2. Radiology is a medical specialty that
uses imaging to diagnose and treat diseases
seen within the body. Radiologists use a
variety of imaging techniques such as X-
ray radiography, ultrasound, computed
tomography (CT), nuclear medicine
including positron emission
tomography (PET), and magnetic-resonance
imaging (MRI) to diagnose and/or treat
diseases. Interventional radiology is the
performance of (usually minimally invasive)
medical procedures with the guidance of
imaging technologies.
4. (27 March 1845 – 10 February 1923) was a
German physicist, who, on 8 November 1895,
produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in
awavelength range known as X-rays or Röntgen
rays, an achievement that earned him the first Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1901. In honour of his
accomplishments, in 2004 the International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
named element 111, roentgenium, a radioactive
element with multiple unstable isotopes, after him.
5.
6. In the late afternoon of 8 November 1895, Röntgen was
determined to test his idea. He carefully constructed a
black cardboard covering similar to the one he had
used on the Lenard tube. He covered the Hittorf-
Crookes tube with the cardboard and attached
electrodes to a Ruhmkorff coil to generate an
electrostatic charge. Before setting up the barium
platinocyanide screen to test his idea, Röntgen
darkened the room to test the opacity of his cardboard
cover. As he passed the Ruhmkorff coil charge through
the tube, he determined that the cover was light-tight
and turned to prepare the next step of the experiment.
It was at this point that Röntgen noticed a faint
shimmering from a bench a few feet away from the
tube. To be sure, he tried several more discharges and
saw the same shimmering each time. Striking a match,
he discovered the shimmering had come from the
location of the barium platinocyanide screen he had
been intending to use next.
7. Röntgen speculated that a new kind of ray
might be responsible. 8 November was a
Friday, so he took advantage of the weekend to
repeat his experiments and make his first notes.
In the following weeks he ate and slept in his
laboratory as he investigated many properties
of the new rays he temporarily termed "X-
rays", using the mathematical designation ("X")
for something unknown. The new rays came to
bear his name in many languages as "Röntgen
Rays" (and the associated X-ray radiograms as
"Röntgenograms")
8. Nearly two weeks after his discovery, he took the very
first picture using X-rays of his wife Anna Bertha's
hand. When she saw her skeleton she exclaimed "I
have seen my death!"
9. The representatives of industrial companies
repeatedly approached to Roentgen with offer bargain
of the rights to use the invention. But Wilhelm refused
to patent the discovery, since he didn’t considered his
studies a source of income.
10. Röntgen was married to Anna Bertha Ludwig. Not having
own children they adopted one child, Josephine Bertha
Ludwig, 6 years old, in 1887, she was the daughter of Anna's
brother. His wife died in 1919, at that time W.C. Röentgen
was 74 years old. As it was said Röntgen did not take
patents out on his discoveries, and donated the money for
his Nobel prize to the University of Würzburg. With the
inflation following World War I, Röntgen fell into
bankruptcy later in life, spending his final years at his
country home at Weilheim, near Munich. Röntgen died on
10 February 1923 from carcinoma of the intestine. It is not
believed his carcinoma was a result of his work with
ionizing radiation because of the brief time he spent on
those investigations, and because he was one of the few
pioneers in the field who used protective lead shields
routinely. In keeping with his will, all his personal and
scientific correspondence was destroyed upon his death.
12. was a Ukrainian-born physicist and inventor, who has been
championed as an early developer of the use of X-rays for medical
imaging. His contributions were largely neglected until the end of
the 20th century.
Main education he has received in Austro-Hungary, was the
citizen of it. He served as the rector of the Higher Technical School
in Prague(German part) in 1888–1889. Puluj also worked as a state
adviser on electrical engineering for Bohemian and Moravian local
governments.
Ivan Puluj together Nikola Tesla studied electrical current in a
vacuum.
Puluj did heavy research into cathode rays, publishing several
papers about it between 1880 and 1882. As a result
of experiments into what he called cold light Puluj developed the
Puluj lamp which was mass-produced for some time. This device
was also some kind of primitive X-ray tube, but it was not
until Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the X-rays and published his
experiments, that Puluj recognized the potential of his own device.
He was nevertheless among the first who worked with X-Rays
and used them for medical diagnostics.
13. Puluj is also known for his contribution in
promoting Ukrainian culture. He actively
supported opening of a Ukrainian university
in Lviv and published articles to support
Ukrainian language. He translated Gospels
and Psalter into Ukrainian. Being a professor
Puluj organized scholarships for Ukrainian
students in Austria-Hungary. Two his sons
have become professors also. Another son
fought for the independence of Ukraine during
the Second World War.
Ivan Puluj died and was buried in the Czech
Republic.
15. was a physicist, Nobel laureate, and the discoverer
of radioactivity, for work in this field he, along
with Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre
Curie, received the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. The SI
unit for radioactivity, the becquerel (Bq), is named after
him.
Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which
produced four generations of scientist-physicists:
Becquerel's grandfather (Antoine César Becquerel) and
father (Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel) were Presidents
of Paris Academy of Sciences, and his son (Jean
Becquerel) also became a scientist.
16. Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salt continuously
without being exposed to any influence from the outside, it emits
invisible rays, similar to X-rays.
This date - March 1, 1896 - and is considered the date of the discovery of
radioactivity.
Image of Becquerel's photographic plate which has been fogged by
exposure to radiation from a uranium salt. The shadow of a
metal Maltese Cross placed between the plate and the uranium salt is
clearly visible.
18. was a New Zealand-born British physicist who
became known as the father of nuclear physics. He
discovered the concept of radioactive half-life,
proved that radioactivity involved the
transmutation of one chemical element to another,
and also differentiated and named alpha and beta
radiation.
Scientist proposed the planetary model of the atom
in the center of the atom is the nucleus around
which the electrons revolve.
In 1917 in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen and
alpha particles, in which he also discovered (and
named) the proton.
The chemical element rutherfordium (element 104)
was named after him in 1997.
19. Under his leadership the neutron was
discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.
20. Basic facts about James Chadwick:
was an English physicist who was awarded
the 1935Nobel Prize in Physics for his
discovery of the neutron;
he wrote the final draft of the MAUD Report,
which inspired the U.S. government to begin
serious atomic bomb research efforts;
He was knighted by Queen in England in 1945
for his achievements in physics .
21. This scientific discovery led to the bombing of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, to the development
of the arms race and the Cold War. But at the
same time, this finding led to the development
of nuclear energy, as well as to the use of
radioisotopes in various scientific departments.
Terrible effects of atomic bomb impressed him
so oppressive that even many years after the
tragedy of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, he wrote:
"I began to swallow sleeping pills. It was my
salvation. Since then I could not stop. It's been
28 years, and I don’t think that over the years I
spent without sleeping pills at least one night. "
23. She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize,
the first person and only woman to win twice,
the only person to win twice in multiple
sciences, and was part of the Curie family
legacy of five Nobel Prizes. She was also the
first woman to become a professor at
theUniversity of Paris, and in 1995 became the
first woman to be entombed on her own merits
in the Panthéon in Paris (her ashes were
reburied here in 1995 on the personal order of
President François Mitterrand).
25. Her father, Władysław Skłodowski, taught mathematics and physics,
subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two
Warsaw gymnasia for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated
laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the
laboratory equipment home, and instructed his children in its use.
Władysław Skłodowski with daughters Maria(from
left), Bronisława, Helena, 1890
26. Maria's father was an atheist; her mother a
devout Catholic. The deaths of Maria's mother
and sister caused her to give up Catholicism
and become agnostic.
Dmitriy Mendeleev, creator of the periodic
table of chemical elements, was a friend of her
father. Seeing a girl at work in the laboratory,
he predicted a great future for her if she will
continue his studies in chemistry.
27. On the way to the dream of higher education
Sklodowska were two obstacles: family’s
poverty and a ban on admission of women in
the University of Warsaw. Marie and her sister
Bronislawa developed a plan: Maria for five
years will work governess to allow his sister to
finish medical school, followed by Bronislawa
must assume the costs for Maria’s higher
education sisters. Bronislawa received medical
education in Paris and becoming a doctor,
invited to his sister. After leaving Poland in
1891, Mary entered the Faculty of Science,
University of Paris (Sorbonne).
28. Pierre Curie and Marie Curie met in 1894 in the
house of a Polish physicist.
29. In 1897 her daughter Irène was born. Widowed Pierre
Curie’s father moved to them to help oversee Irene.
30. In July 1898 Curie and her husband published a joint paper
announcing the existence of an element which they named
"polonium", in honour of her native Poland. On 26 December
1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element,
which they named "radium", from the Latin word for "ray".
31. In December 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of
Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri
Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the
extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint
researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by
Professor Henri Becquerel.“
At first, the Committee intended to honour only Pierre
and Becquerel, decreasing Marie’s participation in this
researching. The Nobel Commettee considered that a
woman could only perform the function of a laboratory
assistant, not more. But one of the committee members and
an advocate of woman scientists, Swedish
mathematician Magnus Goesta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre
to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie's name was
added to the nomination. Marie was the first woman to be
awarded a Nobel Prize.
32. In October 1904, Pierre was appointed
professor of physics at the Sorbonne, and a
month later, Marie was officially named Head
of his laboratory.
33. In December, they had a second daughter,
Eva, who later became a pianist and biographer
of his mother.
34. On a rainy day, April 19, 1906, crossing the street in Paris, Pierre
slipped and fell. His head fell under the wheel of a passing horse-
drawn carriage. Death was instantaneous.
Marie Curie inherited his chair at the Sorbonne, where his
studies were continued. Marie Curie became the first ever
university Sorbonne female teacher.
35. In 1911 it was revealed that in 1910–11 Curie
had conducted an affair of about a year's
duration with physicist Paul Langevin. This
resulted in a press scandal that was exploited
by her academic opponents. This scandal
caused 5 duels (one with the participation of
Paul Langevin).
Despite the large number of envious enemies
and attempts to discredit her name, the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences honored her a
second time, with the 1911 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry.
36. During the war she taught military medical
radiology application, such as detection by X-
rays in the body shrapnel wounded. In the area
of front-line she helped create radiological
installation, provide first aid items portable X-
ray machine. Also, promptly after the war
started, she attempted to donate her gold
Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the
French National Bank refused to accept them.
She did buy war bonds, using her Nobel Prize
money.
Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she
was probably the only person who could not be
corrupted by fame.
37. In 1915 Curie produced hollow needles
containing 'radium emanation', a colorless,
radioactive gas given off by radium, later
identified as radon, to be used for sterilizing
infected tissue. It is estimated that over a
million wounded soldiers were treated with
her X-ray units. In spite of all her humanitarian
contributions to the French war effort, Curie
never received any formal recognition of it
from the French government. Marie Curie who
twice won the Nobel Prize opened polonium
and radium, was not a member of the
prestigious French Academy only because she
was a woman.
38. Curie in a mobile X-ray vehicle
Marie Curie directed the installation of 20
mobile radiological vehicles and another 200
radiological units at field hospitals in the first
year of the war.
39. M. Sklodowska-Curie gave Lviv (the city
between the world wars was part Poland), 80
mg Radium (academic laboratory in 1920 had
only a little more than 1 g Radium). So firstly a
small radiology department has appeared in
Lviv, where treatment of cancer patients
become possible.
Maria did not support the secular relations.
As her daughter Ewa wrote : “Mom valued
person, not a title. She was very happy, when
she had to meet with the writer Joseph
Rudyard Kipling, and conversely - her
presentation to the Queen of Romania hadn’t
made any impression on her“.
40. In 2011 in Poland it was conducted a survey to
determine the Woman of Poland of all time.
According to contemporaries, the greatest
woman in the history of the country is Maria
Sklodowska-Curie.
If Curie's work helped overturn established
ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an
equally profound effect in the societal sphere.
To attain her scientific achievements, she had
to overcome barriers that were placed in her
way because she was a woman, in both her
native and her adoptive country.
41. Marie Curie died on July 4, 1934 from leukemia ( chronic
radiation disease) at hospital in a small town Sansellemoz in
the French Alps. In 1995 became the first woman to be
entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris.
43. Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen, Denmark in family of
professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen (was
candidate for Nobel Prize twice), and Ellen Adler, who came from
a wealthy Danish Jewish family prominent in banking and
parliamentary circles. A younger brother Harald became
a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for
the Danish national team. Niels also liked play football and even
was a goalkeeper a Academic Football Club of Copenhagen.
Being 26 years old Bohr has became a Cambrige scholar.
Bor initially suffered from a lack of knowledge of the English
language and so immediately after his arrival in England began to
read "David Copperfield" in original. With his usual patience he
was looking for every word in the dictionary, the Danish
equivalent which he doubted, and specifically for this purpose
bought a dictionary that served him in all doubtful cases. With
this dictionary red Bohr parted later life.
44. After many years of scientific works he
became physicist who made foundational
contributions to understanding atomic
structure and quantum theory, for which he
received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr
was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific
research.
Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in
which he proposed that energy levels
of electrons are discrete and that the electrons
revolve in stable orbits around the atomic
nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or
orbit) to another. He also made a significant
contribution to the theory of atomic nuclei and
nuclear reactions, the interaction of elementary
particles with the environment.
45. Great influence on the Bohr formation as a scientist had Ernest
Rutherford.
Also, all his life led Bohr and Einstein scientific debate about the
interpretation of quantum mechanics. However, the participants
have never ceased to treat each other with great respect, which is
reflected in the words of Einstein, wrote in 1949: "The real quarrel
is only between brothers or close friends.“
46. In 1932, Bohr and his family moved to the so-called "House of
honor", the residence of the most respected citizen of Denmark,
built by the founder of the brewery "Carlsberg". There he was
visited by celebrity not only scientific (ex. Rutherford), but also the
political world (the royal couple of Denmark, Queen Elizabeth,
presidents and prime ministers of various countries).
47. In 1934, Bohr experienced heavy personal tragedy. While sailing
on a yacht in Kattegat storm surge was washed overboard by his
eldest son - 19-year-old Christian; detect it and failed. Total Niels
and Margaret had six children. One of them, Aage Bohr, also
became a prominent physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (1975).
Niels Bohr was a family man, loved biking and motorcycle trips
in the woods, spending time with children.
48. Great contribution to the explanation of the
Bohr mechanism of nuclei fission, in which the
the huge amounts of energy releases.
49. In April 1940, early in the Second World War, Nazi
Germany invaded and occupied Denmark. To
prevent the Germans from discovering Max von
Laue's and James Franck's gold Nobel medals,
Bohr had de Hevesy (also future Nobel laureate)
dissolve them in aqua regia . In this form, they
were stored on a shelf at the Institute until after the
war, when the gold was precipitated and the
medals re-struck by the Nobel Foundation. Bohr
kept the Institute running, but all the foreign
scholars departed.
In October 1941, Bohr, Heisenberg visited, while
the head of the Nazi atomic project. But Bohr flatly
refuses to cooperate with the Nazis.
50. In September 1943, word reached Bohr and his
brother Harald that the Nazis considered their family
to be Jewish, since their mother, Ellen Adler Bohr, had
been a Jew, and that they were therefore in danger of
being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and
his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September. The
next day, Bohr persuaded King Gustaf V of Sweden to
make public Sweden's willingness to provide asylum
to Jewish refugees. On 2 October 1943, Swedish radio
broadcast that Sweden was ready to offer asylum, and
the mass rescue of the Danish Jews by their
countrymen followed swiftly thereafter. Some
historians claim that Bohr's actions led directly to the
mass rescue, while others say that, though Bohr did all
that he could for his countrymen, his actions were not a
decisive influence on the wider events. Eventually,
over 7,000 Danish Jews escaped to Sweden.
51. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain, Lord Cherwell
sent a telegram to Bohr asking him to come to Britain. Bohr
arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a de Havilland Mosquito
operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation. The
Mosquitos were unarmed high-speed bomber aircraft that had
been converted to carry small, valuable cargoes or important
passengers. By flying at high speed and high altitude, they could
cross German-occupied Norway, and yet avoid German fighters.
52. Bohr, equipped with parachute, flying suit and oxygen
mask, spent the three-hour flight lying on a mattress in the
aircraft's bomb bay. During the flight, Bohr did not wear his
flying helmet as it was too small, and consequently I did not
hear the pilot's intercom instruction to turn on his oxygen
supply when the aircraft climbed to high altitude to overfly
Norway. He passed out from oxygen starvation and only
revived when the aircraft descended to lower altitude over
the North Sea. Bohr's son Aage followed his father to Britain
on another flight a week later, and became his personal
assistant .
Bohr was warmly received by James Chadwick and Sir John
Anderson, but for security reasons Bohr was kept out of
sight. He was given an apartment at St James's Palace and
an office with the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons
development team. Bohr was astonished at the amount of
progress that had been made.
53. However, starting from 1944, Bohr was aware
of the danger of the nuclear threat. Meeting
with British Prime Minister May 16, 1944 has
not led to any results. Then Niels Bohr began to
seek admission at US President Franklin D.
Roosevelt. In his memorandum to President
Roosevelt (July 3 1944), he called for a total ban
on the use of nuclear weapons, to ensure strict
international control over this and, at the same
time, the destruction of any monopoly on the
peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Bohr tried to convey their thoughts to Churchill
and Roosevelt, and at personal meetings with
them, but this has no effect .
54. October 7, 1955 Niels Bohr was 70 years. On this occasion, 14
October there was ceremonial meeting , which was attended by
the King. King awarded Bohr the Order of Dannebrogh of the first
degree. Reaching a mandatory retirement age, Bohr resigned as
professor at Copenhagen University, but remained the Head of
the Institute of Theoretical Physics.
Tall man, with a great sense of humor, Bohr was known for its
friendliness and hospitality.
55. Niels Bohr died on November 18, 1962 from a heart
attack. The urn with his ashes is in the family grave in
Copenhagen.
57. He was an Italian physicist, best known for having built
the Chicago Pile-1 (the first nuclear reactor). He is one of the
men referred to as the "father of the atomic bomb“ and
neutrino. Fermi held several patents related to the use of
nuclear power, and was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in
Physics for his work on induced radioactivity by neutron
bombardment and the discovery of transuranic elements.
He was widely regarded as one of the very few physicists to
excel boththeoretically and experimentally. Fermi left Italy
in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his
Jewish wife Laura. He emigrated to the United States.
He made many discoveries: a theory of the origin of cosmic
rays and revealed the mechanism of acceleration of particles
in them (1949), he developed the statistical theory of
multiple production of mesons (1950), opened an isotopic
quartet, became the first hadron resonance (1952) studied
the interaction of protons with pi-mesons.
58. Fermi died at age 53 of stomach cancer in his
home in Chicago and was interred at Oak
Woods Cemetery. It is named after the 100th
chemical element - a fermium.
Laura and Enrico Fermi at the Institute for Nuclear Studies, Los Alamos, 1954
59. Sir Godfrey Newbold Hounsfield
28.08.1919 – 12.08.2004
60. He was an English electrical engineer who shared the 1979 Nobel
Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Allan McLeod Cormack for
his part in developing the diagnostic technique of X-raycomputed
tomography (CT). His name is immortalised in the Hounsfield
scale, a quantitative measure of radiodensity used in evaluating
CT scans.
Hounsfield's sketch
61. Allan MacLeod Cormack
23.02.1924 – 07.05. 1998
was a South African American physicist who won the
1979 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (along
withGodfrey Hounsfield) for his work on X-
ray computed tomography (CT).
63. Bloch was born in Zürich, Switzerland
to Jewish parents Gustav and Agnes Bloch. In
1933, immediately after Hitler came to power,
he left Germany because he was Jewish. He
emigrated to work at Stanford University in
1934. fter the war he concentrated on
investigations into nuclear induction
and nuclear magnetic resonance, which are the
underlying principles of MRI. In 1946 he
proposed the Bloch equations which determine
the time evolution of nuclear magnetization.
He and Edward Mills Purcell were awarded
the 1952 Nobel Prize for "their development of
new ways and methods for nuclear magnetic
precision measurements.
64. Edward Mills Purcell
(30.08.1912 – 07.08.1997)
was an American physicist who shared the 1952 Nobel Prize
for Physics for his independent discovery (published 1946)
of nuclear magnetic resonance in liquids and in solids.
65. In December 1946, he discovered nuclear magnetic
resonance , that provides scientists with an elegant and
precise way of determining chemical structure and
properties of materials, and is widely used in physics
and chemistry. It also is the basis of magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), one of the most important
medical advances of the 20th century.
Purcell also made contributions to astronomy as the
first to detect radio emissions from neutral galactic
hydrogen (the famous 21 cm line due to hyperfine
splitting), affording the first views of the spiral arms of
the Milky Way. This observation helped launch the
field of radio astronomy, and measurements of the
21 cm line are still an important technique in modern
astronomy. He has also made other seminal
contributions to solid state physics, with studies of
spin-echo relaxation, nuclear magnetic relaxation, and
negative spin temperature (important in the
development of the laser).
