Investigating Aquifers Using Geophysics in Sudan

Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Shuanggen Jin
Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, China
Editorial Board Members
Sady Mazzioni, Brazil
Maria Barbara żygadlo, Poland
Sandra Ricart, Spain
Halil Ibrahim Uzun, Turkey
Arun Kumar Vishwakarma, India
Ramayah Thurasamy, Malaysia
Abdeltif Amrane, France
Gholam Khayati, Iran
Prakash Periakaruppan, India
Ifeanyichukwu Clinton Ezekwe, Nigeria
Bahram Malekmohammadi, Iran
Remember Samu, Australia
Mehdi Moazzami Goudarzi, Iran
Oihana Gordobil Goñi, Spain
Reza Mohebian, Iran
Dillip Kumar Swain, India
Junfeng Wang, China
Bing-Qi Zhu, China
Yanhong Gao, China
Yu Jiang, China
Sunday Ojochogwu Idakwo, Nigeria
Jinyan Tian, China
Suvendu Roy, India
Wei Ju, China
Sameh Abd El-Hamid Awwad, Egypt
Isidro A. Pérez, Spain
John Peter A, India
Gokhan OZDAMAR, Netherlands
Shaoyong Lu, China
Souhila AIT HAMOUDI, Algeria
Thyara Campos Martins Nonato, Brazil
Masoud Masoudi, Iran
Rossana Sanfilippo, Italy
Astrida Miceikiene, Lithuania
Huibing Xie, China
Yazan Mohammad Taamneh, Jordan
Xugang Dang, China
Professor Ehsan H. Feroz, United States
Mahmoud Taghavi, Iran
Meng Gao, China
Bing Xu, China
Shaoliang Zhang, China
Fan Yang, China
Mabrouk Sami Mohamed Hassan, Egypt
Corina Michaela Radulescu, Romania
Eugen Rusu, Romania

Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Shuanggen Jin
Journal of
Environmental & Earth
Sciences
Volume 2 Issue 1 · April 2020 · ISSN 2661-3190 (Online)

Investigation of Geology and Hydro-geophysical Features Using Electromagnetic and Ver-
tical Sounding Methods for Abu Zabad Area, Western Kordofan State, Sudan
Elhag A. B Musa M. A.
Thoughts on the Construction of Beautiful Villages with Poverty Alleviation in the Perspec-
tive
Yanxue Li Shu Zhu Dawei Xu
Heavy Metal Emission Characteristics of Urban Road Runoff
Xintuo Chen Chengyue Lai Yibin Yuan Jia She Yiyao Wang Jiayang Chen Zhaoli Wang
Ke Zhong
Power Spectrum in the Conductive Terrestrial Ionosphere
Georgi Jandieri Jaromir Pistora Nino Mchedlishvili
Volume 2 | Issue 1 | April 2020 | Page 1-30
Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences
Article
Contents
Copyright
Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences is licensed under a Creative Commons-Non-Commercial 4.0 International
Copyright (CC BY- NC4.0). Readers shall have the right to copy and distribute articles in this journal in any form in any
medium, and may also modify, convert or create on the basis of articles. In sharing and using articles in this journal, the
user must indicate the author and source, and mark the changes made in articles. Copyright © BILINGUAL PUBLISH-
ING CO. All Rights Reserved.
1
7
14
21

1
Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | April 2020
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i1.1279
Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences
https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jees
ARTICLE
Investigation of Geology and Hydro-geophysical Features Using Elec-
tromagnetic and Vertical Sounding Methods for Abu Zabad Area,
Western Kordofan State, Sudan
Elhag A. B1
Musa M. A.2*
1. Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia, on leave from
Kordofan University, Sudan
2. Department of Geology, College of Science and Information Technology, Nyala University, Nyala, Sudan
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history
Received: 8 October 2019
Accepted: 21 October 2019
Published Online: 31 March 2020
The geology and hydro-geophysical features can aid in identifying bore-
hole location. The study aims to investigate groundwater aquifers and
best location of boreholes in the crystalline basement area of Abu Zabad
near El Obeid Southwest, Sudan. The study area is underlain by two aqui-
fers formations from Precambrian age. The oldest units of basement com-
plex of area under investigation consist of metamorphic rocks including
gneiss, schist, and quartzite. The geophysical methods electromagnetic
(EM) and vertical electrical sounding (VES) surveys showed that best
aquifers yield for construction of boreholes are in weathering and frac-
tures formation. The EM results revealed that structural features are sig-
nificant for groundwater potential and interpretation of the VES data also
revealed four geo-electric layers, but generally two distinct lithologic lay-
ers, which include Superficial deposit and bedrock-basement respectively.
The curves generated from the data revealed H curve and HK curve, and
thickness of these layers varies from 15 m to 50 m in the area. The aqui-
fer thickness range from 20 m to 30 m. The study concludes that these
techniques are suitable for identifying borehole location in the basement
rock in Abu Zabad Area Sudan.
Keywords:
Electromagnetic and geoelectric survey
Aquifer units and groundwater potential
*Corresponding Author:
Musa M. A.,
Department of Geology, College of Science and Information Technology, Nyala University, Nyala, Sudan;
Email: ahmedhydro@gmail.com; abalhaj@kku.edu.sa
1. Introduction
G
roundwater investigation of different techniques;
geological, hydro-geological, geophysical tech-
niques. The hydrological cycle as results of cli-
matic changes have a significant associated impact on wa-
ter resources (Stoll et al. 2011). Jyrkama and Sykes (2007)
studied the variation of the groundwater recharge.
Lineaments provide the pathways for groundwater
movement in hard rock areas [3,4]
. Furthermore, in order to
locate favorable sites for groundwater exploration a linea-
ment density map was prepared as suggested by [17]
. The
movement and occurrence of groundwater depends main-
ly on the secondary porosity and permeability resulting

2
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0
from faulting and fracturing etc. [7]
. In October 1966 and
1973, Kordofan State was shaken by strong earthquakes
that have great attention to hydrology due to a few of
groundwater wells in the aquifer are dry [8]
. In study area
geological formation is exposed in the eastern part of Tor-
da (Precambrian age). They are predominantly massive
and compact of schist and gneiss metamorphic rocks (Fig-
ure 4).
Surface geophysical survey is a veritable tool in
groundwater exploration, owing to its economy in bore-
hole construction by identifying borehole location prior
to drilling [12]
. Hydrogeophysical study is very important
in basement rocks areas and considered a priority in many
groundwater prospections. Many geophysical methods
used in basement areas, but the electrical resistivity (ER)
method is essential tools [10]
.
The electromagnetic (EM) and vertical electrical
sounding (VES) survey used in this work for locating
the aquifers extension [16]
. The two most common arrays
used for VES are Wenner array and Schlumberger array
[5]
. This method is regularly used to solve a wide variety
of groundwater problems such as determination of depth,
thickness and boundary of aquifer, determination of zones
with high yield potential in an aquifer, determination of
the boundary between saline and fresh water zones and
estimation of aquifer transmissivity and in environmental
problems as well [1,2,11,13,15]
.
Study Area
This paper focus on the geology and groundwater re-
sources of western Sudan in terms of aquifers properties,
investigated area includes Abu Zabad area which lies
within Western Kordofan State. The target area is covers
an area of about 25 Km2
between Latitudes 12° 20′–12°
38′ N and Longitudes 29° 28′ – 29° 45′ E (Figure 1), and
characterized by undulating topographical surfaces most-
ly covered by sand dunes and gentle slopes to the east
of Torda (watercourse) (Figure 1). The rainfall generally
occurs in summer season, with maximum in the month of
August. The prevailing winds blow from the south during
summer, and blow north during winter. The average of
temperatures ranges between 30◦
C in January and 48◦
C in
June.
Western Kordofan area is the most important district
area in Kordofan States as it is located within the base-
ment complex and Nubian sandstone formation area. An
intensive geophysical survey was carried out to locate
different types of rocks. The ages of these rocks in most
localities are assigned to the Precambrian period.
Figure 1. Distribution of pre-Quaternary geological units
in the Kordofan Region
Source: [20]
The objective of the study is to recognize water-bear-
ing formations in study area, and to examine suitable
and available resources of groundwater. The main rocks
characterization and recognition of aquifers, lateral and
vertical extensions useful for drilling boreholes, as well as
the main objectives of the geophysical survey in the study
area are as follows:
(1) Determine anomalous (conductive) zones.
(2) Determine fractures, faulting and similar rock de-
formations which play an important role in sub-surface
hydrology of the area (water movement and recharge).
2. Materials and Methods
The study employed two direct current (DC) methods:
Vertical Electric Sounding (VES) and electromagnetic
(EM). In both electric potential produced by (DC) current
injected by two electrodes is measured by another pair of
electrodes. VES technique employed Schlumberger array,
which is particularly efficient when main resistivity gra-
dient is in vertical direction. The electromagnetic (EM)
array is more suitable to study grounds with lateral resis-
tivity variation. The weathering and fracturing of analysis
were also carried out to determine the optimized location
and groundwater well.
The vertical electrical sounding and electrical profiling
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i1.1279

3
methods are based on four-electrode principle as shown in
(Figure 2). The electrical current ( I ) is applied to A and B
electrodes and the potential (ΔU) is measured between M
and N electrodes. The bulk soil electrical resistivity (ER)
is calculated with:
ER K
=
∆
I
U
(1)
Where:
K= is the geometric factor.
The conductive and EM anomalies delineated by
across the entire study area, and carried out to determine
depth to fresh rock. Figure 8 reveals the geo-electric se-
quence along W – E within the study area. Conductive
and EM anomalies were delineated at three VES,s and
three EM profiling locations within the study area. The
Figure 8 was combined the VES and Electromagnetic
data and obtained by computing the depths and locations
of fractures.
Figure 2. Two current and two potential electrodes on the
surface of ground of resistivity
Source:[7]
Geology and Hydrogeological Setting
The study area lies South of Central African Shear
Zone (CASZ). The Torda basin Complex is main basin
in study area and in general trending North to South.
The Torda basin, located in Eastern extension of Abu
Zabad town (Figure 3). The basement complex is divid-
ed into three groups which include weathering, fracture
and tide crystalline rocks. Hydrogeological and litho-
logical log have been studied and evaluated to charac-
terize aquifer potentials, and suitable sites for several
wells were selected in Torda basin to define aquifers
extensions (Figure 3). Geologically, Torda basin Com-
plex is composed of two major basins, named weather-
ing and fractures basement regolith. The groundwater
occurs in drilled wells in weathering and fractures
basement regolith.
The target area is generally an undulating plain of
low relief with altitude ranging range from 610 to 616
m above mean sea level, and major drainage system in
study area Khor El Ganam, Khor Sheween and Wadis
and ground surface slopes gently to east towards Tor-
da.
The regional geologic map of the study area is com-
posed of igneous and metamorphic rocks surrounded by
Paleozoic and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. The Pre-
cambrian rocks are extending southward from the valley
of Abu Zabad through subdued topographic basin drained
by Torda.
In Eastern Abu Zabad city (Figure 3), groundwater
extraction from hand dug wells (shallow boreholes) and
deep boreholes around the water pool (Torda) is used
for drinking and irrigation. The geological logs from the
surface down to 53 m depth revealed that the structural
features consist of Superficial deposits, and bedrock-base-
ment. The individual thickness of these layers varies
from 5 m to 10 m in the area (Figure 4). The main aquifer
appears at depths below 20 m, composed of fragment of
metamorphic and igneous rocks.
Figure 3. Geomorphological map of the study area
Source: [9]
3. Results and Discussion
The geological setting of the study area consists of su-
perficial deposits and Precambrian basement rocks. The
sediments exposed in Northern part are mostly Cretaceous
in age belong to the Wadi of Ger Elassal formation. They
are dominated by fine to coarse grained cross-bedded
fluviatile sandstones forming. The Precambrian basement
rocks consist of gneisses, schists and quarzites (Figure 4).
The weathered and fractured basement rocks constitute
major aquifers or aquitards.
The degree of weathering is one of the most significant
factors controlling the type and abundance of clay miner-
als [6]
. In basement rock of study area percentage of clay

4
Journal of Environmental Earth Sciences | Volume 02 | Issue 01 | April 2020
minerals is proportional with intensity and time interval of
weathering (Figure 4). Whereas, weathered and fractured
basement rocks constitute the major aquifers or aquitards.
Figure 4. Weathering and fractured profile on gnesis of
the study area (Abu Zabad - Torda)
Note: Photograph with the author (May, 2018).
Interpretation of Resistivity Data
The resistivity method data indicates variation in
groundwater potential because rock formation is not
isotropic. The resistivity and thicknesses of geo-electric/
lithology layers within the subsurface are presented in
figure (7). The profiles and curves generated for apparent
resistivity data using surfer-8 and IPI2win softwares are
presented in figure (6 and 7), and the geo-electric section
for the study area is presented in figure (8).The most of
the VES curves coverage to the basement complex rep-
resented by the types H and KH, these types are very im-
portant from the qualitative interpretation point of view,
which increases at right branches of sounding curves
often rises at an angle of 45o
owing to influence from
tight basement rock, that usually indicates igneous or
metamorphic rocks (granite, schists and gneisses rocks)
of very high resistivity which called typical basement
complex, that observed in the geo-electrical curves (Fig-
ure 7).
Three subsurface geologic layers were delineated along
three VES,s and three EM profiling locations within the
study area; the top soil Superficial deposits, weathered
basement and fresh bedrock (Fig. 8). The VES curve re-
vealed five resistivity layers for traverse at the crack or
point (7) from EM Profile figures (5 and 6). The first layer
mixed with superficial deposits composed of sand with
clay lenses. The resistivity of this layer range from 50 to
63 ohm.m and the thick reach about 2-10 m. The weath-
ered and fractured basement complex forms the second
layer. The resistivity range between 25 to 150 ohm-m
and thickness reach about 42 m, ended by hard basement
complex which are shows increase in the resistivity value
attains 1400 Ωm (Figure 8).
Figure 5. EM survey conducted in basement complex in
the study area
Figure 6. Horizontal electrical profiles showing variation
in the basement complex
Figure 7. Vertical electrical sounding curves for detection
of water-bearing formations

5
Figure 8. Shows that traverse of EM and three points of
VES
To recognize the two aquifers at different depths, the
lithological analysis of well logs is useful for obtaining
variations of weathering and fractured basement rocks
(Figure 4). The water table marks of aquifer are underlain
by an unsaturated zone which composed of superficial
deposits, and thickness of unsaturated zone above aquifer
is about 20 m to groundwater table. In Torda towards east,
water table is the shallowest (about 15 m) and therefore
unsaturated zone is a thin layer. The total thickness of the
aquifer varies from 30 m in the eastern part to 10 m in the
west with an average thickness of about 20 m.
nnual groundwater level fluctuations related to ground-
water recharge and discharge in the aquifer system. Direct
reflected in variations of groundwater level when recharge
exceeds discharge, water table levels will rise and when
discharge exceeds recharge, they will fall. Whereas, two
types of fluctuations are recorded, which include either
seasonal or diurnal ones. The water level in study area
fluctuates in response to variation in recharge periods, rise
due to the seasonal rainfalls and decline in the summer
and during droughts in response to a decrease in ground-
water recharge from precipitation. The influence of the
recharge extends to certain distances and then becomes
negligible. Groundwater quality is saline in the western-
er area where is low recharge, but in eastern area (Torda
basin) is good quality occurs; the total dissolved solids
(TDS) range between 300 to 600 mg/l, and groundwater is
suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes.
Several pumping tests that were conducted at different
wells in the study area to determine the hydraulic proper-
ties of the aquifer. The base of the aquifer is at the depth
of range from 20 m to 30 m, and the yield about borehole
about 2500 g/h.
4. Conclusions
The study area composed of two aquifers weathered and
fractured basement rocks, both aquifers are found at rela-
tively in the Torda Basin in the East direction. Groundwa-
ter recharge by the flood of many Khors; Khor El Ganam,
Khor Sheween and Wadis respectively. Groundwater sa-
linity progressively increases with the low recharge.
This study investigated the groundwater potential and
aquifer extension, western Kordafan state, Abu Zabad, Su-
dan. Electromagnetic and vertical electrical sounding us-
ing the Schlumberger array configuration were carried out.
Analysis and interpretation of EM and VES data obtained
from the study area showed profile 1 and 2, and VES 3
and VES 5 to be locating the successful for borehole drill-
ing due to low resistivity of the weathered and fractured
aquifer layers coupled with the relatively high thicknesses
of the weathered layers. Itis therefore recommended that
for future groundwater exploration in the study area, geo-
physical prospection should be taken to locate the best site
for groundwater drilling.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to
King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia for providing ad-
ministrative and technical support.
References
[1] Acharya, T. Biswas, A. Bhattacharyya, A.
Chakraborty, A. Chakraborty, M., Sarkar, M.. Vulner-
ability mapping of saline water intrusion in coastal
aquifers of West-Bengal, India using flow-net ap-
proach. Indian Groundwater, 2018, 10: 46-56.
[2] Biswas, A., Sharma, S. P.. Geophysical surveys for
identifying source and pathways of subsurface water
inflow at the Bangur chromite mine, Odisha, India.
Natural Hazards, 2017, 88 (2): 947-964.
[3] Biswas, A. Jana, A., Mandal, A.. Application of Re-
mote Sensing, GIS and MIF technique for Elucida-
tion of Groundwater Potential Zones from a part of
Orissa coastal tract, Eastern India. Research Journal
of Recent Sciences, 2013, 2 (11): P. 42-49.
[4] Biswas, A. Jana A., Sharma S. P.. Delineation of
groundwater potential zones using satellite remote
sensing and geographic information system tech-
niques: a case study from Ganjam district, Orissa,
India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences, 2012, 1
(9): 59-66, Available online at: www.isca.in.
[5] Cardimona, S.. Electrical Resistivity technique for
Subsurface Investigation, 2017.
[6] Duzgoren-Aydin, N.S., Aydin, A., Malpas, J.. Distri-

6
bution of clay minerals along a weathered pyroclastic
profile, Hong Kong. Catena, 2002, 50: 17-41.
[7] Elhag A. B.. Application of Remote Sensing and
Geo-Electrical Method for Groundwater Exploration
in Khor Al Alabyad, North Kordofan State, Sudan.
American Journal of Earth Sciences, 2016.
http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/archive2?
journalId=715paperId=2914
[8] Elhag, A. B., Elzien, S. M.. Structures Controls on
Groundwater Occurrence and Flow in Crystalline
Bedrocks: a case study of the El Obeid area, Western
Sudan. Global Advanced Research Journal of Envi-
ronmental Science and Toxicology, 2013, 2(2): 037-
046. ISSN: 2315-5140. Available online:
http://garj.org/garjest/index.htm.
[9] Eltahir, A. D. M.. Late Quaternary Sedimentary and
Paleoclimatic Evolution of Kordofan, Sudan, Ph.D.
Dissertation for the doctorate degree of the Universi-
té Grenoble Alpes, France, 2018.
[10] Gautam, P., Biswas, A.. 2D Geo-electrical imag-
ing for shallow depth investigation in Doon Valley
Sub-Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Modeling Earth
Systems and Environment, 2016, 2 (4): 175.
[11] Nejad, H. T.. Geoelectrical Investigation of the
Aquifer Characteristics and Groundwater Potential
in Bahbadan Azad University Farm, Khuzestan prov-
ince, Iran. Journal of Applied Sciences, 2009, 9(20):
3691-3698.
ISSN: 1812 – 5654
[12] Obiora, D. N., Ownuka, O. S.. Groundwater Explo-
ration in Ikorodu, Lagos-Nigeria: A Surface Geo-
physical Survey Contribution, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka. The Pacific Journal of Science and Technol-
ogy, 2005, 6(1): 86–93.
http://www.akamaiuniversity.us/PJST.htm
[13] Parial, K. Biswas, A. Agrahari, S. Sharma, S. P.,
Sengupta, D.. Identification of contaminated zones
using direct current resistivity surveys in and around
ash ponds near Kolaghat Thermal power plant, West
Bengal, India. International Journal of Geology and
Earth Sciences, 2015, 1 (2): 55-64.
[14] Rodis, H.G., Hassan, A., Wahadan, L.. Groundwater
Geology of Kordofan Province-Sudan, Contribution
to the hydrology of Africa and Mediterranean Re-
gion. United State government printing office. Wash-
ington, 1968.
[15] Sharma, S. P., Biswas, A.. A practical solution in
delineating thin conducting structures and suppres-
sion problem in direct current resistivity sounding.
Journal of earth system science, 2013, 122 (4): 1065-
1080.
[16] Sharma, S. P., Baranwal, V. C.. Delineation of
groundwater-bearing fracture zones in a hard rock
area integrating very low frequency electromagnetic
and resistivity data. Journal of Applied geophysics,
2005, 57 (2): 155-166.
[17] Sree Devi, P. D., Srinivasulu, S., Ragu, K. K.. Hy-
dro-geomorphological and groundwater prospects of
the Pageru river basin by using remote sensing data.
Environmental Geology, 2001, 40: 1088-1094.
[18] U.N.S Special 92 Fund (DOX - SUD - A 39). United
Nations Special Fund, F.A.O Land and Water Use
Survey in Kordofan Province, Sudan. Reports of the
following notations:- DOX - sun – A 39, 1965.
[19] Van Daele, K.. Characterization of geological mate-
rials, their weathering products and their relationship
with soils in the Gilgel Gibe catchment, SW Ethio-
pia. Ghent University, Belgium. (published M.Sc. in
geology), 2011, 14.
[20] Warage, A.. Seismotectonice in Central Sudan and
Local Site Effect in Western Khartoum, Master The-
sis in Geodynamics, Department of Earth Science
University of Bergen, Norway, 2007.

7
Journal of Environmental Earth Sciences
ARTICLE
Thoughts on the Construction of Beautiful Villages with Poverty Alle-
viation in the Perspective
Yanxue Li1*
Shu Zhu2
Dawei Xu1
1. The College of Landscape, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150000, China
2. The University of Adelaide Master 5007SA
Article history
Received: 28 December 2019
Accepted: 13 January 2020
Accurate poverty alleviation has become an important task in implement-
ing the rural revitalization strategy. Since the 19th CPC National Con-
gress, Chinese government institutions have been striving to take mea-
sures to lift poor rural areas out of poverty. This essay takes Tailai district
as the blueprint to start the research on precision poverty alleviation,
explores and discusses the construction of beautiful villages, proposes
strategies for sustainable development, makes people change concepts to
coordinate the relationship between interests and concepts. It also points
out the target that using the industry as a guide, using technology to al-
leviate poverty and make the village vibrant. Therefore, the endogenous
power will be derived from the roots, and the agriculture, farmer and rural
area will be fed back, in order to provide a reference for the Construction
of Beautiful Villages in Heilongjiang.
Keywords:
Precise poverty alleviation
Construction of beautiful villages
Interests and concepts
Yanxue Li,
The College of Landscape, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150000, China;
Email: 199957293@qq.com
Funded Project:
Heilongjiang Provincial Youth Science Fund, project name “Heilongjiang Rural Landscape Form Protection and Development
Research”No.: JJ2018QN0681
1. Introduction
T
he 19th CPC National Congress report stated that
the prerequisite for rural revitalization is to get rid
of poverty. Adhering to precise poverty alleviation
has become an important task in implementing the rural
revitalization strategy, and government departments are
working hard to take measures to lift poor rural areas out
of poverty [1]
. Relying on the Chinese Ministry of Educa-
tion to set up a poverty alleviation county in Tailai Coun-
ty, how to improve the ecological environment, improve
the quality of rural human settlements, the beautiful rural
construction under a new perspective, and coordinate the
interests and concepts to build a beautiful and livable vil-
lage is worth our consideration.
2. Background Beautiful Rural Construction
The countryside is the product of agricultural civilization
and records the changes and evolution of human society. As
a largely agricultural country, China has about 2.6 million
administrative villages [2]
compared to the current 661 cities.
Therefore, China must be beautiful and rural areas must be
beautiful. The construction of “beautiful villages” has be-
come synonymous with the construction of a new socialist
countryside in China, and a new upsurge in the construction
of beautiful villages is taking place across the country. Ag-
ricultural and rural peasants, the issue of “agriculture, rural

8
areas and farmers” is fundamental to the national economy
and people’s livelihood. In combination with China’s basic
national conditions and agricultural conditions, since the
year of 2005, the No. 1 Document of the Central Commit-
tee of the Communist Party of China has been continuously
paying attention to rural issues, and rural construction is an
important aspect of the “three rural issues”.
Following the law of rural self-development, getting rid of
poverty, improving the rural environment, realizing the “eco-
logical livability” of the countryside, and building beautiful
villages are both the requirements of the central government
and the “China dream” of hundreds of millions of peasants.
Relevant scholars in China have carried out related
research on rural construction from different perspectives.
Guoping Ren (2018) deconstructed the internal decon-
struction of rural landscape evolution and explored sus-
tainable development models [4]
. Jia Wang [5.6]
and others
believed that rural landscape design should be designed
following the principles of ecology, region and sustainable
development to meet the needs of residents; Ma Xuemei
(2015) researched the construction of beautiful rural land-
scapes under the guidance of philosophy of landscape
culture philosophy [7]
. Liming Liu and others investigated
and analyzed the current situation of the rural landscape
in Beijing’s Baijiabang Village, discussed the principles
of rural landscape planning, and proposed the landscape
planning plan and design points of Baijiabang Village [8]
.
During the period of rapid industrialization in the West,
industries such as industry, energy, and transportation also
developed rapidly. European and American countries such
as the United States and the United Kingdom took the first
active measures to protect rural ecological environments and
natural resources. In the 1950s and 1960s, some European
countries, Countries such as the Czech Republic, Germany,
France, Poland, and the Netherlands have researched on
rural landscapes, and gradually formed a complete theory
and method system, which has promoted rural landscape
planning [9]
. Starting from the 1940s, a series of laws that ex-
plicitly proposed or emphasized the protection of rural land-
scapes have successively emerged, such as the New Town
Act of 1946 in the UK, etc. [10]
. H.N. Van Lier and others in
the Netherlands put forward new ideas and methodologies
for describing multi-objective rural land use planning and
landscape ecological design with “spatial concepts” and
“ecological network systems” in theoretical research [11]
. The
famous American landscape architect R. Forman put forward
the principles of landscape planning and landscape spatial
planning model based on the ecological space theory [12]
. W.
Haber and others in Germany researched new technology
applications and established applications based on GIS and
landscape ecology. Based on research, it played an important
role in the re-planning of the rural landscape and the coor-
dination of urban land use. The British have an innate love
for rural life. The English rural scenery attracts tourists who
yearn for rural life around the world with unique charm.
The Cotswolds (Cotswold) rural area in England is the most
typical. The systematic planning is linked to a “Romantic
Road”, known as the most beautiful country road in the
world, together with Provence in France and Toscana in Italy
as “the three most beautiful villages in the world”. Japan’s
“one village, one product” rural rejuvenation movement has
promoted sustainable rural development and greatly changed
the rural scene. Rural construction in South Korea launched
the “New Village Movement” to promote local economic de-
velopment, ensure regional balance, maintain ecological en-
vironment balance, and effectively protect rural landscapes.
The developed countries’ understanding of rural devel-
opment and accumulated construction experience in the
process of industrialization and urbanization can provide
us with learning and reference for recognizing rural values,
promoting rural revitalization, and building beautiful coun-
tryside. Generally speaking, in recent years, research on rural
landscape in western countries has mainly concentrated on
the aspects of rural protection regulations, rural landscape
ecological protection research, new technology application
research, rural tourism development, and rural revitalization.
Focus on social and cultural interests and landscape users.
Its research scope is broad, its content is complex, and it has
a trend of further development. However, its research shows
a one-sided and fragmented situation. The reason is that due
to the lack of unified planning and design, it is urgent to pro-
pose precise and sustainable construction and strategy.
Table 1. Academic attention to a beautiful countryside
Table 2. Academic attention on rural area landscape

9
3. Understanding and Conception of Sustain-
able Rural Construction
With the further understanding of the value of the great
ecological civilization construction of the rural landscape,
the “Beautiful China” was proposed from the 18th Nation-
al Congress of the Fifth Rural Plenary Session of the 16th
Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in
2005, and the Document No. 1 of the CPC Central Com-
mittee was first proposed in 2013. Promote the construc-
tion of rural ecological civilization, and strive to build a
“beautiful village”, and successively issued relevant guid-
ance documents, marking the entry of an important stage
in the construction of beautiful countryside in China.
The 2015 “Guide to the Construction of Beautiful
Villages” was released, providing the framework and di-
rectional technical guidance for the development of the
beautiful countryside. In 2017, the 19th National Party
Congress raised the “rural revitalization” as a national de-
velopment strategy, which not only highlights the import-
ant value of the country in the country’s modernization
but also means that rural construction will become the
focus of national modernization in the coming period.
How to build a beautiful village under the concept of
poverty alleviation? The “beautiful villages” in the guide
are defined as the coordinated development of econom-
ic, political, cultural, social and ecological civilizations,
planning science, production development, affluent life,
rural civilization, clean villages, democratic management,
livable and sustainable development. Rural (including
established villages and natural villages)[3]
.Serving poor
villages, guiding poverty alleviation, and coordinating the
relationship between interests and ideas have important
practical significance for the construction of such beauti-
ful villages.
3.1 Understanding the Needs of Interest
The concept of the villagers is mainly a matter of personal
interest, such as: What do you support us? Who gets the
money? How much is it? We don’t understand anything.
If you don’t have this, you need to come and do it, and
provide us with the technology to quickly produce ben-
efits! It takes a lot of money to build a beautiful country.
There is no guarantee for our food, clothing, housing, and
transportation! This is the immediate interest and the most
basic needs.
3.2 Conceptual Considerations
Poverty alleviation is a matter for the Chinese govern-
ment. We are not in a hurry; what we need is to provide
us with the satisfaction of food, clothing, housing, and
transportation; we can’t imagine the beautiful countryside,
it’s far from our reality; we don’t know what resource ad-
vantages are, and we don’t know resources and interests.
Relationship; understanding the environmental landscape
as a good-looking thing, and the villagers want basic liv-
ing satisfaction; less understanding of new knowledge and
technology, etc.
4. Rural Construction in China
In our country, in the late 1920s and early 1930s, out-
standing people in rural construction set off a wave of
striking rural construction movements. They were large-
scale, long-term, and wide-ranging. The most representa-
tive people were Yan Yangchu and Liang Shuming. And
Lu Zuofu [4]
, they have important reference and enlighten-
ment for the rural revitalization in the theory and practice
of rural construction.
In the past ten years, the government has been constant-
ly adjusting the thinking and direction of rural construc-
tion. The construction of “beautiful villages” has become
synonymous with the construction of China’s new social-
ist countryside. The whole country is setting off a new
upsurge of beautiful rural construction. The Anji model
in Anji County, Zhejiang Province is the most representa-
tive and has achieved remarkable results in promoting the
“Beautiful Village” project.
Figure 1. Beautiful rural landscape
The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Develop-
ment has deployed the rural residential environment to
rectify the three-year action goal: to build a beautiful and
livable village as the guide, to improve the rural garbage,
sewage treatment, and village appearance, and accelerate
the short-board of the rural living environment.
Principles: adapting to local conditions, classifying and
guiding, comprehensively considering social and econom-
ic development; adopting the pilot work of pioneering
and steadily advancing; making full use of the concept of
“co-creation” of a beautiful environment and a harmoni-
ous society, focusing on building vertical and horizontal,
horizontal to side, and consultation and governance The

10
rural governance system; pays attention to the role of the
government, the market, and the society, fully mobilizes
the participation of all parties; and strives to rectify the
rural human settlements into a platform to promote the
integration of urban and rural development.
At present, the government has continuously increased
investment in rural construction, and the scale of rural
construction is unprecedented, and rural construction is
in full swing. In the context of the current beautiful rural
construction, the relevant research directions mainly focus
on rural values, rural landscape evaluation, rural planning
and design, landscape pattern, settlement space, rural
tourism, rural protection, and rural complex, and jointly
explore industrial management, rural areas. Rejuvenation,
the activation of rural methods, the continuation of rural
culture, and the promotion of the economy.
Table 3. Rural Construction in China
4. Accurate Poverty Alleviation and Explora-
tion of Beautiful Rural Construction
This research follows scientific research methods and
procedures, according to theoretical research, analysis of
problems, exploration and development of construction
strategies, relying on Tailai County, a poverty allevia-
tion county designated by the Ministry of Education, to
explore the construction of beautiful countryside. Use
literature policy and comprehensive analysis method
to conduct basic scientific research, field research, case
practice method and other research methods to carry out
related research. Study rural landscapes through related
disciplines such as landscape ecology, geography, and
human settlements, and explore effective strategies for the
construction of beautiful rural landscapes.
Tailai County is affiliated to Heilongjiang Province
and is located in the Nenjiang River Basin (Figure 3). It is
located at the junction of the three provinces of Beijing. It
is known as the “three provinces of chickens” and the rep-
utation of “the land of fish and rice”. The county governs
8 towns and 2 townships, with 83 administrative villages
and 532 Natural townships (Figure 2), the population is
320,000, and there are 20 ethnic groups including Han and
Mongolia. It is an important commodity grain production
base of the country. The rural area is vast and it is an im-
portant area for biodiversity conservation in the Songnen
Plain. The rural landscape features are very representative.
The scenery is beautiful, but it has always been one of the
national poverty counties. The industry mainly focuses
on agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry. It is a fine
wool sheep and commodity cattle base county, a fruit tree
base county, a Chinese mung bean town, a Chinese peanut
“four red” town, and a provincial corn special base coun-
ty.
Through interviews and investigations, combined with
10 villages and towns such as Daxing Town and Tangchi
Town in Tailai County, such as Wunuo Village and Tangc-
hi Village, the survey and analysis of the current situation
object show that there is a common problem of industrial
structure. Mostly based on agricultural production, it be-
longs to the traditional agricultural type.
Special production and lifestyle have recorded the
changes and evolution of society and formed the rural
form of Tailai. However, the rural formation time is short,
the economic development is slow, the ecology is fragile,
the temperature is high and the rain is low, the annual
rainfall is less than 400mm, the evaporation is 1798mm,
and the soil is poor, which is an important cause of pov-
erty. There are currently 4,281 poor households and 9,192
people. The driving of interests has led to unreasonable
encirclement and over-exploitation problems, the threat of
biodiversity, and the increasing non-point source pollution
caused by agricultural production.
The settlement space is mostly scattered, the structure is
not clear, the road is not systematic, and the rural construc-
tion is disorderly development (Figure 4, 5). Residential
buildings are scattered, mainly on single floors, and some
adobe houses are of poor quality or idle. The rural style is
messy and lacks scientific planning guidance. The village’s
public infrastructure services are low, lacking leisure, rec-
reation, lack of landscape, and imperfect functions. Lack
of awareness of the value of rural construction and lack of
scientific, rational and professional planning guidance.
Figure 2. Location map of the natural village of Tailai
County

11
Figure 3. Tailai County Water System Map
Figure 4. Road network diagram
The beautiful rural construction under the concept of
poverty alleviation has a stage. At this stage, the consider-
ation should be the benefits of agricultural production, the
basic living environment in rural areas and the increase
of farmers’ income. Gradually realize the improvement
of villagers’ awareness through education, and let the
villagers understand agriculture from the feeling of beau-
ty. In the production and rural environment, the abstract
landscape that the villagers understand is transformed into
a beautiful living environment (Figure 6) and realizes the
goal of beautiful rural construction.
4.1 The Beautiful Rural Concept of Non-land-
scape Thinking
The comprehensive environmental remediation thinking
based on the three rural peasants is the key to beautiful
rural construction. Planning and construction around agri-
cultural production, rural culture and life and environmen-
tal improvement. The purpose of the current stage of con-
struction is to use rather than to look at it. As long as the
beauty of the rural elements is formed, the rural landscape
will be formed.
4.2 Based on the Environmental Planning and
Design of Food, Clothing, and Housing
Planning and design advocates practicality meets the
needs of the countryside is familiar with agricultural pro-
duction and rural life and understands that rural resources
are the premise for designing rural villages.
4.3 Environmental Planning based on Output
Benefits
Planning for modern agriculture, green agriculture, charac-
teristic agriculture, large-scale, high-efficiency agricultural
industrial park planning, multi-business planning combin-
ing agriculture and animal husbandry, and agricultural pro-
duction mode planning for energy-saving technologies, etc.
And green agriculture, to create a home of fish and rice.
4.4 Reflections on the Construction of a Beautiful
Rural System
Rural areas cannot be urbanized, what kind of villages are
beautiful villages, how to form a system of 83 adminis-
trative villages, how to build beautiful villages, differen-
tiated, characteristic planning and overall development,
is the key to carrying out precise poverty alleviation and
carrying out beautiful rural construction.
Figure 5. Aerial photography of settlement space Figure
Figure 6. Aerial photography of rural agricultural produc-
tion environment

12
5. Beautiful Rural Construction Strategy
5.1 Change Ideas, Plan and Coordinate, Coor-
dinate the Relationship between Interests and
Ideas, and Clarify Goals
Cognition of rural values, organic renewal of society,
agriculture, economy and environment, the formation of
synergy between governments, enterprises and villagers
at all levels, fully respect the wishes of local villagers and
clarify the goals and positioning of rural construction.
5.2 Industry Leadership, Technology to Alleviate
Poverty, Activate the Countryside
Adjust the industrial structure, based on the development
of traditional agriculture, and take ecological agriculture
as the direction, carry out science and technology pover-
ty alleviation, and increase the construction of emerging
industries. Fundamentally derive endogenous power.
The use of scientific research resources, the promotion of
high-quality agricultural planting projects and high-qual-
ity economic crop projects, stimulate the development
potential of agriculture and rural areas, mobilize the new
power of farmers to get rich, colleagues to solve the frag-
ile ecological environment problems in Tailai County.
Taking the industry to drive economic development, the
economy leads to the benign development of the ecologi-
cal environment.
5.3 Multi-professional Cross-integration of Tal-
ents, Teamwork, Community, and People to Fight
Poverty and Support the Agriculture, Rural Ar-
eas, Farmers
Attracting entrepreneurs, multidisciplinary experts and
scholars and other multidisciplinary talents, through the
countryside to volunteer to serve the rural revitalization
cause, to join modern agriculture, to cultivate new farmers
in the new era, to achieve rural self-control, not only to
support wisdom, but also to support the cause, to achieve
hematopoietic function To make Tailai get rid of poverty
and get rich.
5.4 Focus on Demonstration
To build a brand with a point, to create a virtuous circle.
Relying on the advantages and adapting to local condi-
tions, we will create a typical central village. With a point
to face, comprehensively improve the rural living environ-
ment, highlight the characteristics of the landscape, im-
prove the quality of the villagers and the village civiliza-
tion, build a beautiful and livable village, truly realize the
strength of the village, and achieve the organic circulation
and sustainable development of the settlement space.
5.5 Government Involvement, Improving Infra-
structure and Optimizing Public Spaces
Renovation of rural dilapidated buildings, improvement
of infrastructure, and realization of self-management and
coordinated governance of villagers. Comply with the tra-
ditional spatial texture and social organization relationship
of the village, realize a more reasonable and healthy pro-
duction and lifestyle, and promote the interaction between
the public activity space and the villagers’ lifestyle.
5.6 Natural Development, Rural Wisdom, Retain-
ing Homesickness
Follow the internal laws of rural development, pay atten-
tion to cultural inheritance, respect the actual needs of
the villagers, maintain production and lifestyle, correctly
handle the current and long-term relationship, inject wis-
dom, activate the countryside, step by step, and retain the
homesickness.
5.7 Education and Training Improve Literacy and
Cognitive Skills
The quality of villagers determines the level of develop-
ment, and education is the key to understanding and ac-
cepting new things.
6. Conclusion
Beautiful rural construction is a concrete action of beau-
tiful China. Adhering to precise poverty alleviation is a
long-term process that is conducive to the improvement of
regional economy and ecological environment. As a rural
construction practitioner, we must be like Liang Shum-
ing’s rural construction thought: Confucianism and Bud-
dhism Feelings, doing rural construction work with the
spirit of being a monk, rooting in black land, and retaining
nostalgia! Serving the poor rural areas, guiding poverty
alleviation, and coordinating the relationship between in-
terests and concepts, orderly and healthy development of
beautiful rural areas has important practical significance
and needs further study.
References
[1] Jinping Xi. Uses “six precisions” to tackle the im-
poverished poverty, and a comprehensive well-off is
just around the corner. Tencent News, 2017.
http://gx.people.com.cn/BIG5/n2/2018/0428/
c179430-31518420

13
[2] Xinhuanet Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural
Development: China will strive to achieve basic cov-
erage of rural planning in 2020.
Http://www.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2015-11/27/
c_1117279529
[3] National Standard of the People’s Republic of China.
GB / T 32000 -2015 “Guide to the Construction of
Beautiful Villages”, 2015.
[4] Guoping Ren. The evolution process and develop-
ment model of rural landscape under the background
of rapid urbanization[D]. China Agricultural Univer-
sity, 2018.
[5] Jia Wang. Analysis of landscape planning and design
in the construction of beautiful countryside, Jiangxi
Building Materials, 2016, (5): 41-45.
[6] Yanyan Li. The application of regional rural land-
scape design in the planning of beautiful country-
side—Taking Nanxun Village, Longhu Town, Jinji-
ang City as an example[J]. Fujian Architecture, 2016
(03): 17-20.
[7] Xuemei Ma. Preliminary exploration of the construc-
tion of beautiful rural landscapes in the context of
landscape culture—Taking Huanxi Village as an ex-
ample[J]. Architectural Culture, 2015, (2): 143-146.
[8] Liming Liu, Lei Zeng, Wenhua Guo. A Preliminary
Study on Rural Landscape Planning Methods in the
Suburbs of Beijing [J]. Rural Ecological Environ-
ment, 2001, 17 (3): 55-58.
[9] Hou Fang. Preliminary Study on Rural Landscape
Planning and Design[D]. Beijing Forestry University,
2008.
[10] Yonghui Wang, Yifan Guan. Enlightenment of Brit-
ish Urban-Rural Coordination Policy on China’s
Urban-Rural Integration Strategy[J]. Urban Watch,
2014, (5): 153-168.
[11] Liming Liu. Development history of rural landscape
planning and its development prospects in China[J].
Rural Ecological Environment, 2001, 17 (1): 53.
[12] Cook E, Van Lier H N. Landscape planning and eco-
logical networks[C] Elsevier; Developments in Land-
scape Management Urban Planning, 6F. 1994.
[13] Chonglai Liu, Three Best of the Rural Construction
Movement: Yan Yangchu Liang Shuming Lu Zuo-
fu[N]. Guangming Daily, 1999.

14
ARTICLE
Heavy Metal Emission Characteristics of Urban Road Runoff
Xintuo Chen1,2
Chengyue Lai1,2
Yibin Yuan1
Jia She1,3
Yiyao Wang1
Jiayang Chen5
Zhaoli Wang1, 2, 3*
Ke Zhong1,4*
1. Institute of Water Environment Research, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Chengdu,
China
2. Environmental Monitoring and Analysis Laboratory, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science,
Chengdu, China
3. Institute of Model Research and Application, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Cheng-
du, China
4. Institute of Watershed Research, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Chengdu, China
5. Chengdu Experimental Primary School, Chengdu, China
Article history
Received: 21 February 2020
Accepted: 27 February 2020
Pavement runoff sampling points were set up on the main roads of
Chengdu city. Six rainfall-runoff events from July to September in 2017
were sampled by synchronous observation of rainfall, runoff and pollu-
tion. The concentration changes of copper, lead, zinc, chromium and cad-
mium in the runoff process were monitored, and the pollution emission
regularity and initial scouring effect were studied. The results show that
the emission regularity of pavement runoff pollution is closely related to
rainfall characteristics and pollutant occurrence, and the concentration of
dissolved heavy metals reaches its peak at the initial stage of runoff. The
peak time of particulate heavy metal concentration lagged slightly behind
that of rainfall intensity. There is a big difference between the strength of
initial scouring degree and dissolved heavy metals the stronger the initial
scouring degree of total heavy metals, the weaker the dissolved heavy
metals. Reducing pavement runoff in the early stage of rainfall is an ef-
fective means to control heavy metal pollution.
Keywords:
Heavy Metal
Pavement runoff
Emission characteristics
Flush effect
Pollutant
Zhaoli Wang,
Institute of Water Environment Research, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Chengdu, China;
Environmental Monitoring and Analysis Laboratory, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Chengdu,
China; Institute of Model Research and Application, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Chengdu,
China;
Email: 532286821@qq.com;
Ke Zhong,
Institute of Water Environment Research, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Chengdu, China;
Institute of Watershed Research, Chengdu Research Academy of Environmental Protection Science, Chengdu, China;
Email: 458707190@qq.com

15
1. Introduction
W
ith the rapid construction of urban roads and
the increasing frequency of traffic activities,
for urban roads with high traffic flow, large
runoff pollution intensity and pollution load, as well as
toxic and harmful substances produced, are the most pol-
luting part of urban surface runoff [1]
. The potential and
long-term hazards of various heavy metal pollutants in
pavement runoff have aroused widespread concern of rele-
vant scholars [2-3]
. Relevant studies show that heavy metals
contributed by urban road runoff account for 35%~75%
of the total water environmental pollution [4]
. According
to particle size, heavy metal contaminants can be classi-
fied into two types from their occurrence states: granular
(0.45μm) and dissolved (0.45μm) [5]
. Particulate heavy
metals can persist in water sediments and can be trans-
formed into soluble state under certain conditions. Soluble
heavy metals are easily absorbed by aquatic organisms
and enter the human body through the food chain. Long-
term accumulation will cause serious harm to human
health [6]
.
In the study of heavy metal pollution in pavement run-
off, the first flush effect has attracted wide attention. The
initial scouring effect can be divided into two categories:
concentration initial effect and load initial effect. Re-
searchers find that load initial effect is more valuable. The
scouring effect at the initial stage of load is that the initial
runoff carries most of the pollution load of the whole run-
off disproportionately [7]
.
Overseas systematic monitoring studies on scouring
effect of initial load have been carried out for decades
[8-13]
. In recent years in China, domestic scholars have
carried out relevant studies in Beijing, Guangzhou,
Shanghai, Nanjing, Xi'an and other places [14-20]
. How-
ever, runoff pollution discharge is affected by many fac-
tors, and its process is complex and changeable, lacking
uniform law. There is no consensus on the determination
method of initial scouring effect and the existence or
absence of initial scouring effect. Different research
methods give different conclusions and criteria for initial
scouring, which results in great differences and no cor-
relation between the results.
In view of the close relationship between the initial
effect of heavy metals and the control of urban non-point
source pollution, this paper sets up pavement runoff sam-
pling points on the main roads of Chengdu city in China
to study the characteristics of heavy metals pollution dis-
charge from urban road runoff, in order to provide refer-
ence for the study of pavement runoff scouring effect.
2. Research Method
2.1 Research Area
The sampling site was located at an overpass of Cheng-
du Second Ring Road. Sampling points were set at the
drainage risers of overpass bridges to collect instanta-
neous samples of runoff. The runoff collection section is
a one-way three-lane bridge deck with 0.3% cross slope,
0.5% longitudinal slope and 15m bridge width. The runoff
flows through the symmetrical rainwater outlets on both
sides of the bridge deck and collects from the branch pipe
to the drainage riser. The distance between the rainwater
outlet and the upstream rainwater outlet is 40m, and the
sampling area is 500m2
. Pictures of scene and outlet are
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Pictures of sampling site
2.2 Sampling and Monitoring
2.2.1 Sampling Method
Runoff is sampled manually at certain intervals through-
out the whole rainfall process. Rainfall monitoring results
were recorded with a dump rain gauge (JFZ-01) combined
with real-time rainfall data published by Chengdu Meteo-
rological Bureau. The runoff samples were brought back
to the laboratory to analyze the water quality after the
sampling.
2.2.2 Monitoring Method
The test indexes include copper, lead, zinc, chromium
and cadmium. Samples were directly filtered by 0.45μm
filter membrane before final test. All the metal indexes
were determined by ICP-OES (Avio 200 ICP-OES Spec-
trometer, PerkinElmer) according to China environmental
standard HJ776-2015: Water Quality-Determination of
32 elements-Inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry.
2.3 Rainfall Characteristics
Six rainfall runoffs in Chengdu from July to September in
2017 were sampled artificially. The specific characteristic pa-
rameters of different rainfall processes are shown in Table 1.

16
Table 1. Characteristics of rainfalls
Rainfall
Date
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainfall
duration
(hour)
Average Rain-
fall Intensity
(mm/h)
Maximum Rain-
fall Intensity
(mm/h)
Pre-sunny
days
2017.7.14 8.6 2.8 2.4 11 8
2017.7.30 11.9 1.9 6.3 18 16
2017.8.10 40.1 7.2 5.9 39.5 11
2017.8.16 8.3 6.5 1.3 4.6 6
2017.8.20 3.2 2.6 1.2 3.2 4
2017.9.12 25.6 1.8 14.2 61 23
2.4 Analysis Method
Deletic et al. [11]
have done a lot of research, which shows
that 30% of the runoff in the early stage of rainfall carries
80% of the pollutants, and the initial scouring effect is
strong. In this study, this method is used as a criterion for
the degree of initial scouring effect.
Bertrand et al. [9]
proposed to fit the measured dimen-
sionless cumulative pollutant curves and quantitatively
characterize the initial scouring degree by fitting index b,
as shown in equation (1):
Y = X b
(1)
In the formula, Y is the cumulative pollutant discharge
proportion, X is the cumulative runoff ratio and b is the
fitting index. According to the value of fitting index b, the
initial scour of different degrees is expressed as follows
(Figure 2): 0b0.185, strong; 0.185b0.862, medium;
0.862b1, weak; b1, no initial scour.
Figure 2. Cumulative pollutant curves
3. Analysis and Discussion
3.1 Analysis of Heavy Metal Outflow
The variation of heavy metal concentration and rainfall
intensity with runoff duration in six rainfalls are shown in
Figure 3 to 8. Six rainfall events can be divided into three
categories according to rainfall and rainfall intensity pa-
rameters, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Classification of Rainfalls
Type
Name
Rainfall Date Features
A 2017.8.16 2017.8.20
Less rainfall and less rainfall intensi-
ty
B 2017.7.30 2017.9.12
Heavy rainfall and strong initial
rainfall intensity
C 2017.7.14 2017.8.10
Long rainfall time and plentiful rain-
fall peaks
3.2 Analysis of Runoff Pollution
Figure 3 and 4 show the variation curves of pollutants
with runoff time under two Type A rainfall conditions
(2017.8.16 and 2017.8.20). It can be seen that the fluc-
tuation of the concentration of heavy metal pollutants in
Type A rain pattern is obvious with the change of rainfall
intensity, and the peak value of concentration lags be-
hind the peak value of rainfall intensity slightly. Because
of the small initial rainfall and the weak dilution effect,
the effective erosion of pavement sediments can not
be realized. When the rainfall intensity increases, the
erosion effect strengthens and more pollutants enter the
runoff, the runoff pollutant concentration increases to
the peak value, but lags slightly behind the peak value of
rainfall intensity.
In addition, the runoff pollution concentration of Type
A rainfall event is relatively high, and the overall pollu-
tion is more serious. In the two rainfall events of Type A
rainfall in 2017.8.16 and 2017.8.20, the peak concentra-
tion of Cu was 68.2 and 82.6μg/L, the peak values of Zn
concentration were 132.1 and 186.5μg/L, respectively,
and the pollution level was significantly higher than that
of other rainfalls. It can be seen that for Type A rainfall
events, the variation of rainfall amount and intensity is the
main factor determining the pollution discharge of such
runoff, more runoff should be collected and processed in
order to effectively control the pollution of the receiving
water body.

17
Figure 3. Variation of pollutant concentration with runoff
time (2017.8.16, Type A)
time (2017.8.20, Type A)
It is considered that the effluent of pollutants is less
affected by runoff scouring, and the concentration fluc-
tuation is mainly related to the dilution caused by runoff
variation, even if the rainfall intensity of pollutants is low
at the beginning of runoff, they can still enter runoff and
cause high concentration pollution [18]
. In Type A rain-
fall-runoff events shown in this study, the pollutant out-
flow accords with this rule.
In Type B rainfalls (Figure 5 and 6), the concentration
of Cu and Zn varies widely with rainfall intensity. The
peak concentration of pollutants occurs in the early stage
of runoff and lags behind the peak value of rainfall in-
tensity. Because of the large rainfall intensity and runoff,
the effective erosion of high intensity rainfall on the road
surface at the early stage results in a significant reduc-
tion of runoff pollution concentration in the middle and
late stages compared with the peak value. For example,
the intensity of Type B rainfall in 2017.7.30 reached a
peak value of 3.8mm at the initial 0.2 hours (12 minutes)
of runoff, then the concentration of Zn rapidly reached
a peak of 176.8μg/L at about 0.4 hours and the concen-
tration of Cu reached mas value of 85.6μg/L at about
0.2 hours due to influence of the high initial rainfall in-
tensity. In addition, due to the long duration of rainfall,
the pollutants discharged by traffic during the rainfall
process are gradually brought into the runoff in the later
stage, which makes the pollutant concentration in the fi-
nal runoff rise slightly.
time (2017.7.30, Type B)
time (2017.9.12, Type B)
It can be seen from the runoff process that the pol-
lutants are easy to enter the runoff in Type B rainfall
events, and reach the peak value and the concentration
level is high in the initial stage. Then the concentration
drops rapidly to the bottom value. For example, in the
two rainfall events of 2017.7.30 and 2017.9.12, both Cu
and Zn reach the peak value in the initial stage of runoff,
and then the concentration of pollutants decreases within

18
about one hour of runoff. It is easy to remove from the
pavement in the early stage of high intensity rainfall
scouring, and the slight increase of concentration in the
middle and late stages is related to vehicles driving and
discharge of ground sewage.
Figure 7 and 8 are two Type C rainfall events, the
intensity of this kind of rainfall is greater in the whole
process, and there are two high intensity rain peaks in
the middle process of runoff. There is a good correlation
between the fluctuation of pollutant concentration and
the change of rainfall intensity during rainfall process.
time (2017.7.14, Type C)
time (2017.8.10, Type C)
The pollutant concentration reaches its peak value in
a short period of time after the beginning of runoff, and
then decreases gradually. In this process, the erosion abil-
ity varies with the changes of rainfall intensity, and fluc-
tuates in a zigzag shape. After two typical rainfall peaks,
the pollutant concentration tends to be stable. Because of
the long duration of rainfall, the middle and late period of
runoff is also affected by the immediate sewage discharge
during the rainy period, the concentration of pollutants
fluctuated slightly again.
The heavy metal emission rule of Type C rainfall is
similar to that of Type B rainfall events in the initial stage,
that is, the pollutant concentration reaches the maximum
at the initial stage, and then fluctuates slightly with the
change of rainfall intensity. In the later stage of runoff, the
pollutant concentration increases slightly under the influ-
ence of traffic immediate sewage discharge during rainy
period.
3.3 Analysis of Pollutant Scouring
The heavy metal pollutents discharge rate and runoff rate
of all rainfall events are plotted according to equation (1)
as shown in figure 9, the fitted value results of index b
are shown in Table 3. The curves of all field rainfalls did
not deviate significantly from the angular bisector, that is,
there was no strong initial erosion; most of the heavy met-
al curves fluctuated around the angular bisector, showing
moderate, weak or no initial effect.
Figure 9. Relation curves between pollutant emission rate
and runoff rate during rainfalls

19
Table 3. Judgement of initial scour effect for different
pollutant in each rainfall
Rainfall Date Pollutant Value of index b Initial scour strength
2017.8.16
Cu 0.3452 moderate
Pb 0.5932 moderate
Zn 0.8012 moderate
Cr 0.7604 moderate
Cd 0.7471 moderate
2017.8.20
Cu 0.8948 weak
Pb 1.3193 none
Zn 0.8789 weak
Cr 0.7863 moderate
Cd 0.9709 weak
2017.7.30
Cu 1.6733 none
Pb 1.4144 none
Zn 1.7476 none
Cr 0.8716 weak
Cd 1.1239 none
2017.9.12
Cu 1.1319 none
Pb 1.3904 none
Zn 1.0967 none
Cr 1.1063 none
Cd 1.1546 none
2017.7.14
Cu 0.7675 moderate
Pb 1.0308 none
Zn 0.8032 moderate
Cr 0.8935 weak
Cd 0.9128 weak
2017.8.10
Cu 0.6586 moderate
Pb 0.7156 moderate
Zn 0.6603 moderate
Cr 0.5989 moderate
Cd 0.6472 moderate
The initial scouring effect of heavy metals in runoffs
are significantly correlated with rainfalls and pollutants.
When rainfall intensity is strong in the early stage, heavy
metal pollutants are prone to scour in the early stage, on
the contrary, this phenomenon is more difficult to occur.
For rainfall event 2017.8.10 (Type C), the rainfall amount
and duration are the largest for the 6 rainfall events
studied, the initial scouring b value of each heavy metal
pollutant in runoff is less than 0.862, and there was a phe-
nomenon of moderate initial scouring. However, in rain-
fall event of 2017.8.16 (Type A), although rainfall inten-
sity is small, the rainfall time is long, and the heavy metal
pollutants also form scouring effect in the runoff process,
the b value of different metal pollutant is less than 0.862,
which means that the initial scouring intensity is moder-
ate. For these two types of rainfall, heavy intensity or long
duration rainfall is necessary condition for initial scouring
effect of pollutants.
For the rainfall event of 2017.9.12, which belongs
to Type B. Although the amount of rainfall is relatively
large, but the rainfall time is short, runoff process is not
obvious, and the effective scouring of pollutants cannot
be formed. The b value is greater than 1, indicating that
there is no initial scouring during rainfall process. Heavy
metal pollutants can enter the surface runoff only when
the rainfall and scouring degree are high, so the rainfall
events with small rainfall intensity or short rainfall time
cannot provide enough scouring force to form a strong
initial scouring effect. The remaining three rainfalls are
2017.7.14, 2017.7.30 and 2017.8.20, belonging to Type C,
Type B and Type A respectively. However, the scouring
intensity of each pollutant is below the moderate level, or
even none. Again, there is no significant correlation be-
tween erosion characteristics and rainfall types.
Among the heavy metal pollutants, the runoff concen-
tration and total amount of Cu and Zn are the highest, and
their scouring effect is also the most obvious. They main-
ly come from the wear of motor vehicle tires and brake
pads, and are related to the traffic flow in the study area
during the rainfall process. However, there are still some
deficiencies in the detection and research of this aspect.
4. Conclusion
Pollution discharging regularity of pavement runoff is
closely related to rainfall characteristics and pollutant oc-
currence. Heavy metal pollutant concentration reaches its
peak value in the early stage of runoff, and is less affected
by runoff scouring characterized by rainfall intensity.
For rainfall events with low rainfall intensity and run-
off, the ability of runoff to scour the surface and carry
pollutants is limited, and the pollutant concentration fluc-
tuates slightly throughout the runoff. Even at the end of
runoff, the pollutant concentration remains at a high level.
For rainfall events with large variations of rainfall in-
tensity and obvious strong rainfall peaks, the strong scour-
ing effect makes the pollutant concentration in runoff
increase significantly and then decrease rapidly when the
peak rainfall intensity appears.
The total amount of heavy metal pollutants has little
relationship with rainfall type, but the concentration and
scouring amount of pollutants are determined by rainfall
intensity and rainfall time. Collection and treatment of rain-
fall runoff, especially initial runoff, can effectively control
the pollution of receiving water body, and is also the most
fundamental way to solve urban non-point source pollution.

20
References
[1] Kayhanian M, Fruchtman B D, Gulliver J S, et al.
Review of highway runoff characteristics: Compar-
ative analysis and universal implications. Water Re-
search, 2012, 46: 6609-6624.
[2] Sansalone J J, Bu chberger S G. Partitioning and
first flush of metals in urban roadway storm water.
Journal of Environmental Engineering, 1997, 123(2):
134-143.
[3] Drapper D, Tom linson R, Williams P. Pollutant con-
centrations in road runoff Southeast Queensland case
study. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 2000,
126(4): 313-320.
[4] Ellis J B, Revitt D M. The contribution of highway
surfaces to urban stormwater sediments and metal
loadings. The Science of Total Environment, 1987,
59(1): 339-349.
[5] American Public Health Association, American Wa-
ter Works Association, Water Environment Federa-
tion. Standard methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater, 19th ed. Washington, DC: Apha-
Awwa-Wef, 1995.
[6] Yousef Y A, Harper H H, Wisem an L P, et al. Con-
sequential Species of Heavy Metals in Highway
Runoff. Washington, D C: Transportation Research
Board, 1985: 56-62.
[7] Ying Chen, Jianqiang Zhao, Bo Hu, et al. First flush
effect of urban trunk road runoff in Xi’an (in Chi-
nese). Chinese Journal of Environmental Engineer-
ing, 2012, 6(3): 930-936.
[8] Lee J H, Bang K W. Characterization of urban storm-
water runoff. Water Research, 2000, 34(6): 1773-
1780.
[9] Bertrand-Krajewski Jean-Luc, Chebbo G, Saget A.
Distribution of pollutant mass vs volume in stormwa-
ter discharges and the first flush phenomenon. Water
Research, 1998, 32(8): 2341-2356.
[10] Gupta K, Saula J. Specific relationships for the first
flush load in combined sewer flows. Water Research,
1996, 30(5): 1244-1252.
[11] Deletic A B, Maksimovic C T. Evaluation of water
quality factors in storm runoff from paved areas.
Journal of Environmental Engineering, 1998, 24(9):
869-879.
[12] Vorreiter L, Hickey C. Incidence of the first flush
phenomenon in catchments of the Sydney region.
Australia National Conference Publication, Institu-
tion of Engineers, 1994: 359-364.
[13] Wanielista M P, Yousef Y A. Stormwater Manage-
ment. New York, USA: John Wiley and Sons, 1993.
[14] Wei Zhang, Shucai Zhang, Dapan Yue, et al. Study
on PAHs concentrations in urban road runoff in Bei-
jing (in Chinese). Acta Scientiae Circumstantiae,
2008, 28(1): 160-167.
[15] Huayang Gan, Muning Zhuo, Dingqiang Li, et al.
Characteristics of Heavy Metal Pollution in Road
Surface Runoff (in Chinese). Urban Environment
Urban Ecology, 2007, 20(3): 34-37.
[16] Jinliang Huang, Pengfei Du, Chitan Ao, et al. Char-
acteristics of urban runoff in Macau (in Chinese).
China Environmental Science (in Chinese), 2006,
26(4): 469-473.
[17] Md Tariqul Islam Shajib, Hans Christian Bruun Han-
sen, Tao Liang, et al. Metals in surface specific urban
runoff in Beijing. Environmental Pollution, 2019,
248: 584-598.
[18] Jin Zhang, Xun Wang, Yu Zhu, et al. The influence
of heavy metals in road dust on the surface runoff
quality: Kinetic, isotherm, and sequential extraction
investigations. Ecotoxicology and Environmental
Safety, 2019, 176: 270-278.
[19] Frances J. Charters, Thomas A. Cochrane, Aisling D.
O'Sullivan. Untreated runoff quality from roof and
road surfaces in a low intensity rainfall climate. Sci-
ence of The Total Environment, 2016, 550: 265-272.
[20] Carlos Zafra, Javier Temprano, Joaquín Suárez. A
simplified method for determining potential heavy
metal loads washed-off by stormwater runoff from
road-deposited sediments. Science of The Total Envi-
ronment, 2017, 601-602: 260-270.

21
ARTICLE
Power Spectrum in the Conductive Terrestrial Ionosphere
Georgi Jandieri*
Jaromir Pistora Nino Mchedlishvili
International Space Agency Society Georgia, Tbilisi, 0184, Georgia
Article history
Received: 19 March 2020
Accepted: 23 March 2020
Stochastic differential equation of the phase fluctuations is derived for the
collision conductive magnetized plasma in the polar ionosphere applying
the complex geometrical optics approximation. Calculating second order
statistical moments it was shown that the contribution of the longitudinal
conductivity substantially exceeds both Pedersen and Hall’s conductivi-
ties. Experimentally observing the broadening of the spatial power spec-
trum of scattered electromagnetic waves which equivalent to the bright-
ness is analyzed for the elongated ionospheric irregularities. It was shown
that the broadening of the spectrum and shift of its maximum in the plane
of the location of an external magnetic field (main plane) less than in
perpendicular plane for plasmonic structures having linear scale tenth of
kilometer; and substantially depends on the penetration angle of an inci-
dent wave in the conductive collision turbulent magnetized ionospheric
plasma. The angle-of-arrival (AOA) in the main plane has the asymmetric
Gaussian form while in the perpendicular plane increases at small anisot-
ropy factors and then tends to the saturation for the power-low spectrum
characterizing electron density fluctuations. Longitudinal conductivity
fluctuations increase the AOAs of scattered radiation than in magnetized
plasma with permittivity fluctuations. Broadening of the temporal spec-
trum containing the drift velocity of elongated ionospheric irregularities
in the polar ionosphere allows to solve the reverse problem restoring ex-
perimentally measured velocity of the plasma streams and characteristic
linear scales of anisotropic irregularities in the terrestrial ionosphere.
Keywords:
Ionosphere
Turbulence
Irregularities
Plasma scattering
George Jandieri,
International Space Agency Society Georgia, Tbilisi, Georgia, 0184;
Email: giorgijandieri7@mail.ru
1. Introduction
R
adiation of electromagnetic waves in the ion-
ospheric plasma is of great interest from both
a theoretical and practical point of view. The
geomagnetic field plays a key role in both the dynamic
processes in the terrestrial ionosphere and irregularities
having different spatial scales usually elongated along the
lines of force of the geomagnetic field. Statistical methods
have been proposed to treat radiation in randomly inho-
mogeneous media [1,2]
.
Phase structure functions and the angle-of-arrival
(AOA) of scattered electromagnetic waves in the tur-
bulent magnetized plasma have been considered in [3,4]
applying the stochastic eikonal equation. Investigation of
the statistical moments in the turbulent conductive iono-
spheric plasma is of practical importance. Collision be-
tween plasma particles leads to the absorption of scattered
radio waves. Components of the conductivity tensor in
the homogeneous medium have been obtained [5]
account
being taken both declination and inclination angles of the

22
geomagnetic field. Second order statistical moments of
a scattered radiation in the collision magnetized plasma
were considered analytically and numerically in [6]
.
In the present work, section 2, the dispersion equation
is derived calculating attenuation of oblique incident
plane electromagnetic wave penetrating in a conductive
homogeneous collision magnetized plasma. In section 3
stochastic differential equation of the phase fluctuations
is derived account being taken both dielectric permittiv-
ity and conductivity fluctuations satisfying the boundary
conditions. Second order statistical moment – phase
correlation function of scattered radiation is obtained for
arbitrary correlation function of electron density fluctua-
tions. Broadening of both the spatial power spectrum (SPS)
and temporal spectrum of scattered electromagnetic waves
are investigated analytically in the conductive collision
ionospheric plasma with randomly varying magnetoionic
parameters using the complex geometrical optics approx-
imation. Numerical calculations are carried out in Section
4 for modified spectral function containing both aniso-
tropic Gaussian and power-law correlation functions of
electron density fluctuations including both the anisotropy
factor and the inclination angle of elongated ionospheric
irregularities with respect to the geomagnetic lines of
force using the experimental data. Results and discus-
sions are given in Section 5.
2. Formulation of the Problem
Vector of the electric field E satisfies the wave equa-
tion:
{ }
2
0 ( ) ( ) 0
i j ij ij
k
δ ε
∇ ∇ − ∆ − =
j
r E r
 , (1)
where: 0 /
k c
ω
= is the wavenumber of an incident
wave with frequency ω ; ∆ is the Laplacian, ij
δ is the
Kronecker symbol, ij ij ij
i
ε ε σ
= −
  , 0
(4 / )
ij ij k c
σ σ π
≡

are the second rank permittivity and conductivity tensors
of the turbulent conductive collision turbulent magnetized
plasma, respectively, which are random functions of the
spatial coordinates.
The ambient external magnetic field 0
H is directed
vertically upwards along the Z-axis (polar ionosphere),
wave vector of a refractive plane electromagnetic wave
in the absorptive random medium is located in the YOZ
plane (main plane) of the Cartesian coordinate system. We
suppose that
2 2
(1 ) .
s u
− Components of the second
rank permittivity tensor and conductivity tensors of the
magnetized plasma are [7,8]
:
xx yy i
ε ε η η′
= = −
   , xy yx
ε ε µ µ
′
=
− =−
  , zz i
ε ζ ζ ′
= −


where: 1
η = − ∆
 , 1 (1 )
s u
η σ⊥
′ = ∆ + +  , 1
2 s u
µ′
= ∆ ,
H
u
µ σ
=
∆ +
  , 1 v
ζ = −
 , ||
v +
s
ζ σ
′ =  ,
2
||
1 1
e e m i
e N
m m
σ
ν ν
 
= +
 
 
,
2
2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
e i
e e e i i i
e N
m m
ν ν
σ
ν ω ν ω
⊥
 
= +
 
 
+ +
 
,
2
2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
e i
H
e e e i in i
e N
m m
ω ω
σ
ν ω ν ω
 
= −
 
 
+ +
 
,
v / (1 )
u
∆ ≡ − ,
2
1 v / (1 )
u
∆ ≡ − ,
2 2
v( ) ( ) /
p
ω ω
=
r r and
2
0
( / )
e
u e H m cω
= are magneto-ionic parameters of the
ionospheric plasma,
1/2
2
( ) 4 ( ) /
p e e
N e m
ω π
 
=
 
r r is the
plasma frequency, ( )
e
N r is the electron density which
is a random function of the spatial coordinates, e and e
m
are the charge and mass of an electron, c is the speed of
light in vacuum, /
eff
s ν ω
= is the collision frequency
between plasma particles; ||
σ , σ⊥ and H
σ are the lon-
gitudinal, transverse (Pedersen) and Hall’s conductivities,
respectively, ,
e i
ν is the electron or ion collision frequen-
cy with the neutral molecules, e
ω and i
ω are the angular
gyrofrequencies of an electron and ion, respectively; i
m
is the mass of ion. At high frequencies the influence of
ions can be neglected.
If oblique incident plane wave penetrates into homoge-
neous conductive collision magnetized plasma at arbitrary
refractive angle θ to the external magnetic field 0
H
from equation (1) we obtain set of equations:
2 2
2 1 2 1
( ) ( ) 0
xx x xy y z
t t E t t E t t E
ε ε
+ − − + − =
  ,
2 2
1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) 0
yx x yy y z
t t E t t E t t E
ε ε
+ − + − + =
  ,
2 2
1 2 1 2
( ) 0
x y zz z
t t E t t E t t E
ε
+ − + − =
 , (3)
where: 0 0 1
sin sin
x
k k N k t
θ ϕ
= =
 , 2 2 2 2
1 2
t t t N
+ + =
 ,
0 0 2
sin cos
y
k k N k t
θ ϕ
= =

, 0 0
cos
z
k k N k t
ϕ
= =
 ;
ϕ is the polar angle between the projection of an incident

23
wavevector 0
k on the XOY plane and the Y axis. Com-
plex refractive index [9]
of the collision magnetized plas-
ma:
2 2 2 2
1 2
( æ)
N N i N i N
= − = − contains the refractive
coefficient of homogeneous plasma N∗ and the absorp-
tion coefficient æ :
2
1
v (1 v)
1 2
N
−
= −
ϒ
, 2
2 2
v
[ 2(1 v)(v 2)]
N s
= ∆ + − −
ϒ
, (4)
where:
2 2 4 2
2(1 v) sin sin 4 (1 v)
u u u
θ θ

ϒ
= − − ± + − ⋅

1/2
2
cos θ 
⋅

, signs

±
corresponds to the ordinary and
extraordinary waves. Determinant set of equations (3) is:
4 2
1 2 3 4
( ) ( ) 0
t D i D t D i D
+ + + + =
, (5)
where: 1 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( )
D i D C C i C C
ζ ζ ζ ζ
 
′ ′
+ = − + + ⋅
 
 
2 2 1
( )
ζ ζ −
′
+
 ,
2 2 1
3 4 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
D i D e e i e e
ζ ζ ζ ζ ζ ζ −
 
′ ′ ′
+ = − + + ⋅ +
 
   ,
2 2 2
1 1 2
( ) ( ) sin 2( )
C N N
η ζ η ζ θ ηζ η ζ
 
′ ′ ′ ′
= + − + − −
 
 
  ,
2 2 2
2 1 2
2( ) ( ) ( ) sin
C N N
ηζ ζ η η ζ η ζ θ
 
′ ′ ′ ′
= + − + + +
 
 
  ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
( sin )( sin )
e N N
θ ζ η θ η η µ
′
= − − + + −
   
4 4 2 2
2 1
sin (2 2 sin )
N N
η θ ζ η η µ µ η θ
′ ′ ′ ′
− + − −
  
2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1
sin ( sin ) sin 2
N N N
θ θ ζ η η θ ηη
 ′ ′ ′
− − + − −

 
]
2µ µ ηζ
′ ′
− − 
 ,
2 2 2 2
2 1 1
( sin )( sin 2 2 )
e N N
θ ζ η θ η η µ µ
′ ′ ′
= − − + + +
  
4 4 2 2 2 2 2
2 1
sin ( sin )
N N
η θ ζ η θ η η µ
′ ′ ′
+ + − + + −
  
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 1 1
sin ( sin ) sin
N N N
θ θ ζ η η θ η

− − + − +

   
2 2 2 2
2
) sin
N
η µ ζ η θ 
′ ′ ′
+ + + 
 .
The solution of equation (5) 0
/
z
k k determines the at-
tenuation of an incident wave propagating in the collision
conductive homogeneous plasma for arbitrary angle θ .
3. Statistical Moments in the Conductive Col-
lision Magnetized Plasma
In this section calculating the statistical characteristics of
scattered electromagnetic waves we suppose that the char-
acteristic spatial scale of elongated ionospheric irregulari-
ties exceeds the wavelength λ of an incident wave. This
assumption enables to use the complex geometrical optics
approximation ignoring the interaction between the nor-
mal waves account being taken that the phase fluctuations
substantially exceed the amplitude fluctuations. Appli-
cation of this method impose well-known restrictions on
the distance traveled by the wave in the inhomogeneous
medium. Wave field introduce as [9]
[ ]
( ) ( )exp ( )
i i
E A i ϕ
=
r r r , ϕ ϕ
( ) ( ) ( )
r τr r
= + =
k N
0 1

0 1
( sin cos ) ( )
k N y z
θ θ ϕ
= + +
 r , (6)
here: 1( )
ϕ r is the phase fluctuation of a scattered wave,
0 1
( ) (1 ( ))
e e
N N n
= +
r r , 0
e
N is constant value, 1( )
n r
is a random function of the spatial coordinates. Dielectric
permittivity is a sum of the constant mean and fluctuat-
ing terms ik ik ik
ε ε ε′
= +
   ( ik ik
ε ε′

  , the angular
brackets indicate the ensemble average). The second term
contains 1( )
n r can be obtained from equation (1).
Substituting equation (6) into (1) fluctuating phase sat-
isfies stochastic differential equations:
1 1
0 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z z y y
a i a a i a k A i A n
z y
ϕ ϕ
∂ ∂
′ ′ ′
+ + + = +
∂ ∂
r

  ,(7)
where:
2 2 2
1 1 1
sin ( )( ) ( )sin
y
a N N N
θ η η ζ ζ η θ

= − + + −

 
  

2
µ 
− 
 ,
2 2 2
1 1 1
cos 2 ( ) ( )sin
z
a N N N
θ ζ η ζ η θ
 
= − + −
 
 
 
 ,
{ 2 2
1 2 1
sin ( )( ) ( )( )
y
a N N N
θ η ζ η η η ζ
′ ′ ′ ′
= + − − − + +

 

24
}
2 2 2
1 2
( ) ( ) sin 2
N N
η ζ ζ η θ µ µ
 
′ ′ ′
+ − − − −
 
   ,
{ 2 2
1 2 1
cos 2 ( ) ( )
z
a N N N
θ ζ η η
 
′ ′
= − − − +
 
 
}
2 2 2
1 2
sin ( ) ( )
N N
θ η ζ ζ η
 
′ ′
+ − − −
 
  ,
4 2 2 2 2 3
1 1 2 1 1 1 2
( 6 )( cos sin ) 4
A N N N N N
ζ θ η θ
=− + +

2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1
( cos sin ) ( ) (1 cos )(
N N
ζ θ η θ θ ηζ

′ ′ ′
⋅ + − − + +


2
1 1 1 1 1
) 2sin ( )
ζ η ζ η ζ η θ ηη η η µ µ 
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
+ + − + − + +

  
2
1 2 1 1 1 1
2 (1 cos )( )
N N θ η ζ ηζ ζ η ζ η
′ ′ ′ ′
+ + − + + +


2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 1
2 sin (2 2 ) ( )
N N θ η η ηη µ µ η η
′ ′ ′ ′
+ + − + − −
 

2 2
1 1 1 1
2 ( ) 2 2( )
ζ ηη ζ µ µ ζ µ µ ζ ηζ η ζ
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
⋅ − − − − − ⋅

 
 
2 2
1 1 1
2( ) 2 ( ) ( )
η ηζ η ζ η ηζ ζ η η µ µ
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
⋅ + − − + + − ⋅
 
  
2
ζ µζ µ
′ ′
⋅ + 
 .
Double Fourier transformation and the boundary condi-
tion 1 0
| 0
z
ϕ = =
 yield the solution of equation (7):
1 0
( , , ) ( ) exp( )
x y x y
x y z k D i E d k dk i k x i k y
ϕ
∞ ∞
−∞ −∞
=
+ +
∫ ∫

1 x y
0
( , , ) exp ( )( )
L
y
d n k k L a ib L k
ξ ξ
 
− + −
 
∫ , (8)
here L is the distance propagating by the wave in the
conductive collision magnetized plasma satisfying the
condition 0 0
a k L k l
( l is the characteristic spatial
scale of electron density fluctuations), coefficients: a , b
, D and E are:
( )
1 2
3
tg
a ib i tg
θ
θ
− +
= −Ψ + Ψ
Ψ
,
( )
4 5
3 1
1
2 cos
D i E i
N θ
+
= Ψ + Ψ
Ψ
, (9)
where: 1 y z y z
a a a a
′ ′
Ψ
= −
  , 1 y z y z
a a a a
′ ′
Ψ
= +
  ,
2 2
3 z z
a a′
Ψ = +
 , 4 z z
A a A a
′ ′
Ψ
= +
  , 5 z z
A a A a
′ ′
Ψ
= − 
 .
If wave propagates along the ambient external magnet-
ic field ( 0
θ = ) 0
a ib
− + =, i.e. no dumping caused due
to conductivity fluctuations; at angle 0
45
θ = we obtain
0.02 0.67
a ib i
− + =
± + . Scattered electromagnetic
waves dumped stronger in proportion to the angle θ .
Correlation function of the phase fluctuations is:
1 1
( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , )
x y x y z
z z
x y x y
Vϕ ρ ρ ρ ϕ ρ ρ ρ ϕ ρ
∗
=
+ +
 
2
0
2 2 1
2 ( , , )
2
( ) y N x y y
y
x
k d k d k W k k b k
a k
D E
π
∞ ∞
−∞ −∞
= −
+ ∫ ∫
1 exp( 2 ) exp( )
y z x x y y z z
a k i k i k i k
ρ ρ ρ ρ
− − +
  +
  , (10)
where x
k and y
k are components of the wavevector
perpendicular to the external magnetic field, x
ρ and y
ρ
are the distances between observation points spaced apart
at a small distance in the main and perpendicular planes,
respectively. The regular phase difference between two
observation points are neglected. Equation (10) includes
both field-aligned ||
l and transversal l⊥ characteristics
linear scales of anisotropic electron density irregularities.
If 1
z
y
a k ρ , exponential term in (10) can be expended
into a series. In this case statistical characteristics of the
phase fluctuations are proportion to the distance L travel-
ling by the wave in the turbulent plasma. This statement is
valid beyond of its application [1,2]
.
In the theory of waves propagation in the turbulent ion-
osphere usually are interested in both amplitude and phase
fluctuations, however in different type systems the regis-
tering parameter is the frequency. In general, the intensity
of frequency fluctuations of scattered electromagnetic
waves depends on: 1) the geometry of the task (thickness
of a turbulent conductive collision magnetized plasma
slab, angle between the wave vector of an incident wave
and the ambient magnetic field; 2) characteristics spatial
scale of elongated plasmonic structures (account being
taken anisotropy factor and the inclination angle of iono-
spheric irregularities with respect to the external magnetic
field); 3) absorption caused by the collision of electrons

25
with other plasma particles. In this case frequency fluctu-
ations caused due to scattering on the turbulent plasmonic
structures put natural restrictions on the accuracy of mea-
surements.
The spatial power spectrum (SPS) is the 3D Fourier
transformation of the correlation function of a scattered
radiation [2]
. This second-order statistical moment is equiv-
alent to the brightness which usually enters the radiation
transport equation. It is characterized by broadening in the
main YOZ and perpendicular planes [3,4]
:
2
2
x
x
Vϕ
η
= −
∂
Σ
∂
,
2
2
y
y
Vϕ
η
= −
∂
Σ
∂
, (11)
where: x x x
k
η ρ
= and y y y
k
η ρ
= are non-dimension
parameters.
Knowledge of the phase correlation function allow to
calculate broadening of temporal spectrum of a scattered
radiation:
2
2 2 2
0 0
0
( )
( ) cos sin
V
V V
ϕ
ϕ
ρ
ρ θ θ
ρ
′
 
′′
Ω = − +
 
 
,(12)
here: ρ is the distance between the observation points
in the plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propa-
gation, 0
θ is the angle between the vector ñ and the drift
velocity 0
V of the frozen in plasmonic structures. In this
case new allocated direction is appeared – the velocity
of the ionospheric irregularities. From equation (12) it is
possible to calculate and measure horizontal drift velocity
of the plasmonic structures if other parameters are known
and vice-versa.
Phase fluctuations are responsible for fluctuations of
the AOA which can be measured by interferometer sys-
tems. As a part of a radar propagation effects program at
the Millstone Hill radar facility [10]
. AOA has been mea-
sured with a single mono-pulse tracking system. Structure
function ( , , ) 2 (0,0, ) ( , , )
x y x y
D L V L V L
ϕ ϕ ϕ
ρ ρ ρ ρ
 
= −
 
allows to calculate AOAs in the main and perpendicular
planes:
2
2
0
( ,0, )
lim
x
x
x
x
D L
ϕ
η
η
η
→
Θ = ,
2
2
0
(0, , )
lim
y
y
y
y
D L
ϕ
η
η
η
→
Θ = , (13)
where: 0
x x
k
η ρ
= and 0
y y
k
η ρ
= are nondimensional
parameters.
4. Numerical Calculations
Incident electromagnetic wave has frequency 3 MHz.
Magnetoionic plasma parameters at the altitude of 260 km
are: 0 0.22 ,
u = 0
v 0.28
= ,
2 6
10
n
σ −
= [11]
. We will use
the anisotropic power-law spectral correlation function of
Ground-based radar system observations [12]
showed that
plasmonic structures in the terrestrial ionosphere having
linear scales in the interval (10 km 100m)
λ are char-
acterized by spectral indices in the range of 4.8 0.2
− ± ,
both in the vertical horizontal directions. For irregularities
in 20 m to 200 m scale size range spectral power could be
presented by the Gaussian function. 3D spectral correla-
tion of electron density irregularities combining anisotro-
pic Gaussian and power-law spectra [13]
is:
3
2
||
5/2 /2
2 2 2 2 2 2
||
( )
8 1 ( )
p
n
n p
x y z
A l
W
l k k l k
σ
π χ ⊥
= ⋅
 
+ + +
 
k
2 2 2 2
2 2
|| || 2
1 2 3 ||
exp
4 4 4
y z
x
y z
k l k l
k l
p p p k k l
⊥
 
 
− − − +
 
 
,(14)
where:
2
n
σ is the mean-square fractional devia-
tion of electron density. This spectral function contains
anisotropy factor || /
l l
χ ⊥
= (the ratio of longitudinal
and transverse linear sizes of ionospheric plasma irreg-
u l a r i t i e s ) ,
2 2 2 1 2 2
1 0 0
(sin cos ) 1 ( 1)
p γ χ γ χ
− 
= + + −

2 2 2
0 0
sin cos
γ γ χ− 
⋅  , 2 2 2 2
2 0 0
(sin cos ) /
p γ χ γ χ
= + ,
2 2 1
3 0 0
( 1) sin cos (2 )
p χ γ γ χ −
= − , 0
γ is the orientation
angle of elongated ionospheric plasma irregularities with
respect to the magnetic lines of force; z
k indicates field
aligned wave number. A spheroidal shape of plasmonic
structures is caused due to the difference of the diffusion
coefficients in the field aligned and field perpendicular di-
rections. These irregularities are quite readily observable
in the presence of strong artificial and/or natural perturba-
tions in the terrestrial ionosphere.
Experimentally observable power-law spectral correla-
tion function of the electron density fluctuations has the
following form:
3
2
||
5/2 /2
2 2 2 2 2 2
||
( )
8 1 ( )
p
n
n p
x y z
A l
W
l k k l k
σ
π χ ⊥
=
 
+ + +
 
k ,(15)

26
where:
5 ( 3)
sin
2 2 2
p
p p p
A
π
− −
     
=
Γ Γ
     
     
, ( )
x
Γ is
the gamma function. In the polar ionosphere geomagnetic
field lines are oriented almost vertically formatting elon-
gated vertical plasmonic structures. Characteristic spatial
scale of electron density irregularities ranges from hun-
dreds of meters to ten kilometers. The geomagnetic field
of the high-latitude ionosphere plays an important role in
the process of plasmonic structures generation. The inci-
dent electromagnetic wave propagating in the conductive
randomly inhomogeneous ionospheric plasma makes an-
gle θ with an external magnetic field in the main plane.
The solution of the biquadratic equation (5) at ij
s σ

gives the attenuation of electromagnetic waves propagat-
ing in the homogeneous conductive collision magnetized
plasma exp( )= exp( )
~ i i ′ ′′
− − +
E k r k r k r We have
four roots:
2 2
1,2 (1 0.02sin ) 0.16cos
t i
θ θ
 
=
± − +
  and
2 2
3,4 (0.3 1.64sin ) 0.9 sin
t i
θ θ
 
=
± − −
  . (16)
Attenuation of electromagnetic waves in the conduc-
tive homogeneous plasma substantially depends on the
refractive angle of the penetrated wave vector and the ex-
ternal magnetic field. For our model the imaginary part of
i
t ( 1...4)
i = ) varies from 0.41 up to 0.86 in the interval
0 0
0 90
θ
≤ ≤ .
One of the important problem of plasma turbulence in
the upper ionosphere is the three–dimensional (3D) spa-
tial spectra of the turbulence at various latitudinal regions
describing the evolution of the statistical characteristics
of scattered radiation. Spectral shape of irregularities in
F–region of the ionosphere could be presented as a prod-
uct of two functions having various dependencies on the
wavenumber parallel ||
k and perpendicular ⊥
k to the
geomagnetic field (the spectra have various inner scales
in these directions). The spatial anisotropy of turbulence
spectra for the geomagnetic north–south (N–S) and E–W
directions has been studied in [14]
. Cross-field anisotropy,
whose scale is varying from 0.5
l⊥ km to 5 10
l⊥ ÷ km
plays a significant role in the phase fluctuations, where
the N–S component of phase fluctuation spectra reaches
the saturation. Irregularities of ionospheric F-region are
strongly stretched along the geomagnetic field.
Figure 1. The broadening of the spatial power spectrum
versus anisotoropy factor for different linear scales of
ionospheric irregularities
Numerical calculation of the broadening of the SPS are
carried out for the spectrum (14).
Figure 1 illustrates the broadening of the SPS of scattered
electromagnetic waves for different characteristic spatial
scales of elongated plasmonic structures: curve 1 corresponds
to the || 3
l = km, curve 2 is devoted to the || 6
l = km, curve
3 - || 9
l = km at inclination angle of elongated ionospheric
irregularities
0
0 30
γ = and refraction angle of an incident
wave 0
30
θ = . Increasing parameter ||
l , the SPS in the
XOZ plane broadens and its maximum shifts to the right due
to conductivity fluctuations. Maximum of the curve 1 is at
11
χ = , for curve 2 at 18
χ = , for curve 3 at 25
χ = .
Numerical analyses show that the broadening of the
SPS decreases inversely proportion to the linear scale of
ionospheric irregularities in the main YOZ plane due to
both external magnetic field and longitudinal conductivity.
Particularly, varying parameter in the interval ||
3 9
l
≤ ≤
km, shift of maximum of the SPS is at 4,
χ = the broad-
ening approximately is the same, but two order less than
in the perpendicular XOZ plane.
Figure 2. The broadening of the SPS versus anisotropy
factor of elongated ireegularities for different inclination
angle 0
γ

Investigating Aquifers Using Geophysics in Sudan

Investigating Aquifers Using Geophysics in Sudan

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Investigating Aquifers Using Geophysics in Sudan

Similar to Investigating Aquifers Using Geophysics in Sudan (20)

More from Bilingual Publishing Group

More from Bilingual Publishing Group (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Investigating Aquifers Using Geophysics in Sudan