Forage production and conservation and forage identification

Forage production and conservation 1

 25 – Lectures
 06 – Practical
 06 – Field practical
Course content

3
Introduction
Forage classification taxonomy of grass and
legumes
Forages
Edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that
can provide feed for grazing animals, or that can be
harvested for feeding. Includes browse, herbage, and
mast

 Forages refer to plants or plant parts that are
consumed by grazing livestock, including grasses,
legumes, and other herbaceous plants
 They are cultivated or naturally occurring vegetation
that animals feed on for grazing or fodder
Scientifically, forages can be defined as:
 "Forages are herbaceous plant species or parts
thereof, primarily grasses and legumes, cultivated or
found in natural habitats, which are utilized as feed
for grazing animals or harvested as fodder for
livestock, contributing to their nutritional
requirements and overall well-being"

 Palatable
 Nutritious
 Dense growing - good vegetative cover and
enough forage species available
 Hearty (recovers well)
 Tolerant to climatic extremes
 Resistant to pests
 Nutritious – provides animals with the energy,
protein, vitamins and minerals that they need
What Defines a “Good” Pasture Species?

6
1. Palatability:
 Palatable species are those that animals willingly
consume, promoting higher intake and better
utilization of the forage.
 For instance, Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) is
highly palatable to many grazing animals like cattle,
sheep, and horses due to its tender and nutritious
leaves
2. Nutritious:
 Good pasture species should offer a balanced array
of nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins, and minerals.
 Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), a leguminous forage
plant, is known for its high protein content, making
it a nutritious choice for grazing animals.

Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa)
Kentucky
bluegrass

3. Dense Growth:
 Pasture species that provide good vegetative cover
and adequate forage availability are essential
 Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) is a dense-growing
grass that forms a thick sward, offering ample grazing
material for livestock
4. Hearty and Fast-Recovering:
 Species that are resilient and recover quickly after
grazing or adverse conditions are favorable
 Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) is a quick-
growing grass that regenerates rapidly after grazing
or cutting, ensuring a consistent food supply for
livestock.

Tall fescue
Perennial
ryegrass

5. Climate Tolerance:
 Pasture species that can withstand climatic extremes,
such as drought or frost, are valuable
 Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) is known for its
adaptability to various climates and is resistant to
drought, making it suitable for many regions
6. Pest Resistance:
 Resilience to pests and diseases reduces the need for
chemical interventions
 Birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) is a legume
known for its resistance to certain pests and
diseases, making it a sustainable option for pastures

Orchard grass
Birdsfoot trefoil

12
 Generally fodders are grouped based on the plant family as,
 Legume fodder (i.e. Leguminacea)
 Non-legume fodders
Each group further classified has
* Annuals
* Perennials
• Legume fodder
* Annual (e.g. Cowpea, Berseem)
* Perennial (e.g. Alfalfa, Stylosanthes)
• Non-legume fodder
* Annuals (e.g. Fodder maize, Sorghum)
* Perennials (e.g. Hybrid napier grass, para grass)
Classification based on plant family and
duration of the crop

13
Classification based on nutrient density in the dry
matter
 Non-maintenance
 Wheat straw
 Rice straw
 Maize and Sorghum stover
 Jungle hay
 Cereal forages harvested at
advanced maturity (i.e. over
mature)
 Maintenance
 Sorghum
 Maize
 Hybrid napier
 All grasses
High protein
* Berseem
* Lucerne (Alfalfa)
* Cowpea
* All Legumes
Low protein
* Maize
* Barley
* Sorghum
* Root crops (e.g.,
turnips, sugar beets)

14
Forage classification
(according to the duration of the crop)
Grasses
Perennials
Cool season
Warm season
Annuals
Cool Season
warm season
Legumes
Perennials
Cool Season
warm season
Annuals
Cool Season
warm season
 Perennial – come back more than once
 Annual – grows and dies in one season

 Annuals reproduce ONLY by seed
 Perennials reproduce either by seed or vegetatively
(i.e., send up new plants from existing root structure)
- may appear to die back, but can recover

Warm Season Plants:
 Plants that begin growth and/or are planted in the
spring or early summer and do most of their
growth during the warmest part of the year
Cool Season Plants:
 Plants that begin growth and/or are planted in the
fall or early spring and do most of their growth
during the coolest months of the year (except
during winter)

 Monocotyledons
 Dicotyledons
Terminology forage and germination
Classification according to the cotyledons of
the seed

23
 Monocots (one seed leaf)
 Herbaceous
 Plant parallel leaf veins
 Fibrous root system
 Bear seed on an elongated seed stalk
Grass
 Plants belong to family Gramineae (poaceae)
 Herbaceous (not woody)
 Monocotyledons
 Consists of jointed stems and sheathed leaves
 There are pasture and fodder grasses
Forage grasses

24
Legumes
 Dicots (two seed leaves)
 “Netted” leaf veins
 Usually have a taproot
 Produce seed in a pod
 Nitrogen fixation
 Plants belong to family Leguminosae
(Fabaceae) that used as livestock feed
 Dicotyledons
 Consists of compound leaves
 Seeds are in pods and Can fix N
 There are pasture and fodder legumes
Forage legumes

Forage classification
Grasses
Pasture
Short
Fodder
Tall
Legumes
Pasture
Short
Fodder
Tall

Forage grasses 26
1. Herbaceous Nature:
 Grasses and forages are herbaceous, meaning they
have soft, green stems and do not have woody tissue
 This adaptation allows them to grow quickly and
efficiently, making them suitable for grazing animals
and ensuring rapid recovery after grazing or cutting
2. Parallel Leaf Veins:
 Their leaves have parallel veins, which aid in efficient
water and nutrient transport
 This feature also contributes to their flexibility,
enabling them to bend without breaking in windy
conditions, which is crucial for their survival in open
habitats.

27
Forage grasses
Herbaceous Nature
Parallel Leaf Veins

28
Forage grasses
3. Fibrous Root System:
 Grasses possess a fibrous root system consisting of many
thin roots that spread out near the surface of the soil
 This network of roots helps anchor the plant in the ground
and facilitates efficient absorption of water and nutrients,
making them more drought-resistant and competitive in
nutrient-poor soils
4. Seed Dispersal:
 Grasses bear seeds on an elongated seed stalk, known as a
spikelet
 This adaptation is crucial for their reproduction and
dispersal
 The seeds are often dispersed by wind, animals, or water
due to their lightweight nature or specific adaptations,
ensuring the spread of the grass species over a wider area

29
Fibrous root system
Forage grasses

30
Forage legumes
1. "Netted" Leaf Veins:
 Forage legumes typically have net-like veins in their
leaves, known as reticulate venation
 This structure enhances their ability to transport water,
nutrients, and sugars efficiently throughout the plant
2. Taproot System:
 Most forage legumes have a taproot system, consisting
of a primary root that grows vertically downward
 This type of root system allows these plants to reach
deeper into the soil for water and nutrients, enhancing
their ability to withstand drought conditions and access
resources that other plants may not reach

32
Forage legumes
3. Seed Production in Pods:
 Forage legumes produce seeds within pods
 These pods protect the seeds and aid in their dispersal
4. Nitrogen Fixation:
 These plants have a symbiotic relationship with certain
bacteria (such as Rhizobia) that live in nodules on their
roots
 These bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form
that the plants can utilize for their growth
 This ability to fix nitrogen makes forage legumes essential
in enriching soil fertility and reducing the need for
synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in agricultural systems.

33
Forage legumes
Seed Production
in Pods

Nitrogen Fixation

36
 About 40 species commonly used for pastures
 Monocots
Identification
 Parts of plant
 Intolerance
 Root system
 Colour
 Growth habit
Morphology of grasses

1. Parts of the
plant

Part of the stem (culm)
 Node
 Solid joint of a grass stem where
leaf sheaths are attached to stem
 Internode
 Region of the stem between the
nodes

Nods and
internodes

1. Culm:
 The culm refers to the main stem of a grass
plant.
 It provides structural support and serves as the
axis from which leaves, branches, flowers, and
seeds emerge.
 Importance:
 The culm is essential as it determines the
overall height and structure of the grass
 It influences forage quality, palatability, and
ease of grazing or harvesting

2. Node:
 Nodes are the points along the stem where leaves,
branches, and reproductive structures, such as
flowers and seeds, originate
 They are solid joints on the stem
 Importance:
 Nodes play a critical role in determining the
spacing and arrangement of leaves, which affects
the light interception, photosynthesis, and overall
productivity of the grass
 Nodes also serve as important attachment points
for leaves and sheaths, influencing nutrient flow
and structural integrity.

3. Internode:
 Internodes are the segments of the stem between the
nodes
 They determine the distance between leaves along the
stem
 Importance:
 The length and thickness of internodes influence
the stem's strength and flexibility.
 Longer internodes may contribute to increased
forage yield but might decrease forage quality due
to increased stem-to-leaf ratio, impacting
digestibility and palatability for livestock.

Part of the leaf
 Blade
 Portion of leaf connected to the sheath
 Sheath
 Surrounds the stem above the node where it
is attached
 Collar
 Region at the junction of the sheath and blade
 Ligule
 Appendage that clasps the stem where the
sheath and blade join
 May be a membrane, a fringe of hairs, or a
hardened ring, and is generally a reliable
characteristic for identification

 Collar region
 Where the sheath begins to enclose the
stem
 Auricle
 Earlike lobe; may be prominent and encircle
the stem or may inconspicuous or may be
absent
 Outgrowths from the base of the blade

1. Blade
 The flat, often green, expanded portion of the leaf
 It's crucial for photosynthesis, the process by which
plants convert light energy into chemical energy,
providing sustenance for the plant
2. Sheath
 Surrounds the stem above the node where it is attached
 It provides protection to the stem and helps in
anchoring the leaf to the stem, ensuring stability
3. Collar
 The region at the junction of the sheath and blade
 It can act as a protective barrier against pests and
diseases, safeguarding the plant's vulnerable parts

Blade and sheath

4. Ligule
 An appendage that clasps the stem where the
sheath and blade join
 It plays a role in preventing debris and pathogens
from entering the stem
 The ligule's characteristics, whether it's a
membrane, fringe of hairs, or hardened ring, can be
vital in identifying different grass species
5. Auricle
 Outgrowths from the base of the blade
 Auricles help to hold the leaf blade close to the
stem, contributing to the plant's structural integrity

Ligule

Auricle

Types of auricles
http://ptrpest.com/auricle.html

Plant characteristics
 Panicle – many branches
 Spike – unbranched axis
 Raceme – spikelet on one branch
2. Inflorescence (plant head, seed, flower/fruit)

1. Panicle:
 This is a type of inflorescence characterized by
many branches
 It consists of a main stem with multiple smaller
stems or branches, each bearing flowers or
smaller clusters of flowers called spikelet
 Panicles can have a diverse and complex
structure, often with a branching pattern that
may be pyramidal or spreading
 Wheat and oats are examples of grasses that
have panicle-type inflorescences

2. Spike:
 A spike is an unbranched inflorescence with flowers
attached directly to the central stem or axis
 The flowers are sessile (without a stalk) and are
arranged along the main stem
 Barley and rye are examples of grasses that have
spike-type inflorescences

3. Raceme:
 This type of inflorescence consists of a central
axis with spikelet attached to it along one side
 Each spikelet can contain multiple flowers or
floret
 The arrangement can resemble a simple,
elongated structure with the spikelet arranged in
a line along the main stem or branch
 Timothy grass is an example of a grass species
with a raceme-type inflorescence

• Length, number
3. Awns – appendage on ends of seeds

Short and long
awns

 Grass awns are elongated appendages or bristles
found at the ends of grass seeds
 These structures often play a role in seed dispersal,
attaching to fur or clothing and aiding in the
movement of seeds to new locations
 Awns come in various lengths, numbers, and
arrangements, contributing to the diversity of grass
species.

Length-based classification:
1. Short awns:
 These awns are relatively small, usually less than 1
centimeter in length
 They might be straight or slightly curved
 An example is found in some varieties of wheat
(Triticum aestivum) where short awns can be
present on the seed heads

Short awns

2. Long awns:
 Long awns are significantly larger, usually more
than 1 centimeter in length
 They can be straight, twisted, or have various
shapes
 An example is wild oat (Avena fatua), which has
distinctive long awns that contribute to its seed
dispersal

Long awns

2. Number-based classification:
1. Single awn:
 Some grass species have only one awn per seed
 Foxtail barley (Hordeum jubatum) is an example of
a grass with a single awn per seed
2. Multiple awns:
 Other grasses have multiple awns per seed, which
can range from two to several awns
 Brome grasses (Bromus spp.) are an example of
grasses with multiple awns per seed

Single awn

Multiple awns

89
4. Roots
Root system
 Rhizomes
 Stolon
 Fibrous

Rhizomes:
 These are underground horizontal stems that grow
parallel to the soil surface
 They typically spread out horizontally and produce
new shoots and roots at nodes along their length
 Rhizomes help in vegetative propagation and aid in
the plant's ability to spread and colonize new areas
Stolon (also known as runners):
 Stolon are similar to rhizomes but grow above the
ground horizontally
 They are stems that run along the surface and
produce new plants at nodes
 Stolon plays a role in vegetative reproduction and can
help the grass spread and form new colonies

Fibrous roots:
 Grasses have a fibrous root system characterized
by numerous fine roots that spread out from the
base of the plant
 These roots are highly branched and spread
extensively in the top few inches of soil
 Fibrous roots help anchor the grass in the soil,
absorb water and nutrients, and contribute to
the overall stability of the plant

Rhizomes

Fibrous roots

5. Colour

Natural Color Variations:
 Green:
 The most common and typical color of healthy grass is
various shades of green. Different grass species exhibit
distinct shades of green, ranging from light to dark, and
may have a bluish or yellowish tint.
 Blue-green:
 Some grasses, such as Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis),
exhibit a distinct blue-green hue, especially when well-
fertilized and adequately watered.
 Reddish or Bronze:
 Under certain conditions, especially stress like drought or
cold, some grasses may take on a reddish or bronze color.
For instance, fine fescues or certain cultivars of tall fescue
might develop a reddish tint in response to stress.

Natural Color Variations

6. Leaf growth
There are 2 types
1. Folded
2. Rolled

Folded Leaves:
 In rolled or Folded Inwards:
 Some grass species have leaves that exhibit folding inward along
the midrib or central vein. In this case, the leaf margins or edges
curl towards the center of the leaf, enclosing the upper surface of
the leaf blade inside.
 Characteristics:
 When viewed from the top, the leaf appears rolled or folded with
the upper surface partially or entirely hidden. This inward folding
is often more noticeable in the early stages of leaf growth.
 Adaptations:
 Folded leaves can be an adaptive mechanism to conserve
moisture, reduce water loss through transpiration, and protect
the leaf from environmental stressors like heat or excessive
sunlight.

Rolled Leaves:
 Rolled or Folded Outwards:
 Conversely, some grass species have leaves that exhibit rolling or
folding outward along the margins or edges, exposing the upper
surface of the leaf blade to the outside.
 Characteristics:
 When viewed from the top, the leaf edges curl away from the
midrib, and the upper surface of the leaf blade is visible. This
rolling can vary in degree, from slight rolling to a tighter
cylindrical shape.
 Adaptations:
 Rolled leaves might also aid in reducing water loss by minimizing
the leaf surface exposed to direct sunlight, potentially
preventing excessive dehydration during periods of heat or
drought.

Examples for grasses types
1. Panicum maximum
2. Napier
3. Branchairia spp
• Brancharia milliformis
• Brancharia ruziziensis
• Brancharia mutica

1. Panicum maximum

Panicum maximum

2. Napier

1. Branchairia spp

1. Parts of the plant

1. Petiole
 The stalk by which a leaf is attached to the stem
(leafstalk)
2. Stipules
 A pair of leaf-like outgrowths/appendages that occur
at the base of the petiole
3. Stolon
 Shoot that bends to the ground or that grows
horizontally above the ground

Petiole:
 The petiole in legumes refers to
the stalk that attaches the leaf
blade to the stem
 This structure can vary in length
and thickness among different
legume species
 It's an essential part of the leaf
structure that supports the leaf
blade, allowing it to capture
sunlight for photosynthesis

116
Stipules:
 Stipules in legumes are appendages that occur at the
base of the petiole, and they can have varying shapes,
sizes, and textures.
 Stipules are often leaf-like or membranous structures
and can be an important characteristic in identifying
different legume species.

Stipules types

Stolon:
 Stolon in forage legumes refer to specialized stems
that grow horizontally above the ground.
 While stolon are more commonly associated with
grasses, some legumes also produce stolons or
runners.
 Example:
 White clover (Trifolium repens) is an example of a
forage legume that can produce stolons.
 These stolons creep along the soil surface,
producing nodes from which new plants emerge.
 Stolons in legumes help with vegetative
propagation and spreading of the plant.

2. Inflorescence of legumes
1. Racemose Inflorescence
 Simple Raceme
 Compound Raceme
2. Cymose Inflorescence
 Cyme
 Compound Cyme
3. Head Inflorescence
 Capitulum
 Spike
4. Umbel Inflorescence
 Simple Umbel
 Compound Umbel
5. Panicle Inflorescence
 Compound Panicle
https://www.treeguideuk.co.uk/inflorescences-examples/

https://mgnv.org/plants/glossary/glossary-inflorescence/

 Alfalfa- medicago sativa
 Leucaena leucocephala
 Erythrina variegate
 Acacia nilotica
 Sesbania grandiflora
Examples for legumes types

 Erythrina variegate

 Acacia nilotica

 Sebania grandiflora

Pasture grasses
Fodder grasses
 Short
 Used in grazing systems
 Brachiaria spp
 Rye grass
 Tall
 Used in cut and carry (stall-fed /zero-
grazing systems )
 Napier spp.
 Guinea grass

 Brachiaria spp

 Rye grass

 Napier spp.

Pasture legumes
Fodder legumes
 Short like pasture grasses
 Using in grazing systems
 Pueraria
 Centrosema
 Desmodium
 Tall
 Used in cut and carry stall-fed/zero grazing
systems
 Gliricidia
 Ipil-ipil
 Erythrina

 Pueraria

Desmodium

 Gliricidia

 Ipil-ipil

Centrosema molle

 Erythrina

 Cultivated
Legumes (e.g. Alfalfa/ Lucerne)
Cereals (e.g. Sorghum, Oats, Maize)
Root crops (e.g. Turnip, Sugar beet)
Forest edibles (e.g. Grasses, Shrubs and tree leaves)
Plantation (e.g. Fruits and fruit tree wastes)
 Grasslands/ Pasture
Managed (e.g. Legume, Grass, Shrubs, Fodder trees)
Unmanaged (e.g. Grasses, Bushes)
 Aquatic
Fresh water (e.g. Water hyacinth, Azolla)
Sea or brackish water (e.g. Marine algae)
Classification based on plant type

Natural vs. cultivated forage
 Also known as natural pasture
 Found in road side, river bants, tank beds,
abandoned lands, grass lands, forests etc.
 Not maintained ( establishment, weeding,
fertilization, etc. not done)
 Low yield compared to cultivated forage
establishments
 Mostly poor in quality (low palatability, nutrient
and energy content, digestibility)
 May contain harmful compounds (anti nutritive
substances)
Natural forages

 May need to supplement with concentrates to
balance rations of livestock ; thus may be
expensive

Cultivated forages
 Also known as cultivated / manmade pasture
 Forages are grown and maintained to feed
livestock
 High yield compared to natural pasture
 Mostly better in quality
 Species and varieties are been developed
through breeding (selection) in order to
improve palatability, greater nutrient, and
energy content, high digestibility
 Less anti nutritive factors

Grasslands / Pasturelands
 Also known as pasture
 A field covered with grass (and legumes)
 Can be natural or cultivated

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