Type: Protopine, cryptopine.
5. Unknown Constituents: Aporeine, diodeadine, meconidine, papaveramine and lanthopine. The
drug also contains sugars, sulphates, albuminous compounds, colouring matter and moisture. In
addition to these anisaldehyde, vanillin, vanillic acid, β-hydroxystyrene, fumaric acid, lactic acid,
benzyl alcohol, 2-hydroxycinchonic acid, phthalic acid, hemipinic acid, meconin and an odorous
compound have also been reported.

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Heroin Abuse
Heroin (diacetylmorphine) is derived from the morphine alkaloid found in opium and is roughly 2
to 3 times more potent. A highly addictive drug, heroin exhibits euphoric ("rush"), anxiolytic and
analgesic central nervous system properties.
Heroin is classified as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 and as such
has no acceptable medical use in the United States.
Pure heroin is a white powder that tastes bitter. Because heroin abusers do not know the actual
strength of the drug or its true contents, they are at risk of overdose or death.
 Most illicit heroin is sold as a white or brownish powder and may be "cut" with other
substances such as sugar, starch, powdered milk, or quinine. It can also be cut with
strychnine or other poisons.
 Another form of heroin known as "black tar" may be sticky, like roofing tar, or hard, like
coal. Its color may vary from dark brown to black. This form is smoked or snorted up the
nose.
 Recently, more potent opioids such as fentanyl and carfentanyl have been found "cut" into
heroin sold on the streets, and can be deadly to unsuspecting users. Death have been
reported.

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Chemical Tests
1. Aqueous extract of Opium with FeCl3 solution gives deep reddish purple colour which persists
on addition of HCl. It indicates the presence of meconic acid.
2. Morphine gives dark violet colour with conc. H2SO4 and formaldehyde.
3. Opium alkaloids when treated with ferric chloride solution, deep reddish purple colour is
produced which persist even after the addition of few drops of hydrochloric acid.
Uses
Opium and morphine have narcotic, analgesic and sedative action and used to relieve pain,
Diarrhoea dysentery and cough. Poppy capsules are astringent, somniferous, soporific,
sedative and narcotic and used as anodyne and emollient.
Codeine is mild sedative and is employed in cough mixtures.
Noscapine is not narcotic and has cough suppressant action acting as a central antitussive drug.
Papaverine has smooth muscle relaxant action and is used to cure muscle spasms.
Opium, morphine and the diacetyl derivative heroin, cause drug addiction.
 Morphine, Codeine and Papaverine: These are the opium alkaloids obtained from the latex
of Papaver Somniferum. It is used as a pain killer (morphine) and antitussive (codeine).

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ISOLATION OF OPIUM ALKALOIDS
Morphine and codeine are the two important Isoquinoline alkaloids present in the air-dried milky
exudates obtained by incision of unripe capsules of Papaver Somniferum Linn (Papaveraceae).
Isolation: - The powdered drug is extracted with boiling water and to the aqueous phase calcium
chloride is added and concentrated to get salts of morphine and codeine as crystals. It is treated
with chloroform. The soluble portion consists of codeine and the insoluble portion consists of
morphine. The powered drug is shaken with calcium chloride and filtered. To the filterate add
10% of sodium hydroxide solution. It is filtered.
The marc consists of narcotine, papaverine, the-bain and the filtrate consist of morphine, codeine.
The filtrate is extracted with chloroform. The chloroform layer is separated. It consists of codeine
while the aqueous layer consists of morphine and narceine. The aqueous layer is first acidified and
later on slightly alkalized with ammonia.
Morphine is precipitated on the addition of ammonia and the aqueous layer consists of narceine.
The marc consisting of narcotine, papaverine and thebain is dissolved in alcohol and then acidified
with acetic acid. To the acidified solution, add three volumes of boiling water. Precipitates of
narcotine and papaverine are formed and thebain still remains in the aqueous solution.
Papaverine is separated from narcotine by the addition of 0.3% oxalic acid solution and allowed
to cool. On cooling the papaverine crystals are obtained. The aqueous solution is made alkaline
with ammonia for the precipitation of narcapine which is re-crystalized using water.
Melting Point: Morphine 254°C, Thebaine 193°C, Codeine 154–156°C.
Thin Layer Chromatography of Opium Alkaloids Opium: -
Alkaloids are spotted in Silica gel-G plates and developed with two different solvent systems
separately, solvent system I, chloroform: acetone: diethylamine (5:4:1) and solvent system II,
xylene: methyl ethyl ketone: methanol: diethylamine (20:20:3:1). The dried plates are sprayed with
Dragendroff ’s reagent. The spots of the alkaloids will be reddish brown in colour and the Rf values
of the alkaloids in both the solvent systems are:
Solvent System I: Morphine (Rf -0.10), Codeine (Rf -0.38), Thebaine (Rf -0.65), Papeverine (Rf
-0.67) and Narcotine (Rf -0.72).
Solvent System II: Morphine (Rf -0.12), Codeine (Rf -0.26), Thebaine (Rf -0.45), Papeverine (R
-0.59) and Narcotine (Rf -0.74).

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PAPAVERACEAE
Habit: They are mostly herbs with milky or yellowish latex.
Leaves: The leaves are radical and cauline, simple and alternate, often lobed.
Flowers: These are solitary, often showy, regular, bisexual and hypogynous.
Calyx: The sepals are typically two or sometimes three, free, caducous.
Corolla: There are petals 2+2 or 3+3, arranged rarely more, in two whorls (rarely three), large,
free, rolled or crumpled in the bud, caducous and imbricate.
Androecium: Stamens α, sometimes two or four. They are free.
Gynoecium: The carpels (2- ∞), (4–6) in argemone. It is syncarpous. The ovary is superior, 1-
chambered, or spuriously 2- to 4-chambered, with 2-∞ parietal placentae which may project
inwards, as in poppy (papaver). The stigmas are distinct or sessile and rayed over the ovary, as in
poppy. The ovules are numerous.
Fruit: This is a septicidal capsule dehiscing by or opening by pores. There are many seeds, with
oily endosperm.
Floral formula: ⊕ H K 2 or 3 C 2+2 or 3+3 A ∞ G (2-∞).
Examples: Argemone Mexicana, Opium poppy (Papavera Somniferum) etc.

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“Narcotic Drug” means coca leaf, cannabis (hemp), opium, poppy straw and includes all
manufactured drugs; “Opium”: means—
(a) The coagulated juice of the opium poppy.
(b) Any mixture, with or without any neutral material, of the coagulated juice of the opium poppy,
but does not include any preparation containing not more than 0.2 percentage of morphine.
“Opium derivative”: means—
 Medicinal opium, that is, opium which has undergone the processes necessary to adapt it
for medicinal use in accordance with the requirements of the Indian Pharmacopoeia or any
other pharmacopoeia notified in this behalf by the Central Government, whether in powder
form or granulated or otherwise or mixed with neutral materials;
 Prepared opium, that is, any product of opium obtained by any series of operations
designed to transform opium into an extract suitable for smoking and the dross or other
residue remaining after opium is smoked;
 Phenanthrene alkaloids, namely, morphine, codeine, thebaine and their salts.
 Diacetylmorphine, that is, the alkaloid also known as dia-morphine or heroin and its salts.
 All preparations containing more than 0.2 per cent. of morphine or containing any
diacetylmorphine.
“Opium poppy”: means—
(A) The plant of the species Papaver Somniferum L; and
(B) The plant of any other species of Papaver from which opium or any phenanthrene alkaloid can
be extracted and which the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
declare to be opium poppy for the purposes of this Act;
“Poppy straw”: means all parts (except the seeds) of the opium poppy after harvesting whether
in their original form or cut, crushed or powdered and whether or not juice has been extracted there
from; “Poppy straw concentrate”: means the material arising when poppy straw has entered into a
process for the concentration of its alkaloids;
“Essential narcotic drug”: means a narcotic drug notified by the Central Government for medical
and scientific use.

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AUTHORITIES AND OFFICERS
Measure for preventing and combating abuse of narcotic drugs and illicit traffic therein: Central
Government under the provisions of this Act, may take the measures with respect to all or any of
the following matters.
1. Co-ordination of actions by various officers, State Governments and other authorities under
this Act, or under any other law for the time being in force relating to the enforcement of the
provisions of this Act.
2. Obligations under the International Conventions.
3. Assistance to the concerned authorities in foreign countries and concerned international
organizations regarding prevention and suppression of illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and
psychotropic substances.
4. Identification, treatment, education, aftercare, rehabilitation and social re-interaction of addicts.
5. Such other matters for effective implementation of this Act and preventing and combating the
abuse of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances and illicit traffic therein.
Officers of Central Government:
Under the provisions of this Act, the Central Government may appoint Narcotic Commissioner
and such other officer as it thinks fit.
Narcotic Commissioner himself or with the help of other officers shall perform the functions
relating to:
(i) The supervision of the cultivation of the opium poppy.
(ii) Production of opium.
(iii) Other functions as may be entrusted to him by the Central Government.
The State Government may appoint such officers as deemed fit for the purposes of this Acts.

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The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
Consultative Committee: For efficient administration of this Act, the Central Government
may constitute an advisory committee known as: ‘‘The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic
Substances Consultative Committee". This committee consists of a chairman and such other
members not exceeding 20, as may be appointed by the Central Government. For efficient
discharge of its functions the Committee may constitute and appoint one or more sub-committees.
The committee shall advice the Central Government on the matters relating to the administration
of this Act.
Prohibition, Control and Regulation: Section 8, of this Act prohibits certain operations such as
cultivation of coca plant, opium and cannabis plant, manufacture, possession, sale, purchase,
transport, import, export, etc. relating to the narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances except
for medical and scientific purposes.
However, section 9, of this Act empowers the Central Government to permit, control und
regulate by rules, certain operations relating to certain narcotic drugs and psychotropic
substances.
(a) Prohibition of certain operations as per sec. 8: No person shall.
(b) Cultivate any coca plant or gather any portion of coca plant.
(c) Cultivate the opium poppy or any cannabis plant.
(d) Produce, manufacture, possess, sell, purchase, transport, ware-house, use, consume, import
inter-state, export inter-state, import into India, export from India or transship any narcotic
drug or psychotropic substance except for medical and scientific purposes and to the extent
and in the manner provided by other provisions of this Act, or the rules or orders made there
under.

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Power of Central Government to Permit, Control, and
Regulate:
Permission and Regulation of certain operations by Central Government: Central Government
may, by rules permit and regulate:
i. The cultivation, or gathering of any portion of coca plant (only on account of the Central
Government), or the production, sale, purchase, transport, import inter-state, export
inter-state, use or consumption of coca leaves.
ii. The cultivation of the opium poppy; (only on account of Central Government).
iii. The production and manufacture of opium and production of opium and production
of poppy straw.
iv. The sale of opium and opium derivatives from the Central Government factories for export
from India or sale to State Government or to manufacturing chemists.
a. The manufacture of manufactured drugs (Other than prepared opium) but not
including manufacture of medicinal opium or any preparation containing any
manufactured drug from materials which the maker is lawfully entitled to possess.
b. The manufacture, possession, transport, imports inter-state, export inter-state, sale,
purchase, consumption or use of psychotropic substances.
v. The import into India and export from India and trans-shipment of narcotic drugs and
psychotropic substances. Control on Certain Operations by Central government:
According to the rules:
a) Government shall fix from time to time the limits within which licenses may be
given for the cultivation of opium poppy.
b) All Opium, the product of land cultivated with the opium poppy shall be delivered
by the cultivators to the officers authorized on behalf of Central Government.
c) The Central Government may from time to time fix the price to be paid to the
cultivators for the opium delivered.
d) The rules may prescribe the forms and conditions of licenses or permits for the
manufacture, possession, transport, import-inter-state, export inter-state, sale,
purchase, consumption or use of psychotropic substances.

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vi. The rules may prescribe the forms and conditions of licenses for cultivation of the opium
poppy and for the production and manufacture of opium. The rules may also prescribe
the fees that may be charged therefore, the authorities by which such licenses may be
granted, withheld, refused or cancelled and the authorities before which appeals against the
orders of withholding, cancellation of licenses shall lie.
vii. The rules may provide for the weighed, examined, classified according to the quality and
consistence by the officers authorized in this behalf by the Central Government in the
presence of the cultivator at the time of delivery by the cultivator.
viii. The rules may provide for the weighment, examination and classification, according to the
quality and consistence of the opium received at the factory and the deduction from or
addition to the standard price to be made in accordance with the result of such examination.
ix. The rules may prescribe the forms and conditions of licenses for the manufacture of
manufactured drugs, the authorities by which such licenses may be granted and the fees
that may be charged therefore.
x. The rules may require that opium delivered by cultivator, if found as a result of
examination in the Central Government factory to be adulterated, may be confiscated
by the officers authorized in this behalf.

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Power of State Government to Permit, Control and Regulate:
Permission and Regulation of certain operations by State Government: State Government may
by rules permit and regulate:
a) The possession, transport, inter-state import, inter-state export, warehousing, sale,
purchase, consumption and use of poppy straw.
b) The possession, transport, inter-state import, inter-state export, sale, purchase,
consumption and use of opium.
c) Cultivation of any cannabis plant production, manufacture, possession, transport,
interstate import, inter-state export, sale purchase, consumption or use of cannabis
(excluding charas).
d) Manufacture of medicinal opium or any preparation containing any manufactured drug
from materials which the maker is lawfully entitled to possess.
e) Possession, transport, purchase, sale, inter-state import, inter-state export, use or
consumption of manufactured drugs other than prepared opium and of coca-leaf and
any preparation containing a manufactured drug.
f) The manufacture and possession of prepared opium from opium lawfully possessed by
an addict registered with the State Government on medical advice for his personal
consumption.
Control of certain Operations by State Government: The rules under this Act may
i. Provide that the State Government shall fix from time to time the limits within
which licenses may be given for the cultivation of any cannabis plant.
ii. Make provision that, only the cultivators licensed by the prescribed authority of the
State Government shall be authorized to engage in cultivation of any cannabis plant.
iii. Require that all cannabis, the produce of land cultivated with cannabis plant, shall
be delivered by the cultivators to the officers of the State Government authorized on
this behalf.
iv. Empower the State Government to fix from time to time, the price to be paid to the
cultivators for the cannabis delivered.
v. Prescribe the forms and conditions of licenses or permits licenses or permits for some
or all of the followings: possession, transport, import inter-state, export inter-state,
warehousing, sale, purchase, consumption and use of poppy straw, opium, cannabis
(excluding charas).

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National Fund for Control of Drug Abuse
1. The Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, constitute a Fund to be
called the National Fund for Control of Drug Abuse (hereafter in this Chapter referred to as the
Fund) and there shall be credited thereto:
 An amount which the Central Government may, after due appropriation made by
Parliament by law in this behalf, provide.
 The sale proceeds of any property forfeited under Chapter VA.
 Any grants that may be made by any person or institution.
 Any income from investment of the amounts credited to the Fund under the aforesaid
provisions.
2. The Governing Body shall consist of a Chairman (not below the rank of an Additional
Secretary to the Central Government) and such other members not exceeding six as the Central
Government may appoint.
3. The Governing Body shall have the power to regulate its own procedure.
4. Annual report of activities financed under the Fund-
 The Central Government shall, as soon as may be, after the end of each financial year,
cause to be published in the Official Gazette, a report giving an account of the activities
financed under the previous section during the financial year, together with a statement of
accounts.
5. The Fund shall be applied by the Central Government to meet the expenditure incurred in
connection with the measures taken for
 Combating illicite traffic of narcotic and psychotropic substances.
 Controlling abuse
 Identifying, treating, rehabilitating addicts.
 Preventing drug abuse.
 Supply of drugs to addicts.

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OFFENCES AND PENALTIES
1. Punishment for contravention in relation to poppy straw.
2. Punishment for contravention in relation to coca plant and leaves.
3. Punishment for contravention in relation to prepared opium.
4. Punishment for contravention in relation to opium poppy and opium.
5. Punishment for embezzlement (illegal disposal) of opium by cultivator.
6. Punishment for contravention in relation to cannabis plant and cannabis.
(a) Where such contravention relates to ganja or the cultivation of cannabis plant: Rigorous
imprisonment upto five years with a fine upto fifty thousand rupees.
(b) Where such contravention relates to cannabis other than ganja: Rigorous imprisonment
for not less than ten years which may extend to twenty years with fine not less than one
lakh rupees which may extend to two lakh rupees.
7. Punishment for contravention in relation to manufactured drugs and preparations:
8. Punishment for contravention in relation to psychotropic substances:
9. Punishment for illegal import into India, export from India or transhipment of narcotic drugs
and psychotropic substances:
10. Punishment for external dealings in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in
contravention of the provisions of this Act: Rigorous imprisonment for not less than ten years
which may extend to twenty years with a fine not less than one lakh rupees which may extend
to two lakh rupees.
11. Punishment for allowing premises, etc. to be used for commencement of an offence: Rigorous
imprisonment for not less than ten years which may extend to twenty years with fine not less
than one lakh rupees which may extend to two lakh rupees.
12. Punishment for certain acts by licensee or his servants:
The acts are:
(a) Omitting to maintain accounts in accordance with the provisions of this Act.
(b) Failure of producing license, permit or authorization on demand of any authorized
officer.
(c) Knowingly doing any act in breach of any of the conditions of license, permit or
authorization for which a penalty is not prescribed elsewhere in this Act: Imprisonment up-to
three years or fine or both.

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13. Punishment for illegal possession in small quantity for personal consumption of any narcotic
drug or psychotropic substance or consumption such drug or substance:
(a) Where the narcotic drug or psychotropic substance possessed or consumed is cocaine,
morphine, diacetyl-morphine or any other narcotic drug or any psychotropic substance.
Imprisonment up-to one year or fine or both.
(b) Where the narcotic drug or psychotropic substance possessed or consumed is other than
those mentioned in
(a) above: Imprisonment up-to six months or fine or both.
14. Punishment for abetment and criminal conspiracy: Punishment provided for the offences.
15. Enhanced punishment for certain offences after previous conviction, On second and every
subsequent conviction of offences:
16. Punishment for offence for which no punishment is provided under this act: Imprisonment up-
to six months or fine or both. Opium Poppy Cultivation and Production of Poppy Straw the
NDPS Act empowers the Central Government to permit and regulate cultivation of opium poppy
for medical and scientific purposes.
The Government of India notifies the tracts where opium cultivation can be licensed as well as the
General Conditions for issuance of license every year. Opium and poppy straw are the raw
materials obtained from the opium poppy plant (Papaver Somniferum), from which alkaloids
such as morphine, thebaine and codeine are extracted.
Concentrate of poppy straw is a product obtained in the process of extracting alkaloids from poppy
straw.

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April 23, 2022
Production and Supply of the Opium
 Opium (also called “raw opium”) is the latex obtained by making incisions on the green capsules
of opium poppy plants.
 Cultivation can be done only in those areas, notified by the govt.
 Licences are granted by district opium officers for cultivation. He appoints one licenced
cultivator who performs duties as specified by narcotic commissioner with help of small cultivators
under him.
 Harvest of each day’s collection is weighed and entered in records which is signed by
cultivator. The records are checked by the dist. opium officer.
 The whole opium collected by the dist. Officer is then delivered to opium factory.
 The cultivators are paid and they should not dispose of any part of the procedure and
adulteration is liable for confiscation.
 Cultivator should cultivate full area of land for which he may have received advance
amount from the govt.
 Opium shall not be cultivated in any part of the India except UP and MP (as per central
opium rules, 1934).
Manufacture Poppy straw is first pulverized, then washed as many as six to ten or more times in
water which may have an acid added to increase solubility, to produce poppy straw concentrate
(PSC, also known as concentrate of poppy straw, CPS).
Dried, the concentrate is a beige to brown powder. It contains salts of various alkaloids, and can
range from nine to 30 times the morphine concentration of poppy straw. Opium concentrates using
solvents other than acidified or plain water are often but not necessarily called PSC. Fee for grant
of licence.
The licence of cultivation of opium poppy may be granted by the District Opium Officer on
payment of a fee of [rupees twenty-five].

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April 23, 2022
Form of licence for cultivation of the opium poppy. The licence for cultivation of opium poppy
for the production of opium or poppy straw shall be issued in Form No. 1 appended to these rules.
Issue of licence-Subject to the general conditions relating to grant of licence notified by the Central
Government*, the District Opium Officer may issue licence to any person for a crop year for
cultivation of the opium poppy for production of opium or poppy straw on receipt of an application
made by that person in Form No.2 appended to these rules.
Licence to specify the area, etc.-The licence for cultivation of opium poppy issued under rule 8
shall specify the area aid designate the Plots to be cultivated with opium poppy.
Procedure with regard to measurement of land cultivated with opium poppy. -
1. All plots of land cultivated with opium poppy in accordance with the licence issued under these
rules, shall be measured in meters by the proper officer in the presence of the cultivator.
2. The measurement conducted by the proper officer shall be subject to such further checks by
such officers as may be specified by the Narcotics Commissioner in this behalf. Delivery of
opium produced- All opium, the produce of land cultivated opium poppy, shall be delivered by the
cultivators to the district Opium Officer or any other officer duly authorized in this behalf, by the
Narcotics Commissioner at a place as may be specified by such officer.
Manufacture Sale and Export of Opium Manufacture of opium- Opium shall not be manufactured
save by the Central Government Opium Factories at Ghazipur and Neemuch: Provided that
opium mixtures may be manufactured from opium lawfully possessed by a person authorized
under the rules made by the State Government for the said purpose.
Export of opium-The export of opium is prohibited save when the export is on behalf of the Central
Government.

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Sale to State Governments or Manufacturing
Chemist. -
1) The sale of opium to the State Governments or manufacturing chemists or the person or entity
who has been granted licence under sub-section (2A) of rule 36, as the case may be, shall be only
from the Government Opium Factories, located at Neemuch and Ghazipur
2) The sale of opium from the Government Opium Factory at Neemuch and Ghazipur to
manufacturing chemists or the person or entity who has been granted licence under subrule (2A)
of rule 35, as the case may be, shall be only under a permit granted by or under the orders of the
State Government within whose jurisdiction the chemist or the person or entity resides or has his
place of business in the forms prescribed by that Government.
Manufacture of Manufactured Drugs
 Morphine, thebaine, dihydro-morphine, codeine, dihydro codeine and salts are
manufactured at govt factory, Ghazipur.
 Manufacture of crude cocaine, cocaine salts, ecgonine, diacetylmorphine and its salt are
prohibited.
 Manufacturing of cocaine and its salt is prohibited, except cocaine hydrochloride which
can be prepared from confiscated cocaine only.
 Medicinal hemp manufacture shall be under licence issued by chief excise authority of
the state govt.
 Licensee Should have drug manufacturing license granted to him under drugs and
cosmetics act 1940. Should deposit 5000 as security and shouldn’t manufacture excess than
requirements of the country for a year according to international narcotics board.
 Notice of commencement of drug manufacture must be given 15 days prior to
licensing authority and also one month’s notice before he ceases to manufacture.
 Offences and penalties for contravening any provisions of the act or rules imprisonment
for 10 to 20 yrs. In certain cases, rigorous imprisonment will be 15 to 30 yrs. and fine from 1.5
lakh to 3 lakh. Illegal possession of cocaine, morphine punishable with imprisonment upto one
yr. or fine or both, punishable law imprisonment for 6 months and fine.
 Failure to produce records, license, permit, authorization etc., on demand by the
authorized persons, punishable with imprisonment upto 5 yrs. or fine or both.

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THOUGHTS
Cultivation is (almost) always illegal; therefore, it is prone to initiate conflicts between producers
and central government. Drug cultivation can relocate easily and many areas are suitable for
production. Therefore, it differs from immobile resources such as minerals. On the other hand,
drug cultivation seems to require a special socio-cultural setting where cultivation is acceptable,
combined with economic situation that makes drug cultivation the only way to acquire cash or in
some cases to survive.
Therefore, classifying opium or coca production as diffuse natural resource may not be so
straightforward. In some areas people have begun to cultivate opium and coca to “qualify” for
aid.
CONCLUSION
Opium poppy was introduced in Mexico in the 1930s. In contrast, opium production for exporting
has much longer history in Asia. For example, during the first half of the 19th century Brits
forced China to keep their borders open for opium exports from British India (so called Opium
War). In the Golden Triangle that composes of northern Thailand, northeastern Myanmar,
south Yunnan (China) and northern Laos, opium cultivation and trade has been widespread at
least since the 19th century.
In Americas (South and Central) opium and coca cultivation in larger extent seems to be rather
recent phenomena. Large-scale coca cultivation in Peru and Bolivia began in the 1960s and 1970s
and in Colombia in the 1980s and 1990s. Opium poppy was introduced in Mexico in the 1930s.

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REFERENCES
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03. Abruzzese, R. 1989. Coca-leaf production in the countries of the Andean subregion. Bulletin
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04. Armstead, L.1992. Illicit narcotics cultivation and processing: the ignored environmental
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