Journal of African Management Trends Vol 24 Issue 2

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JAMT, Volume 24, Issue 2,
March 2024,
Email : manuscrit.tma@gmail.com
ISSN :95979871

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Editions Comerci, ‘Journal Of African Management Trends’
Chief Editor
Pr. Dr. Alain Ndedi
Scientific committee :
Pr. Dr Emmanuel Innocents Edoun
Pr. Dr Paulin Mbecke
Pr. Dr. Francis Kemegue
Editorial committee :
Pr. Dr. Nurudeen Oyekola, Global Confederation of Certified Entrepreneurship
and Innovation Institutes (GCCEI)/Registrar Institute of Classic
Entrepreneurship (ICEnt)
Dr. Bamidele Wale-Oshinowo, University of Lagos, Nigeria
Pr. Dr. Rose Ikelle, ESSEC, Université de Douala, Cameroun
Pr Dr Jules Banaken, Banque de Développement des Etats de l'Afrique Centrale
Pr Dr Pierre-Joubert Nguetse Tegoum, Ministère de l’économie et de la
Planification, Cameroun
Pr. Dr. Alain Ndedi, International Council for Family Business /Prime Light
University
Pr. Dr. Francis Kemegue, Boston Insights and Analytics, USA
Pr. Dr Emmanuel Innocents Edoun, Université de Johannesburg /Tshwane
University of Technology, RSA
Pr. Dr Paulin Mbecke, Université du Moyen Lualaba, DRC
Dr Polycarpe Feussi, Université de Johannesburg, RSA
Pr Dr Essombe Edimo Jean Roger, Université de Yaoundé II-Soa, Cameroun
Pr Dr Tchouassi Gérard, Université de Yaoundé II-Soa, Cameroun
Pr Dr Thierry Levy Tadjine, Université Paris 8, France
Pr Dr Mantsie Rufin W., Université Marien Ngouabi, Congo Brazzaville
Dr Kok Lawrence, University of Johannesburg, RSA
Pr Dr Makosso Bethuel, Université Marien Ngouabi, Congo Brazzaville
Dr Florence Nisabwe, President and CEO, Rise and Shine.
Volume 24, Issue 2, March 2024,
Email : manuscrit.tma@gmail.com
ISSN : 95979871

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
P. 7
INTRODUCTION
P. 11
Infrastructures challenges in developing E-learning programmes in
Cameroon
Ms Suzanne Poungue Yelou Mounif
P. 24
Metacognitive instructional strategies for blended learning environment
Dr Fidel Kottoh S. Tanju
P. 53
The advent of green marketing principles to curb environmental pollution
in Chad
Dr. Djekoundayom Bemba
P. 67
The importance of Early warning responses in response to the Boko Haram
insurgencies in the Lake Chad Basin
Dr Satadjim Succès Noel

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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the 2024 second issue of the Journal of African Management
Trends (JAMT), a bi-monthly bilingual journal which attempts to bridge
the gap between the business/corporate challenges and the university
intelligentsia. The JAMT is a platform for academics, corporate executives
and business lovers to share their vision of the corporate world. This is
done through literature reviews write-ups or case studies.
This current, the volume 24, issue 2 of 2024, has a variety of articles from
the public and the private worlds.
A paper written by Ms. Suzanne Poungue Yelou Mounif on
infrastructures challenges in developing E-learning programmes in
Cameroon discusses difficulties with online education in Cameroon due to
complex hindrances that include many different aspects of the country's
inadequate infrastructure. Access to online learning platforms and
resources are limited due to unreliable internet connection, which is
particularly problematic in rural locations. Students and teachers alike
have a hard time participating in continuous eLearning due to the
problem's worsening effects caused by an inadequate power supply and
frequent interruptions. Another big problem with eLearning is that not
many people have access to modern computers, tablets, and software.
The execution of eLearning programmes is impeded by a lack of suitable
physical facilities, amongst which lecture halls, libraries, and computer
laboratories. To overcome these obstacles, it will need a combined effort
from both public and private organisations. Moreover, investments in more
reliable power sources, better internet connection, and access to necessary
software and hardware resources are vital.
To improve access to quality education in Cameroon, the author argues
that it is necessary to adopt and use e-learning efficiently. This can only be
achieved via comprehensive interventions that address internet connection,
power supply dependability, hardware and software resources, and
physical infrastructure.
Dr Fidel Kottoh S. Tanju, through his paper on metacognitive
instructional strategies for blended learning environment gives form to the
thought that a Blended Learning Environment uniquely occasions the
harnessing of the effective development and deployment of metacognition
by means of a strategic instructional design. For the author, the rather

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facetious designation “android generation” speaks of both a blessing and a
curse. A peculiar piece of the puzzle is the feverish increase in currency
and adoption of the Blended Learning model; and this has become even
more undeniable in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. To ensure
effective learning, focusing on the learner’s self-awareness of the learning
process is critical; and this is where metacognitive strategies find their
pertinence. Within the theoretical framework of the Tyler’s Rationale, the
author proposes various practical metacognitive strategies that could be
used in designing instruction in a blending learning environment; and
herein lies the originality of the paper. This contribution is built from a
very careful hybridization of literature review and interpretive
phenomenology. Instead of engaging in the unfortunately ‘comfortable’
whining about the evils of blended learning, this author engages the
principles of an effective and efficient deployment of the same. This lays
the foundation for a futuristic perspective and practice of instructional
design.
The advent of green marketing principles to curb environmental pollution
in Chad is written by Dr. Djekoundayom Bemba. In today’s changing
business environment, companies are facing environmental issues that
negatively influence all human endeavours consequent upon which green
issues are incorporated into companies marketing strategies. In a society
concerned with the degradation of the natural environment, academics and
professionals in marketing are becoming more responsive through their
research in one hand for academics, and innovative strategies for
professionals to address customers’ concerns. In Chad, because of
consistent failure of the central government to provide portable water,
there is proliferation of companies supplying bottled/sachet water outfits
to satisfy customers’ needs. This move for the past years is leading to an
increased consumption of water related products and the throwing away
of plastic empties packaging in the nature thereby causing uncontrollable
environmental pollution. The present article unpacks the dependant and
independent variables under this study, namely green marketing and
environmental pollution. Through interviews and library research, the
author attempts to find out whether if green marketing principles can be
seen as a solution to the pollution problem in Chad. The author establishes
that green marketing, if properly exploited, can serve as environmental

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pollution in volatile business environment in which we find ourselves. At
the end, some recommendations are for Chadian officials to create a
conductive environment for an eco-friendly and free of bottled/sachet
water production in Chad. The author urges the Chadian government to
develop seminars and workshops to train the general public and reorient
their citizenry on the importance of proper refuse disposal and the littering
of the country environment with disposable plastics containers.
The importance of Early warning responses in response to the Boko Haram
insurgencies in the Lake Chad Basin is authored by Dr Satadjim Succès
Noel. For decades, the four Lake Chad Basin (LCB) countries have
grappled with various forms of insecurity including banditry, abduction,
highway robbery and cattle rustling among other challenges. In addition,
the most significant security challenges confronting the LCB remain the
Boko Haram crisis. In this regard, Cameroon, Chad, Niger and Nigeria
have all been impacted by violent extremism that impedes State
functionality and its capacity and willingness to provide human security.
The focus on conflict dynamics in the LCB must therefore been seen as a
critical issue and look at a wide spectrum of actors, structures and
processes that spawn insecurity in the region while still centring the Boko
Haram phenomenon and its connections with other conflict or security
dynamics. The article based on an empirical research was carried out in the
eight provinces/states/regions directly affected by the Boko Haram
insurgency: Far North and North regions (Cameroon), Hadjer Lamis and
Lac provinces (Chad), Diffa region (Niger), Adamawa, Borno and Yobe
states (Nigeria) with the aim to understand if early warning systems are
fully used and implemented. The findings show that there is not enough
use of early warning systems to combat Boko Haram insurgencies. This
article intends to fill that gap by proposing some strategies to curb the
Boko Haram insurgencies.
Enjoy your reading!
For future submissions, please do not hesitate to contact us at:
ndediaa@gmail.com et manuscrit.tma@gmail.com (secretariat)
Prof. Dr. Alain Ndedi

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Infrastructures challenges in developing E-learning programmes in
Cameroon
Ms. Suzanne Poungue Yelou Mounif
Email : sumounif@gmail.com
Charisma University
Cite this article: Poungue, Yelou, Mounif, S, (2024), Infrastructures
challenges in developing E-learning programmes in Cameroon. Journal of
African Management Trends (JAMT). Volume 24, issue 2, January 2024. Pp:
11-23.
ABSTRACT
Difficulties with online education in Cameroon are complex and include
many different aspects of the country's infrastructure. Access to online
learning platforms and resources are limited due to unreliable internet
connection, which is particularly problematic in rural locations. Students
and teachers alike have a hard time participating in continuous eLearning
due to the problem's worsening effects caused by an inadequate power
supply and frequent interruptions. Another big problem with eLearning is
that not many people have access to modern computers, tablets, and
software.
The execution of eLearning programmes is impeded by a lack of suitable
physical facilities, amongst which lecture halls, libraries, and computer
laboratories. To overcome these obstacles, it will need a combined effort
from both public and private organisations. Moreover, investments in more
reliable power sources, better internet connection, and access to necessary
software and hardware resources are vital.
To improve access to quality education in Cameroon, it is necessary to
adopt and use e-learning efficiently. This can only be achieved via
comprehensive interventions that address internet connection, power
supply dependability, hardware and software resources, and physical
infrastructure.
Keywords. eLearning, infrastructure, challenges, digital divide, internet
access, technology, education, connectivity.

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INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH BACKGROUND
Major challenges to Cameroon's e-learning adoption stem from inadequate
infrastructure. The lack of a reliable Internet connection limits students'
ability to use virtual classrooms and other online learning tools,
particularly in more remote areas. Power interruptions disrupt eLearning,
exacerbating the already serious issue of an unreliable electricity supply.
Due to a lack of access to personal computers and other devices, there is a
digital divide in education. Due to a lack of funding or technological
support, many schools may not be able to implement online learning
programmes correctly. From an infrastructure perspective, eLearning
issues in Cameroon show the need to spend substantially on improving
internet connectivity, power availability, and technological access.
1. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Reliability issues with the Internet access, a dearth of computers, and
outdated or non-existent physical classroom spaces are at the root of
Cameroon's eLearning woes. The fact that infrastructural investments in
rural areas are quite backward as compared to the ones in the metropolitan
makes the problem worse. Electricity supply reliability and the frequency
of power outages are further obstacles to the effective launch of eLearning
programmes. These problems with the underlying infrastructure make it
harder for people to get good education and prevent digital learning
systems from reaching their full potential. If we are serious about
expanding access to education and making sure eLearning programmes are
available nationwide, we must solve these underlying problems. It is
particularly important to invest in underserved regions to increase the
Internet access, provide digital gadgets, and improve physical
infrastructure.
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
❖ To evaluate Cameroon's eLearning infrastructure, identify challenges
like the lack of investment and limited electricity access.
❖ To explore potential solutions, including partnerships and
international support.

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❖ To examine the impact of eLearning on educational outcomes and
provides recommendations for sustainable, scalable solutions for all
regions.
3. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Understanding the challenges to successful implementation, exposing the
digital gap, and guiding investment choices in Cameroon's eLearning
problems require an infrastructural approach. This paves the way for more
inclusive eLearning initiatives by illuminating gaps in technology and
internet connection. Prioritising funds for technical resource enhancement
may be achieved by identifying locations lacking suitable infrastructure.
Businesses, hospitals, and governments all stand to gain from technical
capacity and connectivity enhancements made possible by the
infrastructure perspective's larger implications for digital infrastructure
development. Thus, it is critical to promote digital inclusiveness,
investment choices, and overall technology growth by understanding the
infrastructural viewpoint of eLearning problems in Cameroon.
4. METHODOLOGY
Analysing the physical and technical resources, such as accessible
computers, dependable internet, and sufficient digital infrastructure, that
are necessary for successful online education is the infrastructure
viewpoint of eLearning problems in Cameroon. The research was a survey
questionnaire and the examination of official documents, case studies,
comparisons with other nations, and geographic information systems (GIS)
technology. By using these techniques, we want to get a thorough
comprehension of the infrastructure-related issues that impede Cameroon's
eLearning adoption, which will allow us to better advise policymakers and
conduct interventions to enhance the country's educational digital
infrastructure. To enhance eLearning across the nation, the results may
guide policy suggestions and initiatives.
5. LITERATURE REVIEW
Online education could help underprivileged and rural communities in
Cameroon have access to high-quality education. Nevertheless, several
infrastructure-related challenges are preventing the effective deployment
of eLearning in Cameroon. Some instances of these include access to the

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internet, reliable power, readily available software, and hardware, and
technical assistance. All things considered, they are the bee's knees when it
comes to online education initiatives' efficacy and the smooth running of
eLearning programmes. To better understand the hindrances required for
effective implementation, this literature study seeks to identify and
examine these issues connected to the infrastructure. Policymakers,
educators, and stakeholders in Cameroon's eLearning efforts may use the
report's findings to devise plans to address these obstacles and successfully
incorporate eLearning into the country's educational system.
5.1 Limited internet access challenges for learning in Cameroon.
The educational system in Cameroon has a major obstacle due to the
unreliability of the Internet connectivity in rural and distant places. Due to
the growing importance of online learning considering the COVID-19
pandemic, it is crucial that both students and instructors have access to
eLearning platforms and resources. The Cameroonian Government and
other interested parties have to make expanding internet access to these
unserved regions a top priority if the country is to solve this problem
(Chiatoh & Chia, 2020). This might include funding the construction of
community internet centres, subsidising internet service providers to
extend their networks to these regions or investing in the expansion of
broadband coverage. It is also important to help students and educators
who have restricted internet access learn to make the most of the resources
available online. Some examples of this may include teaching students to
make the most of their mobile data for schoolwork or creating eLearning
courses that can be accessed even when the power goes out (Béché, 2020).
All students in Cameroon, regardless of their locations, will have equitable
access to high-quality learning opportunities if the country's educational
system closes the digital gap. For the country's future growth and success,
this is of utmost importance.
5.2 Inadequate technology infrastructure challenges for learning in
Cameroon.
Students are unable to fully engage in online courses and digital learning
materials due to the inadequate technological infrastructure. Furthermore,
schools have challenges constantly integrating technology into their
teaching techniques due to the unpredictable electrical supply. This puts a

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lot of Cameroonian students behind their counterparts in more developed
nations when it comes to technology (Kabange & Simatele, 2022). Their
ability to study and adapt to the challenges of today's schools might suffer
if they are denied access to e-learning materials. The Cameroonian
government and educational institutions should consider investing in
technological infrastructure a top priority if they are to solve this problem.
A steady power supply and the provision of computers, tablets, and
internet access to schools are two possible ways to achieve this goal (Tafor,
2020). To better support eLearning programmes and guarantee that all
students have equitable access to instructional materials, Cameroon may
improve its school technological infrastructure. Students will be more
equipped to succeed in today's technologically advanced society, and the
digital gap will be reduced as a result.
5.3 Poor network connectivity challenges for learning in Cameroon.
When the internet connections are unreliable, it may be difficult for both
students and instructors to use online resources, take part in online classes,
and communicate clearly. In the long run, it lowers educational quality
since it demotivates and annoys both pupils and instructors. The
government and related stakeholders must invest in enhancing internet
infrastructure and connections in Cameroon if this problem is to be
addressed.
Increasing the availability of fast internet in underserved regions,
bolstering the reliability of existing networks, and making access to the
internet services affordable for educational institutions, are all possible
steps in this direction. It is also important to look at other ways of
eLearning, such as digital resources that may be used even when the
internet isn't available (Maguatcher & Ru, 2023). Some examples of this
approach include making course materials available to students on CDs or
USB drives or making use of downloadable, offline mobile applications. To
guarantee that all Cameroonian students and educators have fair access to
high-quality education and may participate in eLearning activities, it is
essential to fix the problem of intermittent internet connections.
5.4 Lack of technical support challenges for eLearning in Cameroon.
Lack of technical assistance and expertise may hinder the successful
adoption of eLearning in Cameroon. Training and resources should be

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made available by educational institutions and organisations to assist both
instructors and students in developing the technical skills needed for
eLearning. Furthermore, if any technological difficulties emerge, there
must be specialised technical support teams or resources accessible to help.
Online education in Cameroon may benefit both educators and students if
these problems are resolved.
Educator and eLearning support staff capacity building and training
programmes, a dedicated technical support team, online resources,
community support networks, government support, peer mentoring, and
regular feedback mechanisms to gather stakeholder input on eLearning
technical challenges are all part of the plan to address Cameroon's lack of
technical support for eLearning (Arrey-Ndip, Carole, Njikam &
Tamajong, 2020).The goal of these steps is to promote eLearning solutions,
strengthen eLearning platforms, and increase technical expertise.
5.5 Limited access to digital resources challenges for eLearning in
Cameroon:
A challenge for both students and teachers attempting to use eLearning in
Cameroon is the absence of digital instructional materials tailored to the
curriculum. Students have a harder time gaining access to interesting and
relevant material that helps them learn if the materials aren't correlated
with the curriculum. To solve this problem, curricular relevant digital
educational materials should be created for the Cameroon curriculum
(Bediang, Stoll, Geissbuhler, Klohn, Stuckelberger, Nko’o & Chastonay,
2013). Making digital resources such as online textbooks and interactive
learning modules that correspond to the curriculum's stated goals and
objectives is one possibility.
Furthermore, it is important to make sure that these resources are available
to all students, including those in underprivileged or far-flung areas. To
achieve this goal, it may be necessary to provide teachers with computers
and internet connections as well as trainings on how to make good use of
digital resources in the classroom. One way that eLearning programmes
might help improve education and learning outcomes for students in
Cameroon is by filling the gap in digital instructional materials that are
specific to the curriculum (Fenmachi, 2022).

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5.6 High cost of technology as challenges for eLearning:
A digital gap may emerge when some students do not have the means to
participate in online education because of this disparity in access to
technology. This could worsen educational disparities and the nation's
progress. Schools and families in Cameroon need access to inexpensive
technology and the internet if the government and other stakeholders are
serious about solving this problem (Abdullah, Toycan & Anwar, 2017).
Some possible ways to achieve this goal include lowering the price of
gadgets, giving funds to schools so that they may buy technology, and
forming partnerships with private organisations to provide cheaper
internet rates. Teachers and students alike should also have access to
resources that may help them make the most of eLearning technology. All
children may be better prepared to thrive in today's digital classrooms if
this were to happen. To ensure that all students in Cameroon have equal
opportunity to engage in eLearning activities and develop to their
maximum potential, the country must remove the obstacles that prevent
them from gaining access to technology.
Improving internet access, technological infrastructure, technical
assistance, and digital educational materials nationwide would require
substantial expenditure to tackle these infrastructural concerns.
Guaranteeing equitable access to high-quality eLearning opportunities for
all students will also require cooperation between public and private
organisations as well as schools.
6. THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Looking at the eLearning issues in Cameroon from an infrastructural
viewpoint is made easier with the help of underpinning theories, which
shed light on the underlying elements that cause these challenges. The
following perspectives, derived from infrastructure-based considerations,
might shed light on the eLearning difficulties in Cameroon:
6.1 Digital divide theory
A major issue in Cameroon, according to the digital divide theory, is the
disparity in people's ability to use and benefit from technology and the
internet. The broad adoption of eLearning is impeded by the fact that many
sections of the nation do not have sufficient infrastructure for reliable
internet connections.

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Digital divide theories are useful for understanding and resolving
inequalities in the use and accessibility of digital technology. Theoretical
frameworks like these allow us to examine how variables like income,
education, geography, and accessibility to necessary infrastructure play a
role in widening the digital divide (Pick & Sarkar, 2016). To make sure that
everyone has a fair chance to benefit from digital technology, lawmakers
and organisations need to understand these characteristics so they can
create tailored initiatives to close the digital gap. Furthermore, these ideas
contribute to the discussion of digital inclusion and the promotion of
legislation that ensures all people have an equal opportunity to use
technology (Van Dijk, 2017). In sum, the digital divide theories help
pinpoint and remedy disparities in opportunities and resources available
via digital means.
6.2 Technological determinism theory
According to this theory, new technologies are what cause changes in
society and the economy. Concerning eLearning in Cameroon, insufficient
resources and infrastructure might impede the efficient deployment of
online learning materials. Technology, according to technological
determinism, is the primary agent of cultural and social transformation,
moulding individuals' attitudes, actions, and relationships (Drew, 2016).
Proponents put forth the hypothesis that technology drives historical
evolution and fundamentally transforms society. Some think it simplifies
things too much by ignoring human action and social structures in the
complicated web of relationships between technology and society (Lawson,
2013). A variety of political and economic forces influence how technology
affects people's daily lives.
6.3 Institutional theory
Organisational and institutional influences on individual actions and
choices are the primary subject of institutional theory. Institutional barriers
like outdated regulations, a lack of funding for educational technology, and
a lack of technical support may make it more difficult to integrate
eLearning into formal education systems in Cameroon. Sociology and
organisational theory known as "institutional theory" examines how
established systems shape individual and group dynamics. It delves into

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the ways in which rules, conventions, and organisations influence the
behaviour of individuals and groups. How institutions are established,
sustained, and transformed across time is another area of inquiry within
institutional theory (Willmott, 2015). Institutional influences and their
effects on decision-making and strategic decisions may be better
understood by placing organisational behaviour within a broader social
framework.
6.4 Socio-technical systems theory
This theory highlights how technical and social elements interact to shape
technological systems. The effectiveness of eLearning programmes in
Cameroon may be affected by differences in pedagogical approaches,
linguistic variety, and students' and teachers' levels of digital literacy (Sony
& Naik, 2020). Education and infrastructure development are two areas
that might benefit from socio-technical systems theory's application in
Cameroon. This theory emphasises the interplay between social and
technological aspects. It has the potential to improve transportation,
energy, and communication networks, as well as the integration of
technology in schools, leading to better learning outcomes (Münch, Marx,
Benz, Hartmann & Matzner, 2022). By taking a comprehensive and long-
term view, this method has the potential to improve the country's
development by tackling complicated problems and encouraging inclusive
progress.
6.5 Diffusion of innovations theory
How innovative technology distributes throughout a community or
company is the subject of the Diffusion of Innovations hypothesis.
Dissemination of eLearning advances throughout diverse areas of
Cameroon may be hindered by infrastructure-related constraints, such as
insufficient access to energy and dependable internet.
The diffusion of innovation theory in Cameroon reveals factors influencing
the widespread adoption of eLearning strategies. These include the
system's benefits, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability.
Addressing these concerns can boost adoption and sustainability.
Partnerships with local communities, targeted marketing, and training

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programmes can improve stakeholders' understanding and comfort with
eLearning, benefiting all students in Cameroon (Dearing & Cox, 2018).
7. FINDINGS
Many significant findings are brought to light while investigating the
eLearning challenges facing Cameroon from an infrastructural standpoint.
Among them are:
Inadequate access to technology: Many Cameroonian students lacks the
resources—including computers and fast internet—to fully engage in
eLearning programmes. Because of this restriction, they are unable to make
use of the many online learning tools available to them.
Insufficient infrastructure: The country's systems aren't prepared to
handle extensive online education programmes. For example, students
may have trouble accessing course materials and engaging in online
learning activities due to unreliable power and internet connections.
Inequitable allocation of resources: eLearning resources are not evenly
distributed among Cameroon's regions. When it comes to infrastructure
and technology, urban regions usually have the upper hand, whereas rural
areas generally fall short when it comes to successful eLearning.
A lack of technological support: A lot of teachers and students in
Cameroon don't have the knowledge or help they need to use eLearning
resources. As a result, students may be discouraged and become
uninterested and frustrated with their online learning experiences.
Exorbitant technology costs: Many Cameroonian students and educational
institutions cannot afford the high cost of obtaining and maintaining
equipment needed for online learning, worsening the country's digital
divide.
Taken together, these findings show how serious the infrastructural issues
are that must be solved if all students in Cameroon are to have better
access to high-quality eLearning programmes. To overcome these problems

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and ensure that all students have the chance to benefit from eLearning
programmes, it is necessary to enhance infrastructure, broaden access to
technology, and offer technical assistance.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To guarantee that all students in Cameroon have access to eLearning
materials, the government and the business sectors should collaborate to
enhance the internet connections. This is particularly important in remote
regions.
Investing in technology. The government should buy laptops and tablets
so that schools may use them for eLearning.
Educate the educators. Educators should get professional development on
how to best utilise online learning resources to meet the needs of their
students.
Production of eLearning materials: The government and schools in
Cameroon should collaborate to design eLearning materials of the highest
quality, specific to the country's curriculum and environment. Helping
students with public places like libraries and community centres may be
great resources for kids who do not have the internet or other technology at
home.
The government and private sector partnership: The government and
private sector should work together to make eLearning materials and
technology accessible to students and instructors at reasonable prices.
Evaluation and monitoring: A mechanism should be set up to track how
well eLearning programmes in Cameroon are doing, and any necessary
modifications should be made according to comments made by instructors,
students, and parents.
CONCLUSION
To conclude, while looking at the eLearning problems in Cameroon
through the lens of the country's infrastructure, it becomes clear that there
are substantial obstacles to the efficient deployment and utilisation of
eLearning platforms. Improving eLearning options for instructors and
students requires addressing significant barriers, such as unreliable
internet connections, limited access to energy, and restricted availability of
digital devices. There is an immediate need for government action and

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funding to improve the infrastructure that supports eLearning
programmes, according to the study's results. Making sure that schools
have enough digital tools for instructors and students, as well as enhancing
access to the internet are all part of this. Improving eLearning in Cameroon
and providing equitable access to high-quality education for all students
depends on resolving these infrastructural issues. To make eLearning a
success in the nation, all relevant parties must collaborate to remove these
obstacles.
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24
Metacognitive instructional strategies for blended learning environment
Fidel Kottoh S. Tanju, PhD
Cite this article: Kottoh, Shafak, Tanju, F., (2024), Metacognitive
instructional strategies for blended learning environment. Journal of African
Management Trends (JAMT). Volume 24, issue 2, January 2024. Pp: 24-52
ABSTRACT
This paper gives form to the thought that a Blended Learning Environment
uniquely occasions the harnessing of the effective development and
deployment of metacognition by means of a strategic instructional design.
The rather facetious designation “android generation” speaks of both a
blessing and a curse. A peculiar piece of the puzzle is the feverish increase
in currency and adoption of the Blended Learning model; and this has
become even more undeniable in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. To
ensure effective learning, focusing on the learner’s self-awareness of the
learning process is critical; and this is where metacognitive strategies prove
their pertinence. Within the theoretical framework of the Tyler’s Rationale,
this paper proposes various practical metacognitive strategies that could be
used in designing instruction in a blending learning environment; and
herein lies the originality of the paper. This is built from a very careful
hybridization of literature review and interpretive phenomenology.
Instead of engaging in the unfortunately ‘comfortable’ whining about the
evils of blended learning, this paper engages the principles of an effective
and efficient deployment of the same. This lays the foundation for a
futuristic perspective and practice of instructional design.
Key Words: Metacognition, Instructional Design, Blended Learning,
Tyler’s Rationale, Metacognitive instructional strategies
INTRODUCTION
There is a plethora of things peculiar about this age. Among these are:
knowledge explosion; unprecedented scientific and technological
advancement; climate change; and alarming resource depletion. These
issues permeate all spheres of human existence and form the very essence
of what could be characterised as the contemporary existential crisis of

25
humanity. Various occurrences exacerbate this crisis, and yet others reveal
its opportunities. Who knew we would one day have entirely online
services? Who knew telemedicine would become a feverishly urgent
discussion topic in the developing world? Who foresaw this unprecedented
dependence on ‘digitalization’?
With the knowledge explosion of this ‘android generation’ – or better still,
“digital generation” (Buzzard, Crittenden, Crittenden, & McCarty, 2011:
131) – and the pressures from the societal and existential challenges,
contemporary learners have to face this challenge: they seem to be more
focused on chatting on Facebook, and other social media platforms, lost in
virtual worlds than taking their formal education seriously; and yet the
real tragedy is that formal education and educators have failed to harness
the currently available digital technologies and infrastructure towards
creative and responsible learning (Buzzard et al., 2011). In this generation
technology should help learners learn more and not less. This means the
issue should not be with technology. The issue is usually lack of digital
competences of the teachers and/or learners on appropriate digital
technologies for their setting (Bukaliya & Mubika, 2011; Ngoungouo, 2017),
irresponsible use of the available educational technologies or suboptimal
choices of instructional strategies (Fissore, Floris, Marchisio, Rabellino, &
Sacchet, 2020). The fact is that we can no longer ignore the utility of
technology in the educational experiences of this digital generation.
The fact is that we must engage a paradigm shift in classroom
practice nowadays. The world now “increasingly involves cooperation,
critical thinking, adaptability, grit, tenacity, rely less on this education of
facts and information” (Padmadewi, Artini, & Jayanta, 2021: 161). This also
requires teachers to creatively adapt their classroom practice to the changes
exacerbated by pervasive disruptions in technology. The teachers have to
be ready to “prepare students to have life and career skills build
networking and make collaborations, be creative, promote innovation,
develop the character of problem solver, and have critical thinking era”
(Padmadewi et al., 2021: 161). This is what ensures that the students’
learning experiences have both the quality and relevance to be drivers of
change and creators of value in their communities and beyond. But beyond
being a burden for the teachers, the learners too have a herculean task
ahead of them.

26
This reality is further compounded by the fact that the traditional
classrooms seem increasingly outdated, inconvenient and – in the wake of
the COVID-19 pandemic – arguably unsafe. The lockdowns, social
distancing and other measures to deal with the pandemic, have made e-
learning or at least blended learning an urgent alternative to the traditional
classroom learning (Schneider & Council, 2020; Seymour-Walsh, Weber,
Bell, & Smith, 2020; Shetty, Shilpa, Dey, & Kavya, 2020; Konig, Jager-Biela,
& Glutsch, 2020). In many countries, especially were internet connectivity
is usually and issue, blended learning has come to stay. One challenge that
remains is this: how can we make the best out of this new normal without
sacrificing the learner to the distractions of the digital age? How can we
help the learner to learn make more instead of less, and so creatively and
responsibly use the available digital technologies?
One of the ways that learners and researchers have tried to deal with these
challenges is to explore potent learning strategies like metacognition. The
argument here is that helping the learners to be more conscious of how
they learn – their metacognition – would prove very effective in making
them engage these new educational technologies more responsibly and
creatively. From the perspective of learning environments, blended
learning has emerged as an innovative solution to the challenges and
weaknesses of online learning like “lack of face-to-face interactions, lack of
socialization, distraction by social media, technology related issues etc”
(Shetty, Shilpa, Dey, & Kavya, 2020: 1); and as aforementioned, exclusively
traditional classroom learning is no longer a viable option. Unfortunately,
though there is much research on the various applications of
metacognition, there is a dearth of studies on web-based applications (Shen
& Liu, 2011). As such, a study of the applications of metacognitive
instructional strategies within a blended learning environment, especially
within our context remains a thing to be exploited.
Therefore, this paper attempts a study of some instructional design
prospects for metacognition strategies in a blended learning curriculum.
This was done by means of a thematic analysis based on related literature
and possible implications for the classrooms in a blended learning
environment (BLE). The work proceeds with a conceptual framework, a
theoretical framework and a discussion of the strategies. A conclusion and
a list of references bring closure to the work.

27
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
There are two main concepts around which this work is built:
metacognition and blended learning. A closer look at them proves
instructive.
Metacognition
Etymologically speaking, metacognition could be interpreted as ‘beyond
cognition’. Little wonder why it has severally been defined as “thinking
about your thinking”; or better still, “the awareness, analysis and
knowledge that a person has of his/her cognitive (learning, teaching)
processes” (Boghian, 2016, p. 53). Boghian (2016, pp. 54-55) further explains
that the term was first coined by the American Developmental
Psychologist John Flavell to cover the following three categories:
metacognitive knowledge/awareness; metacognitive regulation; and
metacognitive experiences
Metacognitive Knowledge or Metacognitive Awareness
This refers to knowledge of the cognitive process and the cognitive
processor (the thinker); and we might add here also knowledge of the
cognitive substrate (the thought). As such, this involves the knowledge of
the ‘thinking’, ‘the thinker’ and ‘the thought’. Otherwise put, this involves
knowledge of the task, knowledge of the subject and knowledge of the
strategy. This has also grounded the distinction between declarative
knowledge (this refers to ‘knowing that’), conditional knowledge (which
refers to ‘knowing why’) and procedural knowledge (referring to ‘knowing
how’, the strategy).
Declarative knowledge refers to knowing basic concepts, theories, stating
the rules and the relationship between them – just knowing that. It answers
the “What” question. The learning activities common to this type of
knowledge include stating, identifying, linking, organizing and
elaborating. In a Mathematics class, this knowledge simple manifests itself
as the learner’s ability to state that a circle is round or a triangle has three
angles. In a Logic class a student who can state that for an Aristotelian
syllogism to be valid the conclusion must be derived from the premises, is

28
said to possess declarative knowledge. Knowing the name of a president of
a country is declarative knowledge.
Procedural knowledge refers to the knowledge of elementary procedures.
It answers the “How” question. In a Logic class, a student who can
demonstrate how the conclusion is derived from the premises in a valid
Aristotelian syllogism is said to possess procedural knowledge. In a
Mathematics class, a learner with procedural knowledge knows that to get
the sum of 98 and 45, they could use any of these procedures: either they
get the sum of 100 and 45 and then subtract 2 from that to get their answer;
or they rearrange to problem to become finding the sum of 100 and 43.
Knowing that both these procedures will lead to the same answer is
procedural knowledge.
Conditional knowledge refers to the knowledge of when and how to apply
declarative and/or procedural knowledge. Imagine a kid picking up a
comic book and reading it in the same way as they would a novel or a
difficult text. This would be a case of lack of conditional knowledge and the
result would be to not get the best out of either or both books. Another
learner with conditional knowledge, would know that you simply skim the
comic book to get the gist of it but you take a closer reading of the novel or
difficult text so as to get the deeper understanding thereof. Detectives and
law enforcement officers are in desperate need of this: should they solve
the crime using the facts, the procedures, and/or the motives? Their
conditional knowledge is what will help them thread this needle. For
teachers this comes down to knowing when to apply which method or
procedure to get the best chance at achieving the learning outcomes.
Metacognitive Regulation
This refers to the strategies deployed in the regulation of the cognition so
as to control learning: planning, monitoring and evaluation. These are also
referred to as metacognitive skills; the aptitude for harnessing procedures
and strategies in the controlling of one’s cognition. This also includes
positive self-talk, self-questioning, and reflection.
Metacognitive Experiences
This refers to the experiences connected to the current cognitive
endeavours. Flavell (1976) considered a metacognitive experience to be any
cognitive or affective experience that is conscious, and that accompanies
any intellectual/cognitive endeavour. He explained that these are more

29
likely to occur during a task depending on the importance of the decisions
and actions the individual engages during the performance of the said task.
These are the experiences and feelings elicited in a person during a
situation of problem-solving or other types of cognitive activities. These
include the feeling of satisfaction, the feeling of confidence, the feeling of
familiarity, feeling of difficulty and other experiences and feelings
associated with the performance of problem solving activities or other
cognitive activities (Efklides, 2009).
Other Definitional Attempts
According to Statt (1998), metacognition involves ones’ aptitude for the
awareness of, reflection upon and exercise of control over one’s cognitive
processes. For Sternberg (1986), this ability – to apportion cognitive
resources, like deciding the when and how best to complete a given task –
is the defining character of intelligence. According to Segal, Williams &
Teasdale (2002), important aspects of metacognition include the awareness
of one’s mental processes by means of monitoring or observation of the
activity of the discursive mind.
Flavell (1976) himself beyond seeing metacognition as thinking about one’s
thinking, also sees it as the ability a person has to be conscious of
himself/herself as a problem-solver, the ability a person has to plan,
implement, monitor and control’s their own mental processes. This is what
gives grounding to the understanding of metacognition as a question of
knowledge (and understanding of what we know, how we know and how
we think) and self-regulation (the ability to order our thinking process
while working on any task) giving rise to the aforementioned
metacognitive knowledge/awareness and metacognitive regulation.
All these definitional attempts reinforce a few ideas. For one thing,
metacognition revolves heavily around a self-awareness of and active
control of ones’ cognitive processes, outcomes and experiences. This
heavily relies on planning, monitoring and evaluation as well as other
more specific metacognitive strategies. This is at the core of metacognitive
regulation and is central to building their metacognitive
awareness/knowledge.
The second thing that the definitional attempts reinforce is that
metacognition is strongly associated to intelligence and learning outcomes.

30
In fact, research on metacognition leaves one without doubt that
metacognition is a monumentally potent predictor of learner outcomes.
According to Ahmadi, Ismail & Abdullah (2013), that metacognitive
reading comprehension skills positively affect learning a second language
and effective communication in English. Interestingly, Moradimokhles,
Heydari & Salehi (2016) arrived at a rather instructive conclusion:
metacognition instruction in BLE predicted spiritual health more than in
either face-to-face or online learning environments. In point of fact,
metacognition is to be taken seriously in any serious considerations on the
future of learning.
Blended Learning
Is learning itself not essentially blended? Does learning not essentially
blend theories, methods, activities, environments, needs, tools,
stakeholders, resources, and other issues? Learning is essentially blended
(Oluniyi, Elizabeth, Joseph, & Oluwagbemiga, 2014). This is consistent with
the basic root verb ‘to blend’ which refers to mixing or combining things to
produce a new reality. With regards to learning, there is always a
blend/mixture/combination of sources of curricular objectives, of
instructional methods and strategies, of didactic materials, resources and
activities. Moreover, the focus on knowledge, skills and attitudes in
drafting learning outcomes is a testament that learning itself is a blended
reality as an outcome of curricular experiences targeting these KSAs. This
is the extent which it makes sense to say learning is essentially blended.
Bonk and Graham (2006) explain there are three main ways in which
learning could be blended: a combination of the modalities of instruction; a
combination of the methods of instruction and a combination of the
environment of instruction – in which case we can talk of online versus
face-to-face instruction. In difference to this and other definitions that focus
on the derivative of the root meaning of the word, Garrison and Kanuka
(2004) turn to the quality of the blending process itself. In that light, they
proffer the following definition of blended learning: “a thoughtful
integration of classroom instructions and online instructions” (p. 96).
Unfortunately, with the coming of online platforms like Google Classroom,
the use of “classroom” in this definition is not currently as univocal as the
authors would have intended. They would have intended to distinguish

31
face-to-face (physical classroom) instruction from online instruction and
highlight blended learning to be a thoughtful integration of both. In this
way, blended learning builds from the strengths of both while overcoming
the weaknesses of both. It is convenient and flexible enough for
individually paced learning while still ensuring the social interaction and
connectedness that face-to-face instruction affords (Bonk, Kim, & Zeng,
2005).
Then again, as we shift from a teacher-centred learning paradigm to a
student-centred paradigm, there is an increased need to consider the role
and nature of various learning environments that enhance peer
collaboration, self-directed learning and a proficiency in the various
advancements in educational technology. Blended learning considerations
therefore, become considerations specific to blending of learning
environments and not just blending of methods or materials or objectives.
Most studies of blended learning focus on the student side of the equation:
their perceptions, challenges and perspectives (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004;
Kocaman, Kiraz, & Ozden, 2006). Not many studies focus on the teacher
side of the equation: their perceptions, challenges, experiences, and
perspectives in regards to blended learning. This might be the reason why
teachers are usually very passive in online instruction unlike during face-
to-face instruction. There is also the reticence with adoption and use of
online learning platforms, often because these teachers are not familiar
with them (Hinson & LaPrairie, 2005). This highlights the need to turn
towards the teacher side of things so as to best enable them adopt and use
these much needed technological advancements in learning. Such a
journey begins with clarifying what blended learning is and how to use it
to make the teaching/learning practice more enriching for both the teacher
and the learner.
Dziuban, Harman & Moskal (2004) offer us a particularly insightful precis
of blended learning. They put it like this:
We have observed that some institutions define a course as
blended if more than a certain percent of the course is online. It
is our position that blended learning should be viewed as a
pedagogical approach that combines the effectiveness and
socialization opportunities of the classroom with the
technologically enhanced

32
active learning possibilities of the online environment, rather
than a ratio of delivery modalities. In other words, blended
learning should be approached not merely as a temporal
construct, but rather as a fundamental redesign of the
instructional model with the following characteristics:
▪ a shift from lecture- to student-centred instruction in
which students became active and interactive learners
(this shift should apply to the entire course, including the
face-to-face contact sessions);
▪ increases in interaction between student-instructor,
student-student, student-content, and student-outside
resources; and
▪ integrated formative and summative assessment
mechanisms for students and instructor. (p. 3)
The aforementioned characteristics are the bedrock of designing a blended
learning curriculum: it must be learner-centred; it must be highly
interactive; it must avail itself of integrated assessment mechanisms.
Therefore, whether it employs a rotational model (this could involve
rotating their stations from a traditional classroom to an online setting
within the course or school schedules, or rotating from classroom to
computer lad, or just flipping from online learning to face-to-face), or a flex
model (wherein online learning takes priority with the teacher merely
providing needed face-to-face support on flexible and adaptive basis, in the
context of small groups, project teams or individuals), or an enriched
virtual model (where online training is the main component), BL is remains
a learner-centred learning that evolves from the traditional learning
environment to one that strategically avails itself of the advancements of
educational technology. As such, it is essentially partly online, partly
remote, partly face-to-face, and very personalized to the learner’s learning.
According to Hotmann (2014), when “thoughtful instructional design is
applied to a blended learning program, a flipped classroom is the result”
(p. 17). It is true that the flipped classroom model is one of the most
popular structural approaches to blended learning. Nevertheless, it must
be noted that there are various other models including the various forms of
rotation like station rotation, lab rotation, and individual rotation, as well

33
as other models like the flex, self-blended and enriched virtual (Eastman,
2015).
With that in mind, it might prove beneficial to turn again to Hotmann
(2014) when he says: It takes the lecture aspect of the classroom and turns
knowledge-oriented content into self-directed work. The content might be
delivered via an online video. Or via a textbook or ebook. Students learn on
their own, and come to class to ask the expert questions about the content,
complete their project work, and apply knowledge. Since project work isn’t
completed in a vacuum, we can kick it up a level. Students can collaborate
in groups, with an expert to moderate, to create projects and interactions
that reach a higher level of learning than they may have on their own. (p.
17)
The foregoing position highlights a few crucial issues about the flipped
classroom model of blended learning – which speak to the centrality of
blended learning in general. For one thing, the flipped classroom focuses
heavily on “self-directed work”; learning here is very much learner-centred
and thrives on the learners’ perception, motivation, cognitive systems and
other internal factors of the learning process. This self-directed nature of
the work elicits a unique response of the learner, which the traditional
classroom might dispense of: the learner must pay attention to how they
learn in order to reap the full benefits of this model; and this is what makes
metacognition indispensable. This is the only way ‘learning on their own’
would be truly effective.
Secondly, the online aspect of the learning here takes cognizance of the
contemporary learner: a learner who spends a rather unsettling time on
online platforms – especially social media; a learner who has too many
responsibilities outside the school environment and so would prefer
flexible and more accommodating instructional arrangements (Lloyd-
Smith, 2010; Saltan, 2017). Since it seems impossible to keep the
contemporary learner away from these platforms, we might as well use
them in the formal education of these learners. The instruction could take
place on social media platforms like WhatsApp, Facebook, YouTube,
and/or other instructional platforms like the Google Classroom. This will
ultimately make for a more disciplined responsible use of modern ICT
tools; and this requires an acute self-consciousness on the part of the
learner.

34
Finally, this model of blended learning is based on a very contemporary
teaching-learning approach: the project-based learning. The project work
and collaboration in groups enables the learners to create knowledge and
understanding by themselves; a constructivist approach to the teaching
learning process. This strategy, takes cognisance of the peculiarities of the
different learners and their learning styles, enabling the learners to focus
on connecting their learning activities to real world situations. This
heightens their problems-solving skills which will be quite essential for
their responsible integration in society. Metacognitive instruction also
takes this a notch further.
There is no doubt that blended learning significantly boosts academic
performance (Ceylan & Kesici, 2017; Promsurin & Vitayapirak, 2015). In
fact, blended learning has been seen to influence the professional
development of university students in Cameroon (Len, 2019), as well as the
professional development of teachers (Len-Kibinkiri, 2014).
Moreover, blended learning has also been found to be an effective
predictor of the development and stimulation of metacognitive awareness
– knowledge about cognition and regulation of cognition (Husamah, 2015).
It provides unique opportunities for self-paced and self-regulated learning
in ways that test and consolidate the metacognitive knowledge,
metacognitive regulation and metacognitive experience.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: TYLER’S RATIONALE
There is little doubt that the Tyler rationale is the quintessential model for
curriculum development within the context of the scientific approach. To
many curriculum scientists it is prototypical, receiving “widespread
attention as a practical approach to curriculum development” (Wraga,
2017: 228). At this juncture, we succinctly examine what it is, why it is
peculiar, and how it serves as the theoretical framework of the current
work.
In spite of Kliebard’s (1970) critique with phrases like “simple eclecticism”
(p. 260) value neutral, “trivial, almost vacuous” (p. 266), he arrived at a
somewhat unforeseen conclusion. For him, Tyler’s rationale “will always
stand as the model of curriculum development for those who conceive of
the curriculum as a complex machinery for transforming the crude raw
material that children bring with them to school into a finished and useful

35
product” (p. 270) and that this model represents a “production model of
curriculum and instruction” (p. 270).
Tyler’s rationale is a commendable effort “to identify an approach to
curriculum development appropriate to an increasing variegated student
population” (Wraga, 2017, p. 230) and this is also one of the markers of 21st
century educational settings. This rationale is critical in any attempt “to
understand the “anatomy of a curriculum”” (Posner, 2004: 18). Tyler’s
rationale builds from four fundamental questions (Tyler, 1950: 1-2):
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? This
question targets the definition of the objectives of the learning
experiences.
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to
attain these purposes? The target here is the selection/identification
of the learning activities for meeting the defined objectives.
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? This
question targets the organisation of the learning activities for
attaining the defined objectives.
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
The idea here is the evaluation and assessment of the learning
experiences.
These four questions result in four main curricular aspects: identification of
learning objectives, selection of learning experiences, organisation of the
learning experiences, and evaluation of the learning experiences. It is in
reference to these four curricular cannons that the Tyler’s rationale
provides the theoretical framework for this paper. With that in mind, it
behoves us to look at these curricular aspects in some detail.
Defining Learning Objectives
The Tyler Rationale begins by defining the objectives of the learning
experience. His first interest was to identify the educational purposes that
the school/curriculum should seek to attain. What are the objectives that
the curriculum should target? This is the most crucial step/question
because the other flow from and serve it. He explains that if “we are to
study an educational program systematically and intelligently we must
first be sure as to the educational objectives aimed at” (Tyler, 1950: 3). By

36
implication, if we are to develop a curriculum or instruction, we must first
be sure of the objectives of such an endeavour.
These objectives must have relevance to the field of study and to the overall
curriculum (Keating, 2006). Tyler’s model obtains the curriculum objectives
from three sources: 1) the student, 2) the society, and 3) the subject matter.
When defining the objectives of a learning experience Tyler gives emphasis
on the input of students, the community, and the subject content. Tyler
believes that curriculum objectives that do not address the needs and
interests of students, the community and the subject matter will not be the
best curriculum.
The Student
Tyler (1950) builds the discussion here from the premise that “education is
a process of changing behaviour patterns of people” (p. 4). For him,
education is essentially transformative, targeting affective changes in the
learners. But it is not a passive process. It is an active process, which thrives
on the learner’s interest. Therefore, there must be a careful study of the
learner’s needs and interests. This is why he explains that a “study of the
learners themselves would seek to identify needed changes in behaviour
patterns of the students which the educational institution should seek to
produce” (Tyler, 1950: 4-5). Unless the learners are studied carefully
enough to properly diagnose the areas where changes are required, the
learning process could easily become a wild goose chase – a classic “much
ado about nothing.” In this case the needs of the learners become a potent
source of the objectives of the learning experiences.
The Community
From both a social efficacy and social reconstruction perspectives,
education to be relevant to the society. What happens in school must have
some relevance to life outside of school. So, what the society needs at every
moment in time should also inform the objectives of the learning
experiences of the learners at that point in time. In this regard, Tyler
provides an illustration that serves illuminates the issue:
Students in the school obtain[ed] from their parents for several days
the problems they were having to solve that involved arithmetic. The
collection and analysis of this set of problems suggested the
arithmetic operations and the kinds of mathematical problems which

37
are commonly encountered by adults and became the basis of the
arithmetic curriculum. (Tyler, 1950: 16-17)
Tyler is quick to add that these ‘needs of the society’ or what he also calls
“contemporary life outside of school” should be considered within the
backdrop of “an acceptable educational philosophy” (Tyler, 1950: 13). This
has a two-fold implication. Firstly, no one source of objectives should be
considered independently; they all have value and must all be considered
in the definition of the purposes of the educational experiences. But more
importantly, they should all be submitted to some philosophical scrutiny to
ensure that the diagnoses are constructive instead of destructive. This will
also help in the balancing of competing priorities viz-a-viz the
characteristically scarce resources.
Tyler spared no effort to illustrate how such a philosophy or philosophical
scrutiny will operate. One of the illustrations he gave goes as follows:
If the school believes that its primary function is to teach people to
adjust to society it will strongly emphasize obedience to present
authorities, loyalty to the present forms and traditions, skills in
carrying on the present techniques of life; whereas if it emphasizes
the revolutionary function of the school it will be more concerned
with critical analysis, ability to meet new problems, independence
and self-direction, freedom, and self-discipline. Again, it is clear that
the nature of the philosophy of the school can affect the selection of
educational objectives. (Tyler, 1950: 23)
The bottom line here is that the selection of objectives must also be
consistent with the rationale or philosophy of the educational institution
and/or the context in which the institution is situated. This highlights one
of the two screens to be used to filter the objectives: (educational and
social) philosophy and the other being psychology (of learning).
The Subject Matter
Without delving into the intricacies of Tyler’s “Committee of Ten” and the
arguable suggestions that ‘objectives’ somehow are synonymous to
‘content’, I will focus on the main idea behind using suggestions from
subject matter experts as a source of the objectives of the learning
experiences. Their mastery of the subject matter of the learning enables

38
them to make relevant suggestions on the purpose that such learning
should serve.
These objectives, according to Tyler (1950), should be stated in ways that
include both “the behavioural aspect and the content aspect” (p. 47). This
means that a properly and usefully stated objective should capture both the
behavioural change targeted in the student as well as the content or area of
life wherein this behaviour is operational/relevant.
Selecting the Learning Experiences
The second part of the Tyler’s model involves the selection of learning
activities that will allow students to meet the defined objectives. To
emphasise the importance of selecting learning activities that meet defined
objectives, Tyler states that “the important thing is for students to discover
content that is useful and meaningful to them” (Meek, 1993, p. 83).
He begins by defining learning experiences as “the interaction between the
learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can
react” (Tyler, 1950: 63). This prioritizes the learner above both the content
and the teacher. As such, the learning experiences are less about the
content or what the teacher does and more about what the learner does and
how the learner changes. To that end, Tyler provides five principles to be
used as a guide for the selection of the learning processes (Tyler, 1950: 65-
67):
1) A student must have an opportunity to practice the behaviour
implied by the objective.
2) The learning experience must be such that the student obtains
satisfaction from the behaviour.
3) The reactions desired are in the range of possibilities for the students.
4) Many particular experiences can be used to attain the same
educational objectives.
5) The same learning experience will usually bring about several
outcomes.
Organizing the Learning Experiences
The third part involves the organisation of the learning experiences in view
of attaining the defined objectives. Tyler (1950) explains that organisation is
“an important problem in curriculum development because it greatly

39
influences the efficiency or instruction and the degree to which major
educational changes are brought about in the learners” (p. 83). There are
two obvious organizational patterns of curriculum: the vertical and the
horizontal. The vertical refers to how the learning experiences are related
across time. For example, how the learning experiences of Form 1 students
are related to those of Form 2 students. The horizontal refers to how the
learning experiences are related across various areas/fields of learning. For
example, how Biology is related to Food Science.
Tyler (1950) opines that effective organization of learning experiences is the
result of adherence to a threefold criterion: continuity, sequence and
integration. Continuity refers to how various elements of are reiterated.
Across the learning of English Language in secondary school and beyond,
Subject-Verb agreement will always be reiterated; it will never be
considered irrelevant. Sequence refers to the importance on building upon
preceding experiences albeit broadening and/or deepening the experience.
The learning experiences around multiplication build from multiplication
of single numbers (2*5) progressively to multiple numbers (87*11) and
eventually to fractions (7/8*8/6), and beyond. The experiences build upon
the preceding experiences but deepen as they evolve. Finally, integration
“refers to the horizontal relationship of curriculum experiences…which
help the student increasingly to get a unified view and to unify his
behaviour in relation to the elements dealt with” (Tyler, 1950, p. 85). When
integration is adequately at play, a learner easily sees the connection
between the sciences they study and the Languages or social science
courses they study, and how these relate to their life out of school.
In the Tylerian scheme of things, to achieve continuity, sequence and
integration, a simple plan can be followed. For one thing, begin by
organizing threads (for example a concept, skill or value) that cuts across
the entire instructional program. Once that is done, proceed to organizing
principles that link up these threads. Finally, organize structures (lessons,
topics, units, modules, or programs) that place the threads and principles
within a wider scheme of things.
Posner (2004) explains that this part involves a wide array of complex and
pertinent considerations. For one thing, it must consider macro (course to
form programs) and micro (units from courses) levels of organisation. It
must also consider the vertical (sequencing of content) and horizontal

40
(integration of content taught concurrently or scope). This level also makes
considerations on content structure, whether the configuration is discrete,
linear, incremental, continual, or spiral.
Evaluating the Learning Experiences
The last part involves evaluating and assessing the learning experiences.
The goal here is to determine whether the learning objectives heave been
attained by means of the learning experiences. It essentially constitutes "the
process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are
actually being realized by the program of curriculum and instruction”
(Tyler, 1950: 69). As such, beyond providing the basis for the selection and
organisation of the aforementioned learning objectives, the definition of
objectives also provides the yardstick for evaluating the curriculum and
instruction. This means that evaluation becomes a process by which the
initial expectations formulated as behavioural objectives are matched with
the outcomes of the educational process.
This involves both the assessment within the curriculum and assessment of
the curriculum. Within the curriculum focuses on the validity and
reliability of the various evaluation and assessment operated during the
implementation of the curriculum: the diagnostic, formative and
summative assessments. This also involves evaluating the curriculum from
without, paying attention to the strengths and weaknesses of the
curriculum and making a value judgement about its appropriateness.
In a way Tyler is a strong supporter of the student-centred approach to
learning. Overall, Tyler’s model is designed to measure the degree to
which pre-defined objectives and goals have been attained. In addition, the
model focuses primarily on the product rather than the process for
achieving the goals and objectives of the curriculum. Therefore, Tyler’s
model is also product focused. It evaluates the degree to which the pre-
defined goals and objectives have been attained.
SOME PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
The peculiarities of teaching-learning in a blended learning environment
could be clearly identified and carefully harnessed to make blended
learning an effective innovation in learning. For one thing, the available
instructional resources must be identified; likewise, the support models,

41
the schedule and location of instruction, and the technological
infrastructure required for the learning experiences. Then again, learner-
centred specifics must be considered: the nitty-gritties of the learner’s role;
attendance and active participation, and enforcement modalities; and the
individualisation parameters of the instruction. Finally, evaluation
dynamics need to be carefully developed and tailored to strategically
target the objectives.
Hsu & Hsieh (2014) found out that blended learning proved to be a catalyst
for the development of metacognitive abilities among the learners
(undergraduate nursing students), honing various forms of higher order
thinking. Blended learning has also been found to enhance students’
research competency and critical thinking skills (Wannapiroon, 2014). It is
within this backdrop that a closer look at the instructional design prospects
of metacognitive strategies within a blended learning environment become
a pertinent endeavour.
METACOGNITIVE INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES IN BLENDED
LEARNING
The simple fact of the matter is that metacognitive strategies are high
impact instructional strategies. One cannot at the same time be an effective
teacher in the 21st century and yet not use metacognitive instructional
strategies. It is by means of these strategies that they make their teaching
truly learner-centred: enabling them to take ownership of their own
learning, self-regulate, ignite, and sustain their motivation for lifelong
learning.
The strategies in question are made manifest when the teacher performs
relatively simplistic albeit explicitly intentional and routine activities in
class. The teacher can provide the students with strategies to help them set
their learning goals, plan their learning, schedule their learning, monitor
their learning, evaluate their learning; and repeat the cycle until the set
goal is attained. What are the strategies the learners can use to achieve
these learning goals? What strategies can the learner use to make
knowledge of a particular content more accessible to enhance mastery?
How does scaffolding take place: checklists, self-questioning, self-
assessment? What strategies can be used to help the learners personalise
their own learning process and so make the best out of it? How flexible is
the learning? All these and more questions can enable the teacher to put in

42
place metacognitive instructional strategies that ensure the best outcome.
Within this context, the learners will be able to take proper ownership of
their own learning process, be proactive, and be responsible; while the
teacher takes the role of a “facilitator of learning” (Oluniyi, Elizabeth,
Joseph, & Oluwagbemiga, 2014: 123).
Suffice it to note that – within the context of the current study – these
strategies have a twofold target: enhance metacognition; and build upon
metacognition to make blended learning effective and efficient. Given that
“there exists a general consensus among researchers that three
metacognitive strategies are most critical for regulating the learning
process, namely, planning, monitoring, and evaluation…” (Nett, Goetz,
Hall, & Frenzel, 2012), we will proceed in this section using the Tyler’s
Rationale as aforementioned. According to this model, those “involved in
curriculum inquiry must try to (1) determine the school’s purposes, (2)
identify the educational experiences related to those purposes, (3) ascertain
how the experiences are organized, and (4) evaluate the purposes”
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009, p. 214). Consistent with this framework and
given that we are targeting implications for classroom settings, the
strategies discussed will be related to the objectives, contents, methods and
evaluation.
Strategies Related to Objectives Identification of Personal Interests/Goals:
The learners should be given a chance to identify and outline their personal
interests and goals: their goals and aspirations in general but most
especially, what they hope to get out of the course or lesson. If they lack
relevant previous, they can be guided by the teacher either directly or
through previously recommended readings. The bottom line is that
identifying their personal learning goals/interests will help on several
levels: it will keep the learners alert and motivated; it will keep the teacher
relevant, especially in a learner-centred environment targeting
metacognition. This strategy will add to the maturity and self-reflective
nature of the learners; and this is what makes the learning here
monumentally effective.
In the context of a BLE this strategy could take the form of an introductory
discussion setup for the learners to identify and share their personal
interests and goals. This diagnosis and interaction will enable them to

43
critically engage each other’s interests and goals for relevance, feasibility
and help map out a strategy for the realisation of those goals in the
practicality of the in-class discussions and other activities of the project-
based learning paradigm adopted. In some secondary schools, the learners
preparing for public examinations are encouraged to publish the papers
and grades they are aiming for. The classmates, often guided by their
teachers, will then critically follow up each other to ensure that the
strategies and activities engaged in are actually energizing the attainment
of these benchmarks.
Preparation
There are several postulates that reinforce the absolute importance of
preparation. “Perfect preparation prevents poor performance.” “Failing to
prepare is preparing to fail.” “Preparation is the price of success.” The fact
is that preparation is key even in metacognition instruction in a BLE.
Interestingly, in a blended learning model like the flipped classroom,
‘homework’ serves the purpose of preparing the students activating their
learning in preparation for the project-based interactions in the actual
classroom setting.
This preparation could take the form of self-correcting quizzes; these will
provide feedback on the progress the learners are making in the
preparation. These could be designed to also provide information
concerning the learner’s presence and interactions online, as a factor of
their readiness for the collaboration that makes such learning peculiar. In
brief, the preparation here could involve videos the learners have to watch,
readings they have to make or quizzes they have to take; all designed to
inform their subsequent discussions and problem solving. A very potent
example could be the use of the film “Hotel Rwanda” as a preparation
video for a lesson on Peace and Countering Violent Extremism. After the
watching of the film the learners would have the cognitive and affective –
and why not psychomotor – readiness for very meaningful discussions on
peace and non-violence.
Strategies Related to Content Broad Spectrum KSAs
The issues of real-life settings are usually multifaceted and unpredictable.
The challenges we face in life usually require much more than a particular

44
academic discipline, or one skill or a particular attitude to confront
decisively. A brilliant engineer with a newly developed ICT solution needs
KSAs related to marketing strategy, management, and networking to
sustainably create value and wealth using this new solution. This
effectively means that designing instructional material with this in mind
must target a broad spectrum KSAs.
In the context of a BLE this means employing problem scenarios and case
studies that require a broad range of KSAs to solve. An example can be a
case study in the context of metacognitive knowledge instruction. Such a
case study would require knowledge relevant to self-awareness (person
variable), the specifics of the task at hand (task variables) and the
identification of the best possible route to the execution of the task
considering the goals in view (strategy variables). A proper understanding
of person variables would require knowledge on factors affecting learning
and cognitive processes both of humans in general and individuals, and in
this case the actual learners themselves; like when and where best they
study. This requires knowledge from Psychology, Biology, Sociology,
Anthropology and other sciences that afford knowledge on human
cognitive development and cognitive systems, in other words, broad-based
knowledge. This also true of task and strategy variables: they require
broad-based knowledge to be properly harnessed. Designing case studies
and problem solving in the BLE must take cognisance of this.
Full Disclosure Strategy
From the very onset, the learners need to know explicitly that the
instruction is being modelled to occasion metacognitive skills and why that
would be a worthwhile endeavour. How would that align with the
learners’ interests and needs? The teacher should explicitly design the
metacognitive instruction to demonstrate even his own personal use of
metacognition in particular tasks, clearly outlining is metacognitive
knowledge and regulation. As the learners see metacognition in action,
they might begin to develop a motivation to cultivate it too. The learners
must be brought to the realisation that these skills which the teacher is
demonstrating and calling upon them to cultivate have been developed
over years of commitment, persistence, and focus; they must resolve to do
the same.

45
Within the context of the online phase of the blended learning experience,
the teacher demonstrates this through his own interactions in the
discussions: the ways in which his questioning elicits critical thinking and
self-reflection from the learners.
Strategies Related to Methods
The nature of the preparations as outlined above make lecturing redundant
in this context. Here the goal, especially the in-class meetings, is to harness
the full advantages of peer instruction and project-based learning. The
teaching strategies here would be more of indirect teaching including
“inquiry, inductive teaching, problem solving, and discovery” (Tambo,
2012: 154). The learners will be required to engage, for example, in a lot of
problem solving so as to properly hone their metacognitive skills. There
will also be interactive teaching especially involving discussions and
cooperative learning, consistent with the project-based learning approach
adopted. This will be done mainly during the group work and activities
both in the online as well as the face-to-face aspects of the blended learning
experiences. Above all, the teaching strategy here that will most associate
with metacognitive instruction will be the independent study, especially to
the extent that this will “foster the development of initiative, self-reliance,
and self-improvement of students as individuals” (Tambo, 2012: 156).
The teaching methods most appropriate here include the following: the
discussion method; the laboratory/project method; and cooperative
learning. The discussion method is crucial because it will move from peer
review and critique to auto-review and critique, and ultimately the kind of
self-reflection that makes metacognition potent and peculiar. This method
makes peer instruction very effective both in the online and face-to-face
learning environments. The discussion could take the form of a debate, a
panel discussion, buzz sessions, forums, or the entire class (Tambo, 2012:
168-169). Here the teacher acts as a moderator of the discussions, ensuring
that the discussion is sustained, focused and actually results in the
attainment of the learning objectives in view. If the discussion takes the
form of a debate, it will give both the debaters and the other classmates the
chance to develop some self-awareness of how they think; how logical or
fallacious their reasoning processes are. This will hone their metacognitive
skills. For the debate to be effective, the learners must avail themselves

46
effectively of the resources available on their digital platforms; and this is
precisely why the BLE becomes very strategic.
Strategies Related to Evaluation Self-review and Self-evaluation
Socrates is known to have said “an unexamined life is not worth living.”
This primarily refers to introspection, contemplation, our self-examination
of our own lives. This helps us identify what works and what doesn’t,
what is helping us realise our individual dreams and what isn’t, what is
making us productive and what isn’t, what we need to focus more on and
what we need to gracefully abandon. This self-examination helps us to
enhances a critical view and questioning of our attitudes and knowledge
processes and this is what makes it invaluable in metacognitive instruction.
Diagnostic and formative evaluation are also crucial here. Small quizzes,
questions for discussion and self-examination/review for the learners will
help them take a more metacognitive approach to their learning process; it
will help them pay more attention to the learning process itself and not just
what is learnt and what is not. The learners also need to get to the level of
questioning even their readiness for the class or program before it begins.
In the BLE, this can take the form of small quizzes, discussions and chats
among the learners. The goal here is to get them to avail themselves of the
digital collaborative tools to critically discuss the learning process among
themselves; examine their learning strategies with each other and so
engage a discussion that will ultimately whet their metacognitive
competences. If the instruction here is designed following the monthly
modular system, where a course is completed over a period of one month
before another is taken, then doing this process at least once every week
will make for best results.
Practice Questions
A potent strategy for quizzes and midterms is to get the students take
practice questions. This is usually in the form of revision questions,
discussion questions and various case studies for individual and group
analysis. This will enable them do frequent and strategic self-assessment
and so develop a real awareness of how and how much they really know.
This will help the learners assess their readiness for the evaluation but
ultimately, this will enhance their metacognitive skills. This is particularly

47
effective in view of public examinations like the GCE Ordinary and
Advanced levels, as well as entrance examinations. This strategy is a tested
and proven predictor of success at these examinations.
However, this is a strategy that proximately precedes the actual
examination. It is important to state this because many teachers –
especially those preparing students to sit examinations like the GCE – seem
to base their entire instruction on past questions. This strategy is not a
teaching strategy, strictly speaking. If used as such, it makes the learning
outcomes too narrow and irrelevant to post-examination contexts; and that
is precisely one of the things metacognition seeks to solve. Practice
questioning is an evaluation strategy to harness metacognitive skills like
self-awareness (preparedness considerations) and self-assessment, and this
can be very potently harnessed in blended learning. In that setting – BLE –
it consists basically of letting the learners know the format of their
evaluation to empower their task and strategy analysis. This enhances their
metacognitive competences.
Post-Assessment Reflections
It is not uncommon to find students who burn their books once they sit an
examination or once they succeed at an examination; seeking never to hear
anything related to that examination again. This is very common with
students who have recently taken or passed the GCE Advanced Levels.
This is really ‘anti-metacognitive’ and destructive. Lifelong learning should
be the goal and not just examinations.
The learners should be guided to engage a critical post-examination self-
evaluation. They need to re-evaluate their preparedness for the exam. They
need to identify the tasks they found most challenging to handle and why
that was the case. They need to identify the errors they made during the
examination: improper planning or prioritising of tasks; inadequate time
management inter alia. All of these and more would help the learner
determine what they would do differently if faced with the same task or a
similar one subsequently. As a metacognitive strategy related to regulation,
this will inform their choice of strategy in view of subsequent tasks or
endeavours. From a bigger picture perspective, this builds their self-
awareness about the strategic role experience plays in informing our

48
choices and actions; and that is an invaluable asset for dealing with real life
situations and issues.
CONCLUSION
Designing instruction in a BLE is an intricate issue notwithstanding the
prospects and promise of such an endeavour. It even becomes more
delicate when it comes down to targeting metacognitive instruction; given
that metacognition itself is, often, elusive. There are aspects of disconnect
and conflict which must be treated with utmost care so as the unleash the
full positive impact latent in blended learning. These disconnections and
conflicts do not deter adoption but as a matter of fact, inform best practices
(McGee & Reis, 2012).
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