CHAPTER 1-THE HUMAN BODY-AN ORIENTATION.pptx

Chapter 1
The Human Body:
An Orientation
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Anatomy
 Anatomy
 Study of the structure and shape of the body and its
parts
 Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of
parts

Anatomy
 Gross anatomy
 Large structures
 Easily observable

Anatomy
 Let’s look at an example
of gross anatomy using
the digestive system
organs

Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems.
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
(i) Digestive System
Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.

Anatomy
 Microscopic anatomy
 Structures are too small to be seen with the naked
eye
 Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a
microscope
https://www.slideserve.com/elda/anatomy-physiology

Anatomy
 Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy
using a digestive system organ, the stomach

Figure 14.4c Anatomy of the stomach.
Gastric pits
Pyloric
sphincter
Gastric
pit
Surface
epithelium
Mucous
neck cells
Gastric
gland
Parietal cells
Gastric
glands
Chief cells
(c)

Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen
HCl
Pepsin
Parietal cells
Chief cells
Enteroendocrine
cell
(d)

Physiology
©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.
 Physiology
 Study of how the body and its parts work or function

Physiology
(Functions)
©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.
Structure determines what
functions can occur
For example, the air sacs of
the lungs have very thin
walls, a feature that enables
them to exchange gases and
provide oxygen to the body

©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.

Levels of
Structural
Organization

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.
1
2
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
3
4
5
6
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Cardio–
vascular
system
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.
Organ level
Organ systems consist of
different organs that work
together closely.
Organ system level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
Organismal level
Slide 1

Atoms
Molecules
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
Slide 2
1

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
2
Slide 3
2
1

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Slide 4
1
2
3

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Slide 5
1
2
3
4
Organ level

Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Cardio–
vascular
system
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Slide 6
1
2
3
4
Organ level
5
together closely.
Organ system level

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 7
Atoms
Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level
Cellular level
Atoms combine to
of molecules.
1
2
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells.
3
4
5
6
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Cardio–
vascular
system
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
Blood
vessel
(organ)
Organ level
together closely.
Organ system level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
Organismal level

Organ
System
Overview








Figure 1.2a The body’s organ systems.
Hair
Skin
Fingernails
Forms the external body covering;
protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of
sensory receptors (pain, pressure,
etc.) and sweat and oil glands.
(a) Integumentary System

Organ
System
Overview







Figure 1.2b The body’s organ systems.
Cartilages
Joint
Bones
Protects and supports body
organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within
bones; stores minerals.
(b) Skeletal System

Organ
System
Overview
 Muscular system
 Skeletal muscles contract (or
shorten)
 Produces movement of bones

Figure 1.2c The body’s organ systems.
Skeletal
muscles
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.

Organ
System
Overview
 Nervous system
 Fast-acting control system
 Consists of brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and sensory receptors
 Responds to internal and
external stimuli
 Sensory receptors detect
changes
 Messages are sent to the central
nervous system
 Central nervous system
assesses information and
activates effectors (muscles and
glands)

Figure 1.2d The body’s organ systems.
Brain
Sensory
receptor
Spinal
cord
Nerves
(d) Nervous System
Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.

Organ
System
Overview
 Endocrine system
 Secretes chemical molecules,
called hormones, into the
blood
 Body functions controlled by
hormones include:
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Use of nutrients

Organ System Overview
©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.
 Endocrine system (continued)
 Endocrine glands include:
 Pituitary gland
 Thyroid and parathyroids
 Adrenal glands
 Thymus
 Pancreas
 Pineal gland
 Ovaries (females) and testes (males)

Figure 1.2e The body’s organ systems.
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testis (male)
Ovary (female)
Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
(e) Endocrine System

Organ
System
Overview
 Cardiovascular system
 Includes heart and blood vessels
 Heart pumps blood
 Vessels transport blood to
tissues
 Blood transports:
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Nutrients
 Hormones
 Blood also contains white blood
cells and chemicals that provide
protection from foreign invaders

Figure 1.2f The body’s organ systems.
Heart
Blood
vessels
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes,
etc.; the heart pumps blood.
(f) Cardiovascular System

Organ
System
Overview  Lymphatic system
 Includes lymphatic vessels,
lymph nodes, and lymphoid
organs
 Complements the cardiovascular
system by returning leaked fluids
back to bloodstream
 Lymph nodes and other lymphoid
organs cleanse the blood
 Houses white blood cells, which
are involved in immunity

Figure 1.2g The body’s organ systems.
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic
vessels
Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
(g) Lymphatic System

Organ
System
Overview
 Respiratory system
 Includes the nasal passages,
pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
 Gases are exchanged with
the blood through air sacs in
the lungs
 Supplies the body with
oxygen
 Removes carbon dioxide

Figure 1.2h The body’s organ systems.
Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs
(h) Respiratory System

Organ
System
Overview
 Digestive system
 Includes the oral cavity
(mouth), esophagus,
stomach, small and large
intestines, rectum, and
accessory organs
 Breaks down food
 Allows for nutrient absorption
into blood
 Eliminates indigestible
material as feces

Organ
System
Overview  Urinary system
 Includes the kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder, and urethra
 Eliminates nitrogenous
wastes
 Maintains acid-base balance
 Regulates water and
electrolyte balance
 Helps regulate normal blood
pressure

Figure 1.2j The body’s organ systems.
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
(j) Urinary System

Organ
System
Overview
 Reproductive system
 For males, includes the testes,
scrotum, penis, accessory
glands, and duct system
 Testes produce sperm
 Duct system carries sperm to
exterior
 For females, includes the
ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus,
and vagina
 Ovaries produce eggs
 Uterus provides site of
development for fetus

Figure 1.2k-l The body’s organ systems.
(k) Male Reproductive System
Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes
produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable
sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Seminal
vesicles
Prostate
gland
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Uterine
tube
Ovary
Uterus
Vagina
(l) Female Reproductive System

Maintaining Life: Necessary Life
Functions
• Boundaries separate the “inside” from the
“outside”
Maintaining
boundaries
• Locomotion
• Movement of substances
Movement
• Ability to sense changes and react
Responsiveness
(irritability)
• Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
Digestion

Necessary Life Functions
Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
• Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
• Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
• Produces energy (ATP)
• Regulated by hormones
Excretion
• Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
• Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat

Necessary Life Functions
Reproduction
• Occurs on cellular level or
organismal level
• On cellular level—new
cells are used for
growth and repair
• On organismal level—
the reproductive
system handles the task
Growth
• Increases cell size or body
size (through increasing
the number of cells)
• Hormones play a major
role

Survival Needs
• Chemicals used for energy and cell
building
• Include carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, vitamins, and minerals
Nutrients
• Required for chemical reactions
• Made available by the cooperation of
the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems
Oxygen

Survival Needs
Water
• 60 to 80 percent of body weight
• Most abundant chemical in the human body
• Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
Normal body temperature
• 37ºC (98.6ºF)
• Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and stop
• Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed too
rapidly

Survival Needs
 Atmospheric pressure
 Must be appropriate for gas exchange

Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions.
Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, digests them
(part of metabolism), and excretes
unabsorbed matter (feces)
Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen, which is
required for metabolism, and
excretes carbon dioxide
Food O2 CO2
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon dioxide
to disposal organs
Blood
Heart
CO2
O2
Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Urinary system
Excretes nitrogen-
containing wastes
and excess ions
Nutrients and wastes pass
between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid
Feces are
excreted
Urine is
excreted
Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment
by maintaining boundaries

The
Language
of
Anatomy
©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.
Special terminology
is used to prevent
misunderstanding
Exact terms are
used for:
Position
Direction
Regions
Structures

The Language of
Anatomy
 Anatomical position
 Standard body position used to avoid confusion
 Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual
body position
 Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides
with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away
from the body

Figure 1.4a The
anatomical
position and
regional terms.
• © 2018 Pearson
Education, Ltd.

Directional
Terms
 Directional terms
 Explain location of
one body structure
in relation to
another

Directional
Terms
Superior (cranial or
cephalic): toward the
head or upper part of a
structure or the body;
above
Inferior (caudal): away
from the head or toward
the lower part of a
structure or the body;
below

Directional
Terms
Anterior (ventral):
toward or at the
front of the body; in
front of
Posterior (dorsal):
toward or at the
backside of the body;
behind

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 3)

Directional
Terms
©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.
Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner
side of
Side
Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side
of
Lateral
Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral
structure
Intermedia
te

Directional
Terms
Proximal: close to the
origin of the body part or
point of attachment to a
limb to the body trunk
Distal: farther from the
origin of a body part or
the point of attachment of
a limb to the body trunk

Directional
Terms
Superficial
(external): toward
or at the body
surface
Deep (internal):
away from the
body surface;
more internal

Regional Terms
 Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Cephalic
Cervical
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
Upper limb
Manus (hand)
Lower limb
Pedal (foot)
KEY:
Thorax
Abdomen
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Buccal
Oral
Mental
Sternal
Axillary
Pectoral
Umbilical
Inguinal
(groin)
Pubic (genital)
Acromial
Deltoid
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Digital
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
Fibular
Tarsal (ankle)
Digital

Regional Terms
 Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks

Figure 1.4b The anatomical position and regional terms.
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Upper limb
Manus (hand)
Lower limb
Pedal (foot)
Cephalic
Cervical
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Occipital (back
of head)
Vertebral
Lumbar
Sacral
Gluteal
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Digital
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
Calcaneal
Plantar
KEY:
Back (Dorsum)

Body
Planes and
Sections
 Sections are cuts along imaginary
lines known as planes
 Three types of planes or sections
exist as right angles to one another

Body
Planes
and
Sections
A sagittal section
divides the body
(or organ) into left
and right parts
A median, or
midsagittal,
section divides the
body (or organ)
into equal left and
right parts
A frontal, or
coronal, section
divides the body
(or organ) into
anterior and
posterior parts
A transverse, or
cross, section
divides the body
(or organ) into
superior and
inferior parts

Figure 1.5 The planes of the body—median, frontal, and transverse—with corresponding MRI scans.
(a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane
Vertebral
column
Right
lung Heart
Left
lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen
Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous
fat layer
Spinal
cord

Body
Cavities
Body cavities provide
varying degrees of
protection to organs
within them
Two internal body cavities
Dorsal Ventral

Figure 1.6 Body cavities.
Cranial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Diaphragm
Spinal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity

Body Cavities
 Dorsal body cavity has two
subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity
 Houses the brain
 Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
 Houses the spinal cord
 Protected by the vertebrae

Body
Cavities
 Ventral body cavity has two
subdivisions separated by the
diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity

Body Cavities
 Thoracic cavity
 Cavity superior to the
diaphragm
 Houses heart, lungs, and other
organs
 Mediastinum, the central
region, houses heart, trachea,
and other organs
 Protected by the rib cage

Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
 Superior abdominal cavity
contains the stomach, liver, and
other organs
 Protected only by trunk
muscles
 Inferior pelvic cavity contains
reproductive organs, bladder,
and rectum
 Protected somewhat by
bony pelvis
 No physical structure separates
abdominal from pelvic cavities

Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions
 Four quadrants
 Nine regions

Figure 1.7 The four abdominopelvic quadrants.
Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)

Figure 1.8 The nine abdominopelvic regions.
Right
hypochondriac
region
Epigastric
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left
lumbar
region
Right iliac
(inguinal)
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left iliac
(inguinal)
region
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
showing the superficial organs
Liver
Large
intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
Large
intestine
Diaphragm
Stomach

Body
Cavities
 Other body cavities include:
 Oral and digestive cavities
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities

Homeostasis
Homeostasis—maintenance of
relatively stable internal conditions
• A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
• Necessary for normal body functioning and
to sustain life
Main controlling systems
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
Homeostatic imbalance
• A disturbance in homeostasis results in
disease

Maintaining Homeostasis
 All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three
components: receptor, control center, and effector
 Receptor
 Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
 Sends information to control center along an
afferent pathway

Maintaining
Homeostasis
• Determines set point
• Analyzes information
• Determines appropriate
response
Control center
• Provides a means for response
to the stimulus
• Information flows from control
center to effector along efferent
pathway
Effector

Feedback
Mechanisms
©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.
 Negative feedback
 Includes most homeostatic control
mechanisms
 Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces
its intensity
 Works like a household thermostat

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system.
3 4
5
2
Control
Center
Receptor Effector
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
Slide 1
Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Input: Information
is sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
Output: Information
is sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Slide 2
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Receptor
Slide 3
2 Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Control
Center
Receptor
Afferent
pathway
Slide 4
2 Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
3 Input: Information
pathway to control
center.
1

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 5
3 4
2
Control
Center
Receptor Effector
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Input: Information
pathway to control
center.
Output: Information
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 6
3 4
5
2
Control
Center
Receptor Effector
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Response
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Input: Information
pathway to control
center.
Output: Information
Receptor
detects change.
Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
1

Feedback
Mechanisms
©
2018
Pearson
Education,
Ltd.
 Positive feedback
 Rare in the human body
 Increases the original stimulus to push the
variable farther
 Reaction occurs at a faster rate
 In the body, positive feedback occurs in
blood clotting and during the birth of a baby

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