Based on Elizabeth Hurlock's book

1. DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
UNIT: 1
CONCEPTION THROUGH BIRTH
II B.SC.PSYCHOLOGY

2. CONTENT:
• Meaning of developmental changes
• Significant facts about development
• Developmental stages
• Developmental Issues
• Conception of Age.
• Characteristics of the Prenatal Period
• How Life begins
• Importance of Conception
• Periods of Conception
• Periods of Prenatal development
• Stages of child Birth
• Types of childbirth
• Attitudes of significant people
• Prenatal hazards
• Complications of low birth weight.

3. MEANING OF DEVELOPMENTAL
CHANGES
Developmental change is the process of change that occurs in
human beings throughout development. Gene expression, brain
function, cognitive processes, behavior, and environmental factors
all involve multiple cross-level interactions, and all are
characterized by dynamic developmental change over time.

4. Development can therefore be summed up as:
1. Consisting of progressive, coherent and orderly changes;
2. Changes which have a definite direction and leading forward;
3. Changes which are not haphazard but where there exists a definite
relationship between what exists and what will come after (next stage).

5. • Developmental psychology, which studies growth and decline from
conception to death, has six major objectives: to find out the common
and characteristic age changes; when these changes occur; what causes
them; how they in fluence behavior; whether they can be pre dicted; and
whether they are individual or uni versal.
• . There are five incentives to studying develop mental changes:
traditional beliefs, practical problems engendered by these changes, a
desire to prove or disprove theories about develop mental changes, an
attempt to determine the rel ative importance of nature's and nurture's
influ ence on developmental changes, and a desire to substantiate
material accumulated from researchor from practical experience.
• Attitudes toward developmental changes are in fluenced by the
individual's appearance and be havior, by cultural stereotypes, by
cultural values,by role changes, and by personal experiences.

6. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Prenatal Period (before birth)
Life begins at the time of conception. When the child is in the mother’s womb the
particular period spent there is known as prenatal period. All important external
and internal feelings start to develop at this stage.
2. Infancy (0 to 3 years)
From birth up to the third year of life, the stage is known as infancy. Babies grow
very rapidly in size during their first three years. The acquisition of motor skills like
holding things, crawling, walking proceeds from simple to complex.
3. Pre-school childhood (3-6 years)
The growth in height is not as rapid during this stage as it is in infancy. Children
improve eye, hand and small muscle coordination. For example they can draw a
circle, pour fluids into a bowl, button and unbutton clothes, and language

7. 4. School childhood (6-12 years - Primary school years)
School children between the age of 6 to 12 years look much taller and
thinner. Children exhibit rapid gains in strength and swiftness. They
achieve new motor skills and their competence becomes more
pronounced in all areas of development.
5. Adolescence (12-20 years)
It is the span of year between childhood and adulthood which begins at
puberty. This is the period of rapid physiological growth. There are a
number of psychological changes which also take place. Children jump
rope, bicycle, ride horses, dance and indulge in all possible games.
Cognitively they are more agile and social relationships become
important. But the hallmark of this stage is the search for identity. A
number of psychological changes also take place. Given sex-role-
expectations, girls attach greater importance to good interpersonal
relationships and the family while boys emphasize the importance of
their own social prestige and career.

9. SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT
DEVELOPMENT
1. Early foundations are critical
Early foundations are critical because attitudes, habits and patterns of behaviour established
during early years determine to a large extent how successfully individuals will adjust in their
later life.
2. Role of maturation and learning in development
Maturation and learning play a significant role in development. Maturation is unfolding an
individual’s inherent traits. Learning is a development that occurs from experience and efforts
on the individual’s part. Maturation provides the raw material for learning. Generally,
development is influenced by the interaction of both.
3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern
It follows a definite and predictable pattern. There are orderly patterns of physical, motor,
intellectual and speech development. Development is governed by certain laws:
(i) Cephalocaudal Law- It means that development spreads over the body from head to foot
and

10. 4. All individuals are different
No two people react in the same way to the same environmental stimuli and, one can never predict
with accuracy how people will react to a situation. These individual differences are significant
because they are responsible for individuality in personality makeup.
5. Each phase of development has characteristic behaviour
Each Phase has certain characteristic behaviours. The patterns are marked by periods of
equilibrium when individuals adapt easily to environmental demands and as a result, make a good
personal and social adjustment and by periods of disequilibrium, when they experience difficulty in
adaptation, make a poor personal and social adjustment.
6. Each phase has hazards
Each period is associated with certain developmental such as physical, psychological and
environmental. These hazards inevitably involve adjustment problems. We should be aware of
these hazards because awareness of these makes it possible to prevent or to at least alleviate
these.
7. Development is aided by stimulation
While most development occurs as a result of maturation and environmental experiences, much
can be done to aid development so that it will reach its full potential. Stimulation is especially
effective at the time when the ability is normally developing, though it is important at all times.

11. 8. Development is affected by cultural changes
An individual’s development is moulded to conform to cultural
standards and norms, while changes in these standards affect the
developmental pattern.
9. Social expectation with every stage of development
Every stage has a certain societal expectation. The individual will be
successful in fulfilling those expectations only if she/he is adhering to
the rules and regulations of the family and society.
10. Traditional beliefs about people of all ages
Traditional beliefs about physical and psychological characteristics
affect the judgments of others as well as their self-evaluation. So long
as these beliefs persist, they have a profound influence on the
development pattern.

12. ISSUES IN LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT
• Nature and Nurture: For decades, scholars have carried on
the "nature/nurture" debate. For any particular feature, those
on the side of Nature would argue that heredity plays the most
important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side
of Nurture would argue that one's environment is most
significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in
all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree
that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is
difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result
solely of nature or nurture.

13. • Continuity versus Discontinuity: discontinuous development assume that
developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from
each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and
adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume
development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and
information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual
process known as continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as
not possessing new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some
form in the child. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the
acquisition of more developed skills.
• Stability versus Change: Some theorists argue that the personality traits of adults are
rooted in the behavioral and emotional tendencies of the infant and young child. Others
disagree, and believe that these initial tendencies are modified by social and cultural
forces over time.
• Active versus Passive: Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role
in their own development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their
world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In
contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental
process.

14. CONCEPTIONS OF AGE
o Chronological age -- number of years since birth
• Biological age -- age in terms of biological health
o Psychological age -- individual's adaptive capacities
• Social age -- society's age expectations

15. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
PRENATAL PERIOD
• This is the first developmental period in the life span, though the period is short it is in
many respects one of the most important period. It begins at conception and ends at birth
approximately 270 to 280 days in length or of calendar 9 months. This has six important
characteristics.
• Although it is relatively short, the prenatal period has six important characteristics, each of
which has a lasting effect on development during the life span.
• The hereditary endowment which serves as the foundation for later development is fixed
once and for all, at this time. While favourable or unfavourable conditions both before and
after birth may and probably will affect to some extent the physical and psychological traits
that make up this hereditary endowment, that changes will be quantitative and not
qualitative.
• Favourable condition in the mother's body can foster the development of hereditary
potentials while unfavourable conditions can stunt their development.
• The sex of the newly created individual is fixed at the time of conception and conditions
within the mother's body will not affect it.

16. • Proportionally greater growth and development take place during the
prenatal period than at any other time throughout the individual's
entire life. During these nine months, the individual grows from a
microscopically small cell to an infant who measures approximately
twenty inches in length and weigh on an average 3-3.5 kg.
Development is rapid.
•
• The prenatal period is a time of many hazards, both physical and
psychological. This can have a marked effect on the pattern of later
development or may even bring development to an end.

17. HOW LIFE BEGINS
New life begins with the union of a male sex cell and a female sex cell.
These sex, cells are developed in the reproductive organs. There are
twenty three pairs of chromosomes in each mature sex cell and each
chromosome contains genes - the true carriers of heredity.

19. PERIODS OF CONCEPTION
Ovulation:
Each month inside your ovaries, a group of eggs starts to grow in small, fluid-filled
sacs called follicles. Eventually, one of the eggs erupts from the follicle
(ovulation). It usually happens about 2 weeks before your next period
Hormones Rise
After the egg leaves the follicle, the follicle develops into
something called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum
releases a hormone that helps thicken the lining of your uterus,
getting it ready for the egg.

20. The Egg Travels to the Fallopian Tube
After the egg is released, it moves into the fallopian tube. It stays there for about 24 hours, waiting for a
single sperm to fertilize it. All this happens, on average, about 2 weeks before your next period.
Fertilization
If one sperm does make its way into the fallopian tube and burrows into the egg, it fertilizes the egg. The egg changes
so that no other sperm can get in. At the instant of fertilization, your baby's genes and sex are set. If the sperm has a
Y chromosome, your baby will be a boy. If it has an X chromosome, the baby will be a girl.
Implantation: Moving to the Uterus
The fertilized egg stays in the fallopian tube for about 3 to 4 days. But within 24 hours of being fertilized, it starts
dividing fast into many cells. It keeps dividing as it moves slowly through the fallopian tube to the uterus. Its next job is
to attach to the lining of uterus. This is called implantation.
If the Egg Isn't Fertilized
If no sperm is around to fertilize the egg, it moves through to the uterus and disintegrates. Your hormone levels go
back to normal. Your body sheds the thick lining of the uterus, and your period starts.

21. PERIODS OF PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
The prenatal period is ten lunar months of twenty eight
days each in length or nine calendar months. This can
vary from 180 to 334 days. Because prenatal development
is orderly and predictable, it is possible to give a timetable
of the important development taking place during this
period. This period is divided into three stages.

22. Period of the Zygote (fertilization to end of second week)
The size of the zygote - that of a pinhead - remains unchanged because it has no
outside source of nourishment; it is kept alive by yolk in the ovum.
As the zygote passes down the fallopian tube to the uterus, it divides many times
and separates into an outer and an inner layer.
The outer layer later develops into the placenta, the umbilical cord, and the
amniotic sac, and the inner layer develops into a new human being.
About ten days after fertilization, the zygote becomes implanted in the uterine wall.

23. • Period of the Embryo (end of the second week to end of
the second lunar month)
• The embryo develops into a miniature human being.
• Major development occurs, in the head region first and in the
extremities last.
• All the essential features of the body, both external and
internal, are established.
• The embryo begins to turn in the uterus, and there is
spontaneous movement of the limbs.
• The placenta, the umbilical cord, and the amniotic sac develop;
these protect and nourish the embryo.
• At the end of the second prenatal month, the embryo weighs,
on an average,33 gm (11/4 ounces ) and measures in length
11/2inches.

24. Period of the Fetus (end of the second lunar month to birth)
• Changes occur in the actual or relative size of the parts already formed and in their functioning. No
new features appear at this time.
• By the end of the third lunar month, some internal organs are well enough developed to begin to
function. Fetal heartbeat can be detected by about the fifteenth week.
• By the end of the fifth lunar month, the different internal organs have assumed positions nearly like
the ones they will have in the adult body.
• Nerve cells, present from the third week, increase rapidly in number during the second, third, and
fourth lunar months. Whether or not this rapid increase will continue and depend upon conditions
within the mother's body such as malnutrition, which adversely affects nerve cell development -
especially during the latter months of the prenatal period.
• Fetal movements usually appear first between eighteen and twenty-two weeks and then increase
rapidly up to the end of the ninth lunar month when they slow down because of crowding in the
amniotic sac and pressure on the fetal brain as the fetus takes a head-down position in the pelvic
region in preparation for birth. These fetal movements are of different kinds - rolling and kicking and
short or quick movements.
• By the end of the seventh lunar month, the fetus is well enough developed to survive, should it be
born prematurely.
• By the end of the eighth lunar month the fetal body is completely formed, though smaller than that
of a normal, full-term infant.

26. STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH
The birth process occurs in three stages:
• The first stage is the longest of the three stages. Uterine
contractions are 15 to 20 minutes apart at the beginning and
last up to a minute. These contractions cause the woman’s
cervix to stretch and open. As the first stage progresses, the
contractions come closer together, appearing every two to five
minutes. Their intensity increases. By the end of the first birth
stage, contractions dilate the cervix to an opening of about 10
centimeters (4 inches), so that the baby can move from the
uterus to the birth canal. For a woman having her fi rst child,
the fi rst stage lasts an average of 6 to 12 hours; for subsequent
children, this stage typically is much shorter.

27. • The second birth stage begins when the baby’s head starts to
move through the cervix and the birth canal. It terminates
when the baby completely emerges from the mother’s body.
With each contraction, the mother bears down hard to push
the baby out of her body. By the time the baby’s head is out of
the mother’s body, the contractions come almost every minute
and last for about a minute. This stage typically lasts
approximately 45 minutes to an hour.
• Afterbirth is the third stage, at which time the placenta,
umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached And
expelled. This fi nal stage is the shortest of the three birth
stages, lasting only minutes.

29. TYPES OR METHODS OF CHILD BIRTH
Medication:
- Analgesia : Used to relieve pain
- Anesthesia: Used in late first stage of labour and during expulsion to block sensation.
• Epidural block: numbs waist down
- Oxytocin : Synthetic hormone used to stimulate contractions
Natural childbirth :This method attempts to reduce the mother’s pain by decreasing her
fear through education about childbirth and relaxation techniques during delivery.
Prepared childbirth: Developed by French obstetrician Ferdinand Lamaze, this childbirth
strategy is similar to natural childbirth but includes a special breathing technique to
control pushing in the final stages of labor and a more detailed anatomy and physiology
course.

30. Cesarean Delivery : Normally, the baby’s head comes
through the vagina fi rst. But if the baby is in a breech
position, the baby’s buttocks are the fi rst part to
emerge from the vagina. In 1 of every 25 deliveries, the
baby’s head is still in the uterus when the rest of the
body is out. Breech births can cause respiratory prob-
lems. As a result, if the baby is in a breech position, a
surgical procedure known as a cesarean section, or a
cesarean delivery, is usually performed. In a cesarean
delivery, the baby is removed from the mother’s uterus
through an incision made in her abdomen . The benef i
ts and risks of cesarean sections continue to be debated
.

31. COMPLICATIONS OF LOW BIRTH WEIGHT
Low birth weight is a term used to describe babies who are born weighing less
than 3 pounds, 4 ounces. It is very rare that babies are born this
tiny. The main cause of a baby having low birth weight is being born too early.
This is called preterm or premature birth.
Premature means a baby is born before 37 weeks of pregnancy. Low-birth-
weight babies are often born before 30 weeks of pregnancy. A premature baby
has less time in the mother’s uterus to grow and gain weight. Much of a
baby's weight is gained during the later part of pregnancy.
Babies with a very low birth weight have a greater risk of developing
problems. Their tiny bodies are not as strong as babies of normal weight.
They may have a harder time eating, gaining weight, and fighting infection.
They have very little body fat. So they often have trouble staying warm in
normal temperatures.

32. Here are some common problems of the babies with low birth weight:
• Low oxygen levels at birth
• Trouble staying warm
• Trouble feeding and gaining weight
• Infection
• Breathing problems because of immature lungs (respiratory distress
syndrome)
• Nervous system problems, such as bleeding inside the brain or damage to
the brain’s white matter
• Serious digestive problems, such as necrotizing enterocolitis
• Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
Almost all low-birth-weight babies need special care in the neonatal intensive
care unit (NICU) until they can gain weight and are well enough to go home.

33. Risks for long-term problems and disability are increased for babies with
Low Birth Weight. Long-term complications may include:
• Cerebral palsy
• Blindness
• Deafness
• Developmental delay
Regular prenatal care is the best way to prevent preterm births and low-
birth-weight babies.

34. PRENATAL HAZARDS
Physical Hazards:
Hazards During Period of Zygote :
-Starvation
-Lack of Uterine Preparation
-Implantation in the Wrong Place
Hazards During Period of Embryo :
-Miscarriages
-Maternal malnutrition
Hazards During Period of Fetus :
–Miscarriages
-Prematurity
-Complications In delivery
-Developmental irregularities
• If developmental irregularities are very serious the child will be
deformed in some way. But they may undiagnosed for years
even after birth
• Parents will find difficulty to accept a defective child and often
feels guilty of causing the trouble
• It is a well known fact that malnutrition will lead to damage of
brain and later learning difficulties may engulf the child
• Physical hazards during this period leave behavioral
disturbance in the child till 2 years or even more.
• Smoking and drinking during the pregnancy period will have
negative effects in child
Effects of Physical Hazards:

35. PSYCHOLOGICAL HAZARDS DURING PRENATAL HAZARDS:
• The psychological hazards can have persistent effects on the
individuals development and can influence the postnatal
• There are mainly three important psychological hazards, they are :
1.Traditional belief s about prenatal development
2.Maternal stress
3.The unfavorable attitudes the towards the unborn child
Conclusion:
Pre-natal period is significant due to the reason of on that how a
behavior in future will be determined during this period itself.
irregularities in this stage of development will surely contribute to
future problems.

36. IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPTION
Hereditary endowment is the determination of the newly created
individual's hereditary. Hereditary places limits beyond which
individuals cannot go and it is entirely a matter of chance in the number
of chromosomes from the maternal or paternal side that will be passed
on to the child.
Sex - Determination of sex is the second important happening at the
time of conception. Sex depends on the kind of spermatozoon that unites
with the ovum.

37. Number of offsprings - when a ripe ovum is fertilized by one spermatozoon, the result
will be a singleton, unless the fertilized ovum splits into two or more distinct parts
during the early stages of cell cleavage, when this happens, the result will be identical
twins, triplets or other multiple births. When two or more ova are released
simultaneously and are fertilized by different spermatozoa, the result will be non
identical twins, triplets or other multiple births.
Ordinal position - The fourth thing happening at the time of conception is the
establishment, of the new child's ordinal position among siblings, such as the role the
individual plays in the family and the treatment received from significant family
members and their attitudes.

38. ATTITUDE OF SIGNIFICANT PEOPLE DURING
PRENATAL PERIOD
• Attitudes of significant people toward the newly created
individual are established during the pre natal period.
These attitudes tend to be persistent because they are
based on what are regarded as justifiable reasons, and
because they are emotionally toned and therefore difficult
to change.
• Of all family attitudes, maternal attitudes are most
important because of the close relationship between
mother and child during the early, for mative years of life.

39. CONDITIONS AFFECTING ATTITUDES OF SIGNIFICANT PEOPLE:
Mother's Attitude:
• Love of children
• Desire for companionship
• Desire to please her husband or
improve apoor marital relationship
• Desire to be like her friends who
have children
• Feelings of inadequacy for the
parental role
• Resentment at having to give up a
career
• Fear of childbirth or of having a
defectivechild
• Resentment at the physical
discomforts and weight gain
associated with pregnancy
• Resentment at being overworked
or tieddown
Father's Attitude:
• Desire for a son to carry on the
family nameor be associated with
him in business
• A need to prove his virility to
himself and others
• Feelings of inadequacy for the
parental role
• Resentment at interference with
educational or vocational plans
• Worry about the financial
burdens of raising a child
• Resentment at being tied down

40. Siblings' Attitudes:
• Desire for a playmate
• Desire to have as many siblings as
their friends
• Fear of losing parental affection
and attention
• Fear of having to share a room or
toys with the new sibling or having
to help care for it
• Desire for sympathy from friends
who complain about their own
siblings
Grandparents' Attitudes :
• Desire for a grandchild to
carry on the family name
• Love of children
• Desire to feel useful by
helping care for the
grandchild
• Fear of being imposed on
for financial or other help

41. THANK YOU
POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
CREDIT Kamalee Ganesh