Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.pptx

AGA INSTITUTE
Summary of
Approaches and Methods
in Language Teaching
Course:
Applied Linguistics for
Language Teachers
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• Tel: 017 471 117
• Email: varyvath@gmail.com
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References and further readings
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Contents
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 Introduction
 Approach and Method
 Approach, method, procedure,
and technique
 Traditional & contemporary
approaches and methods
 Why is an approach or
method adopted?
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Introduction
Theories concerns with
the beliefs about what
language learning
should be like
Teachers need to
understand how to
teach
Approach/
method
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Describing Methods
Approach:
- Theories about the nature of language and language
learning
 Describe how language is used and how its
constituent parts interlocks
 Describe how people acquire their knowledge of
L and makes statements about the conditions
which will promote successful learning
Method:
- The practical classroom realization of an
approach
 includes various procedures and techniques
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Procedure
 An ordered sequence of techniques.
 Richards and Rodgers (2001) used the term procedure to
encompass “the actual moment-to-moment techniques,
practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a
language according to a particular method”
 First you do this, then you do that ….
Techniques:
 a single activity rather than a sequence
 Implementational – that which actually takes
place in a classroom
 used to accomplish an immediate objective.
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Describing Methods

Summary
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Approach
Method
Procedure
Technique
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Method
The nature
of language:
form  function
The nature
of learning:
analytic 
experiential
The Goal
of SLL:
Accuracy 
fluency
The Type of
syllabus:
System  skills;
segregated 
integrated
Roles of teachers,
learners &
Materials:
Cognitiveaffective;
Transmissive
dialogic
Instructive 
Constructivist
Procedure
(techniques/acti
vities):
deductive 
inductive;
bilingual 
monolingual

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Three
and a
half
methods
Grammar-
translation
method
The
direct
method
Audiolingu
al method
Oral-
situationa
l approach
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Principles of Grammar-Translation
Method
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• First known as Prussian Method in the U.S. and known
as The Classical Method since it was first used in the
teaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek.
•The goal of language learning is to read its literature (archaic
words).
•Classes are taught in L1, with little active use of L2
•Reading and writing are the major focus (NO attention to
speaking & listening)
•Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
•Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words
and learning of vocabulary based on bilingual word lists,
dictionary, and memorization (translation equivalents)
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Principles of Grammar-Translation
Method
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•Grammar is taught deductively with emphasis on accuracy
• Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and
instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
• The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language
practice.
• Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences
into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on
the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method.
• Little attention is paid to pronunciation and the content
of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical
analysis.
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Typical activities
used in the GTM
• Reading and translation
of literary passage
• Reading and
comprehension activities
• Deductive grammar
practice
• Antonyms/Synonyms
• Fill-in-the-blanks
Exercise
• Use Words in Sentences
• Memorization practice
• Composition: Have Ss write a
topic (from reading) in L2
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Major Problem
with GTM:
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• focuses on the ability to ‘analyse’
language and not the ability to
‘use’ it.

GTM Lesson:
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1. The class begins with a reading passage from L2 literature;
2. Each learner is asked to read part of the passage and then
translate into their L1 what they have just read;
3. T helps Ss with suitable translations in case they lack the
required vocabulary;
4. After finishing reading and translating the passage, T asks L2
learners in their L1 if they have any questions. Questions and
answers are communicated using L1;
5. T asks Ss to write down answers to the comprehension questions
at the end of the passage. The questions are L1 and answers
should be in L1 as well;
6. After answering the questions, T asks each S to read the question
and their answer to that question. If the answer is not correct, T
selects another S to supply the correct answer, or T gives the
right answer.
A typical reading and
comprehension activity in the
Grammar Translation Method
consists of the following steps:

The Direct Method
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•was proposed as a reaction to the Grammar Translation
Method in terms of its approach to grammar teaching,
vocabulary learning, teacher and learner’s attitude, and
language skills.
•Also known as The Berlitz Method at the turn of 19th century.
Reaction to GTM
• receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be
conveyed directly in L2 through the use of
demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the
students’ L1.
The Direct Method
• has one very basic rule: No translation is allowed
• emphasizes the importance for L2 learners to have the
opportunity to use L2 to express meaning.
The Direct Method
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Principles of the Direct Method
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 Classroom instruction
was conducted
exclusively in the target
language.
 Only everyday
vocabulary and
sentences were taught.
 Oral communication skills were built in a carefully graded
progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges
between Ts and Ss in small, intensive classes.
 Grammar was taught inductively
 New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice.
 Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects,
and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of
ideas.
 Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

Typical activities used in the Direct Method
• Question and answer Exercises:
– Ss are asked questions and answer in full sentences so that they
practice new words and grammatical structures
• Conversation practice
– T asks Ss a number of questions with a particular grammar
structure, and Ss have to be able to answer correctly.
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Read text aloud:
 Ss take turns reading sections of
a passage, play, or dialogue out
loud
 At the end of each S’s turn, T
uses gestures, pictures, realia,
examples, or other means to
make the meaning of the section
clear.

Typical activities used in the Direct
Method
• Fill-in-the-blank Exercises
• Self-correction
• Map Drawing
– Ss were given a map with the geographical features
unnamed.
– Then T gave the students directions such as the
following, ‘Find the mountain range in the West. Write
the words “Rocky Mountains” across the mountain
range.’
– T gave instructions for all the geographical features of
the U.S. so that Ss would have a completely labeled
map if they followed his instructions correctly
• Paragraph Writing
– Ask Ss to write a paragraph in their own words on
the major geographical features of the U.S.
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Dictatio
n
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• Its variations on
dictation such as
dictogloss and
running dictation are
very popular with
learners and teachers.
• A dictation text is a piece of connected language
about 100 to 150 words long.
• T reads the passage three times, first with normal
reading speed, next read the passage phrase by
phrase with long enough time for Ss to write down,
and finally T reads with normal speed.
• Dictation will be most effective when it involves known
vocabulary which is presented in unfamiliar collocations
and constructions, and when there is opportunity for
repetition of the material. The unfamiliar collocations
and constructions are the learning goal of dictation.

Typical activities used in the Direct
Method
• Running Dictation:
– A short dictation text typed in a large font is
posted on the wall outside the classroom.
 Pair work:
• 1st S is the writer and 2nd is the runner who goes to
the dictation text, memorizes a short sentence,
returns to the writer and retells it.
 Group work: the activity takes the form of a relay:
• 1st runner reads the 1st sentence of the short text
and then runs to another student and tells them
what they have read.
• 2nd S runs to a 3rd S and does the same.
• 3rd S in turn tells the scribe what they have heard.
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• Dictogloss:
– Ss listen to a short text read twice to them while they
take notes. In small groups they reconstruct a written
form of the text from these notes.
• Dicto-comp (its name is from: dictation + composition):
– Ss listen as T reads a text (probably several times) to
them. Ss write what they can remember without any
further help.
• The difference between Dictation and Dicto-comp:
– Dictation: Ss have to remember a phrase of several
words as accurately as possible.
– Dicto-comp: Ss have to remember the ideas in a text of
more than one hundred words long and express them in
the words of the original or in their own words.
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The Direct Method
1) scarce time available for
second language teaching;
2) and limited skills in
language teachers.
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 Its principles were based on the
attempt to make second
language acquisition similar to
first language acquisition, and
thus
 imitates how L1 is learnt
naturally, with first listening,
speaking as the primary skills,
reading and writing and
emphasized exposure to oral
language
Impracticaliti
es for 2 main
reasons:

The Audio-lingual method
 WWW II had a significant effect on
language teaching In America
 To supply the U.S. government with
personnel who were fluent in
German, French, Italian, Chinese,
Japanese, Malay, and other
languages, and who could work as
interpreters, ‘code-room assistants,
and translators,
• The Army Specialized Training
Program (ASTP) was established in
1942, which lasted for 2 years (known
as the “Army method” )
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The objective of the army programs was for
students to attain conversational proficiency
in a variety of foreign languages.

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•For the next ten years the “Army Method” and its suitability
regular language programs were discussed.
•The incorporation of the linguistic principles of the Aural-Oral
Approach with state-of-the-art psychological learning theory
1950s led to the method, known as Audiolingualism.
Army Method
•Underpinned by a second language acquisition theory called
Behaviorism
•This theory argued that the child’s mind is a tabula rasa and
good language habits are learned through the process of
repetition, imitation, and reinforcement.
Audiolingualism
•The learner imitated the language heard;
•The imitation has to be rewarded; and
•The behavior is repeated and becomes habitual.
The main conditions for acquiring these
habits were:

 Stimulus (teaching
input; serve to elicit
behavior),
 Response (student
responses; triggered
by stimulus)
 Reinforcement
(serve to mark the
responses
(appropriate or
inappropriate) and
encourages the
repetition (or
suppression) of the
response in the
future)
 Organism
(students)
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Roles of
Materials
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• Lessons begin with dialogues, and L2 is the language of
the classroom.
• The use of repetition and drills leads to habit formation,
and focus on avoidance of errors but accuracy from the
beginning (grammar and pronunciation)
• Grammar structures are sequenced and rules are
taught inductively (through planned exposure)
• Skills are sequenced: first listening and speaking are
taught; reading and writing are postponed
• Vocabulary is severely controlled and limited in the
initial stages.
• Language is taught through speaking, often
manipulated without regard to meaning or context.
• Learning activities and materials are carefully
controlled
Principles
of
ALM
 Materials are primarily teacher-oriented.
 Textbooks and printed materials with dialogues and
cues needed for drills and exercises are also used.
 Tapes, visuals and language laboratory are often used.

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• Control of the structures of sound, form and order mastery over
language; goal is native speaker mastery.
Objectives
•Starting point is linguistic syllabus, which contains the key items of phonology,
morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their order of
presentation (Contrastive analysis: comparing L1 & L2, and language
difference causes difficulty in learning)
•A lexical syllabus of basic vocabulary items is usually specified in advance.
Syllabus
•Learner Roles: Recipient or imitator
•Learners are viewed as organisms that can he directed by skilled training
techniques to produce correct responses.
•Learners play a reactive role by responding to stimuli and thus have little
content, pace, or style of learning.
•Teacher Roles: Expert, Linguist, teacher-dominated
• Provide modes, controls direction and pace.
• Provide error correction, proficient in the structures, vocabulary,
and other aspects of the language
Learner and Teacher Roles

Activities: ALM
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• Dialogues and drills form the basis of
audio-lingual classroom practices.
 Dialogues:
 are used for repetition and memorization. Correct
pronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation are
emphasized.
 Drill:
 is a classroom technique used to practice new
language.
 involves the teacher modeling a word or a sentence
and the learners repeating it or substituting a word in
a sentence using the correct form.
 This drill is often used to teach the lines of the
dialogue.

Activities: ALM
• Acting out dialogues
• Ss memorize the dialogue through mimicry;
• Ss take the role of one person in the dialogue
• Pairs of Ss perform the dialogue for the rest of the class.
• Complete the Dialogue
– Selected words are erased from a dialogue students have
learned. Ss complete the dialogue by filling the blanks with
the missing words.
• Pronunciation activities: Use of Minimal Pairs
– pairs of words which differ in only one sound
– Ss are first asked to perceive the difference between the two
words and later to be able to say the two words.
• Question-and-answer Drill
– Have Ss practice with answering questions (question
pattern) very quickly.
• Grammar games: Supermarket Alphabet Game
– designed to get students to practice a grammar point within a
context.
– Ss are able to express themselves, although in a limited way.
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Activities: ALM
Repetition Drills:
• Ss are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as
accurately and as quickly as possible.
Pattern or transformation drills:
• Change a statement into a question, an active
sentence into a passive one, or direct speech into
reported speech.
A chain drill:
• a chain of conversation that forms around the
room as students, one by one, ask and answer
questions of each other.
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Activities: ALM
Single-slot Substitution
Drill
• T says a line from the
dialogue.
• T says a word or a phrase
(cue).
• Ss repeat the line the teacher
has given them, substituting
the cue into the line in its
proper place.
• Purpose: to give Ss practice in
finding and filling in the slots
of a sentence.
Multiple-slot Substitution
Drill
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• T gives cue phrases, one at a
time, that fit into different slots
in the dialogue line.
• Ss must recognize what part of
speech each cue is, or where it
fits into the sentence, and make
any other changes: subject–verb
agreement.
• Ss then say the line, fitting the
cue phrase into the line where it
belongs.
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Typical example in the Audio-Lingual
Method in relation to drills practice is:
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1. T says models (the word
or phrases) and the
students repeat them.
1. T asks the students to
substitute one word or
more to practice different
structures or vocabulary
items.
1. T gives students a
certain kind of sentence
pattern. Students are
asked to transform this
sentence.

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• First dated from the 1920s and 1930s and the second from the
1950s and 1960s.
• Also called, Situational approach, Structural-situational
approach and Situational language teaching
A British variant on
Audiolingualism;
• It shaped the design of many widely used English as a ESL/EFL
textbooks and courses, Streamline English (Hartley and Viney
1978), Access to English (Coles and Lord 1975), New Concept
English (1967).
Influence
• PPP lesson format: Presentation-Practice-
Production
Legacy
The Oral-Situational Approach

• L teaching begins with spoken language. Material is taught orally
prior to written form L2 is the language of the classroom.
• Memorization and habit formation are emphasized.
• Language is a set of structures, related to situation.
• Vocabulary is learned from most useful and general vocabulary.
vocabulary. Vocabulary was essential for reading proficiency. The
proficiency. The principles for vocabulary selection were born (e.g.
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Principles
of teaching

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• To teach a practical command of the four basic skills, and skills are
approached through structures.
• Automatic, accurate control of basic sentence patterns is fundamental to
reading and writing skills, and this is achieved through speech work.
• Oral before written mastery.
Objectives
•A list of basic structures [statement
patterns, question patterns, and request or
command patterns] and vocabulary
graded according to grammatical
difficulty.
Syllabus
•Relies on textbook and visual aids wall charts, flashcards,
pictures, stick figures, and so on.;
•Textbook contains tightly organized, structurally graded lessons.
Roles of materials
The Oral-Situational Approach

The Oral-
Situational
Approach
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 Learner: Recipient or imitator
 To listen and repeat, respond to questions and
commands;
 learner has no control over content;
 later allowed to initiate statements and ask questions
 Teacher: Expert, Linguist, or guide
 Acts as a model in presenting structures and setting
up situation;
 Orchestrates drill practice (use questions, commands, and
other cues to elicit correct sentences from the learners.)
 Corrects errors, tests progress.
 Learning and teaching Activities:
 Guided repetition, substitution drills, including
chorus repetition, dictation, drills, and controlled
oral-based reading and writing tasks.;
 Avoid translation and grammatical explanation
 Learners should never be allowed to make a
mistake.

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Current
approaches
/methods
Communicativ
e language
teaching
Task-
based
language
teaching
The Lexical
Approach
Teaching
unplugged
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Communicative
Language
teaching:
Communicative
Approach
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CLT
 makes use of communicative
competence the goal of language
teaching
 and develop procedures for the
teaching of the four language skills
that acknowledge the
interdependence of L and
communication
 The main assumption behind CLT
was that the programs will lead to
the development of both:
 Linguistic Competence (knowledge of the
rules of grammar)
 and Communicative Competence
(knowledge of the rules of language use).

Theory of
language
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1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning.
2. The primary function of language is to allow
interaction and communication.
3. The structure of language reflects its functional and
communicative uses.
4. The primary units of language are not merely its
grammatical and structural features, but categories
of functional and communicative meaning as
exemplified in discourse.
5. Communicative competence entails knowing how to
use language for a range of different purposes and
functions as well as the following dimensions of
language knowledge:
 Knowing how to vary use of language according to
the setting and the participants (e.g., knowing when
to use formal and informal speech or when to use
language appropriately for written as opposed to
spoken communication)
 Knowing how to produce and understand different
types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews,
conversations)
 Knowing how to maintain communication despite
having limitations in one’s language knowledge
(e.g., through using different kinds of communication
strategies).

Theory of
Learning
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1. Interaction between the learner and users of the
language
2. Collaborative creation of meaning
3. Creating meaningful and purposeful interaction
through language
4. Negotiation of meaning as the learner and his or
her interlocutor arrive at understanding
5. Learning through attending to the feedback
learners get when they use the language
6. Paying attention to the language one hears (the
input) and trying to incorporate new forms into
one’s developing communicative competence
7. Trying out and experimenting with different ways
of saying things
8. Learning as social mediation between the learner
and another during which socially acquired
knowledge becomes internal to the learner
9. Learning facilitated through scaffolding by an
expert or fellow learner (Vygotsky 1978)
10. Learning through collaborative dialogue centering
on structured cooperative tasks (Cook 2008).

CLT
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• Objectives will reflect the needs of the learner; they will
functional skills as well as linguistic objectives.
• Course is organized around a topic-based, function-based, or
based syllabus.
Objectives
•Include some/all of the following: structures
notions, themes, tasks.
•Ordering will be guided by learner needs, leading
emergence of ESP.
Syllabus

CLT: Syllabus
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Yalden (1983) described the major current
communicative syllabus types, summarized below:

CLT: Learner Roles
 Learners active
participants in their own
learning processes:
 active communicative
participant
 collaborator
 negotiator – between the self,
the learning process, and the
object of learning
 Learners are encouraged to
construct meaning through
genuine linguistic
interaction with other Ss
and with Ts.
1-45
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1-46
CLT: Teacher Roles
Facilitator Participants
Breen and Candlin
facilitate the communication
process between all
participants
act as an independent
participant within the learning-
teaching group
organizer
Resource Guide
Researcher
& learner
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CLT: Teacher Roles
Need Analyst
• Informal
on-to-one
session
 Learning
style, asset
and goal
• Formal
assessment
Counselor
• Model effective
communicator to
maximize the
meshing of
speaker
intention &
interpretation
• Through the use
of paraphrase,
confirmation &
feedback
1-47
Group Process
manager
• Debrief the
activity
• Point out
alternatives
and
extensions
• Assist groups
in self-
correction
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1-48
CLT views ‘Materials’ as an influential
quality of classroom interaction & L use
Text-based:
• Textbooks,
Interchange,
Four
Corners
Task-based:
• games, role plays,
simulations, and
task-based activities;
• One-of-a-kind items:
exercise handbooks,
cue cards, activity
cards;
• Pair-communication
practice materials,
and student-
interaction practice
booklets
Realia-based:
• language-based
realia: signs,
magazines, ads
and newspapers,
or graphic and
• Visual sources:
maps, pictures,
symbols, graphs,
and charts
• Other objects,
models etc.
Technology-
supported:
• Provide access to
authentic
language input,
combining texts,
images, audio,
and video.

1-49
ACTIVITIES of CLT
• Classroom activities should be designed to evoke
communication and not be wasted in grammatical lectures
or manipulative and mechanical exercises.
• Activities were needed that reflected the following
principles:
 Make real communication the focus of language learning.
 Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try
out what they know.
 Be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the
learner is building up his or her communicative
competence.
 Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy
and fluency.
 Link the different skills such as speaking, reading, and
listening together, since they usually occur together in the
real world.
 Let students induce or discover grammar rules.
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Accuracy Versus Fluency Activities
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Accuracy
• Reflect natural use of language
• Focus on achieving communication
• Require meaningful use of
language
• Require the use of communication
strategies
• Produce language that may not be
predictable
• Seek to link language use to context
Fluency
• Reflect classroom use of language
• Focus on the formation of correct
examples of language
• Practice language out of context
• Practice small samples of language
• Do not require meaningful
communication
• Control choice of language

1-51
Common ACTIVITIES of CLT
• Opinion-sharing activities:
 activities in which students compare values, opinions, or beliefs, such as a
ranking task in which students list six qualities in order of importance
that they might consider in choosing a date or spouse.
• Reasoning-gap activities:
 Derive some new information from given information through the
process of inference, practical reasoning, etc. For example,
working out a teacher’s timetable on the basis of given class
timetables.
• Role plays:
 activities in which students are assigned roles and improvise a
scene or exchange based on given information or clues.
• Scrambled Sentences
 Ss are given a passage (a text) with the sentences are in a
scrambled order.
 Have them unscramble the sentences into their original order.
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1-52
• Jig-saw activities:
 Divide each group into different parts of tasks and fit the pieces
together to complete the whole
• Task-completion activities:
 puzzles, games, map-reading, and other kinds of classroom tasks
in which the focus is on using one’s language resources to
complete a task.
• Information-gathering activities:
 student-conducted surveys, interviews, and searches in which
students are required to use their linguistic resources to collect
information.
• Information-transfer activities:
 require learners to take information that is presented in one form, and
represent it in a different form. For example, they may read instructions
on how to get from A to B, and then draw a map showing the sequence, or
they may read information about a subject and then represent it as a
graph
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1-53
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Picture Strip story
 T chooses a story that has roughly as many sentences or clauses as there are
learners in the group.
 The goal is for Ss to determine where each of their sentences belongs in the
whole context of the story, to stand in their position once it is determined,
and to read off the reconstructed story.
Example:
1. In each of four members of a group,
the teacher takes a moderately short
written narrative or conversation and
cuts each sentence of the text into a
strip of paper, shuffles the strips, and
gives each student a strip.
2. In the activity, one student in a small
group was given a strip story. She
showed the first picture of the story
to the other members of her group
and asked them to predict what the
second picture would look like.

9 Core
Principles
of CLT
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1. Learners’ ability to communicate in L2 is the goal
2. The content of a language course includes semantic
notion and social functions, as well as linguistic
structures
3. The content is academic or job-related material,
which becomes the course focus with language
learning as a simultaneous concern
4. Ss regularly work in pairs or groups to transfer and
negotiate meaning in situations in which one
person has information that other(s) lack
5. Ss often engage in role play or dramatization to
adjust their use of L2 to different social contexts
6. Class materials and activities often consist of
authentic tasks and projects presented and
practiced using segments of pre-existing
meaningful discourse, not materials primarily
constructed for pedagogical purposes
7. Skills are integrated from the beginning; a given
activity might involve reading, speaking, listening
and writing
8. Teacher role is primarily to facilitate
communication and secondarily to correct errors
9. Teacher should be able to use L2 fluently and
appropriately.

CLT: Procedure
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 In Communicative Language Teaching , the following
sequence of activities is often used:
1. Pre-communicative activities. Accuracy-based
activities which focus on presentation of
structures, functions, and vocabulary.
2. Communication activities. Fluency-based
activities which focus on information-sharing
and information-exchange.

Teaching
‘unplugged’
• This prompted Scott Thornbury
to write a short provocative
article suggesting that ELT
needed similar rescue action,
• A return to a materials- and
technology-free classroom in
which language emerges as
teachers and students engage in
a dialogic relationship
• Later Thornbury and Luke
Meddings codified this view of
appropriate language teaching
as ‘teaching unplugged’.
 In 1995, a group of film
makers led by the
Danish director Lars
von Trier drafted the
manifesto of the Dogme
95 Film-makers’
Collective, in which
they pledged to rescue
cinema from big
budget, special-effects-
dominated Hollywood
movies.
 They wanted to return
to core values, using no
artificial lighting, no
special effects, etc.
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Dogme ELT features:
57
conversat
ion-
driven
•Interactive talk in the classroom drives procedures between the
students and between the students and the teacher whose
primary role is to scaffold the language that occurs
material
s-light
•Dogme teachers respond to their students’ needs and interests
(and texts),
•rather than bringing in pre-packaged material such as
coursebooks.
emergent
language
•NO prescribed syllabus: Dogme teachers work with learner
language, and view learner errors as learning opportunities
•The role of the teacher, in this view, is to respond to the
language that comes up, interacting with the students, and
helping them to say what they want more correctly and,
perhaps, better.
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What is task-based language Teaching
(TBLT)?
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TBLT
•became initially popular in
the 1990s ;
•refers to the use of tasks as
the core unit of planning and
instruction in language
teaching.
•Also known as:
•Task-Based Language
Learning,
•Task-Based Instruction,
•The Task-Based
Approach
•TBLT aims to develop learners’
communicative competence by
engaging them in meaning-focused
communication though the
performance of tasks (Ellis, 2014).
•An approach to language
education in which students are
given functional tasks that invite
them to focus primarily on
meaning exchange and to use
language for real-world, non-
linguistic purposes.

Defining
‘task’
• A task is a ‘workplan’; that is, it takes the form of materials for
researching or teaching language. A workplan typically
involves:
– some input (i.e. information that learners are required to process and
use);and
– some instructions relating to what outcome the learners are supposed to
achieve.
• Peter Skehan'S (1998a: 95) concept of task
seems to capture the essentials:
– Meaning is primary.
– There is a goal which needs to be worked towards.
– The activity is outcome-evaluated.
– There is a real-world relationship.
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• Various definitions of a ‘task’ have been
provided (e.g. Bygate et al., 2001; Ellis,
2003b; Samuda and Bygate, 2008; Willis,
1996).

Defining ‘task’
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Exercise Vs. Task
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Consider these two language teaching activities:
Decide which one is Exercise or Task.
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Activity 1: Dialogue
• Ss are given a script of a dialogue and put into pairs. Each S is allocated a part in
the dialogue and asked to memorize the lines for this part.
• Ss then act out the dialogue.
Activity 2: Spot the Difference
• Ss are placed in pairs. Each S is given a picture and told that the two pictures are
basically the same but there are five small differences.
• Without looking at each other’s picture, Ss talk together to locate and write down
the five differences.

Task Types:
Table 9.2 distinguishes two intersecting dimensions of tasks that constitute a more
systematic way of classifying tasks and provide examples.
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Principles of TBLT
 Focus on process;
 Emphasis on communication and meaning;
 The use of real world outcomes (authenticity)
 Language learned by interacting
communicatively and purposefully; •
 Activities and tasks can be achieved in real
life and have a pedagogical purpose;
 Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus
are sequenced according to difficulty.
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Types of Learning and Teaching
Activities
 Jigsaw tasks: they involve L2 learners to combine
different pieces of information
 Information gap tasks: they involve L2 learners to
find out a set of information to complete the task
 Problem-solving tasks: they involve L2 learners to
find out a set of they involve L2 learners to find a
solution to “a problem”
 Decision-making tasks: they involve L2 learners to
identify problems and possible outcomes
 Opinion exchange tasks: they involve L2 learners
to engage in discussion and exchange ideas
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Types of Learning and Teaching
Activities
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Task Types:
• Willis (1996) proposes six task types:
 Listing (i.e. tasks where the completed outcome is a list).
 Ordering and sorting (i.e. tasks that involve sequencing,
ranking, categorizing or classifying items).
 Comparing (i.e. tasks that involve finding differences or
similarities in information).
 Problem-solving (i.e. tasks that demand intellectual
activity as in puzzles or logical issues).
 Sharing personal experiences (i.e. tasks that allow
learners to talk freely about themselves and share
experiences).
 Creative tasks (i.e. projects, often involving several
stages that can incorporate the various types of tasks
above and can include the need to carry out some
research).
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TBLT: Learner roles
Learner roles
Group
participant Monitor
risk taker;
innovator
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TBLT: teacher roles
Teacher roles
Selector and
sequencer of
task
Creates
authentic,
meaning-
focused activities
Interaction
supporter
Monitor:
focus on
form
7070
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Procedure
(1)
• T explores the topic with the class and may
highlight useful words and phrases, helping
Ss to understand the task instructions. Ss
may hear a recording of other people doing
the same task.
– Ss perform the task in pairs or small
groups while the teacher monitors
from a distance. Ss plan how they
will tell the rest of the class what
they did and how it went, and they
then report on the task, either orally
or in writing, and/or compare notes
on what has happened.
• Ss examine and discuss specific features of
any listening or reading text which they
have looked at for the task and/or the T may
conduct some form of practice of specific
language features which the task has
provoked and offer ‘offline correction’
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(2) A Task-based Lesson Summary
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Sample
Lesson Plan
(3)
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The Lexical Approach
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• refers to one derived from the belief that the
the building blocks of language learning and
and communication are not grammar, functions,
functions, notions, or some other unit of planning
planning and teaching but lexis, that is, words
words and particularly multi-word
combinations.
• Language consists not of traditional
grammar and vocabulary but often of multi-
word prefabricated chunks:
• Chunks are formed by collocations,
idioms, fixed and semi-fixed phrases
• a way of analysing and teaching language
language based on this
The Lexical Approach can be
summarized as follows:

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• Views structure, called “multi-word units” and chunks are
chunks are a central feature of naturalistic language use.
language use.
• The lexical view holds that only a minority of spoken
spoken sentences are entirely novel creations and that
that multi-word units functioning as “chunks” or
memorized patterns form a high proportion of the fluent
fluent stretches of speech heard in everyday conversation.
Theory of
language
• Chunks may
consist of either
collocations, a
term that refers
to the regular
occurrence
together of
words, or fixed
phrases:

Theory of Learning
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• Learning of chunks is assumed to take place through incidental learning
and through direct instruction. Incidental learning depends on the
frequency with which chunks are encountered and noticed in normal
language use.
• Encountering new learning items
on several occasions is a
necessary but sufficient
conditions for learning to occur
• Noticing lexical chunks or
collocations is a necessary but not
sufficient condition for “input” to
become “intake”
• Noticing similarities, differences, restrictions,
and examples contributes to turning input into
intake, although formal description of rules
probably does not help
• Acquisition is based not on the application of
formal rules but an accumulation of examples
from which learners make provisional
generalization. Language production is the
product of previously met examples, not formal
rules.
Lewis (2000a): Principles of the
Lexical Approach

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• Serve as one strand of a language course, not a complete language
language program; goal is to develop leaners’ awareness (strategies)
(strategies) and use of lexical chunks;
• Lexical approach argues that the goals for language learners at higher
at higher levels NOT TO TEACH but rather to DEVELOP
STUDENTS’AWARENESS of the nature of lexical units and provide
strategies for recognizing, learning, structuring, storing, and using
chunks which they encounter.
Objectives
• Consist of an organized record of the chucks encountering in different
different written and spoken texts;
• Should be organized around meanings (rather than forms) and the most
the most frequent words
• Words typically co-occur with other words and these co-occurrences
occurrences (chunks) are an aid to fluency.
Syllabus (Thornburry, 2002)

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• Data and discourse analyst,
• Discover
• strategic learners
Learner Roles
• language analyst,
• facilitate data-driven and discovery-based learning
Teacher Roles
• (a) coursebooks that include a focus on multi-word units in the syllabus,
such as the Touchstone series;
• (b) corpus-informed materials such as McCarthy and O’Dell (2004);
• (c) corpora that can be accessed by teachers and students in which a
corpus of texts can be used with concordancing software to explore how
words and multi-word units are used.
The role of materials

The Lexical Approach: Activities
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Awareness
activities
• noticing of chunks
instead of teaching.
• E.g will for the
future: I’ll give you
a ring, I’ll be in
touch, I’ll see what
I can do, I’ll be
back in a minute,
etc.
Training in
text
chunking
• involves asking
students to
highlight or
underline word
strings in an
authentic text that
they consider to
be multiword
units (e.g., strong
collocations).
Memory-
enhancing
activity:
Elaboration
• diverse mental
operations, beyond mere
noticing
• consists in thinking about
a term’s spelling,
pronunciation,
grammatical category,
meaning, and
associations with other
words as well as thinking
which involves the
formation of visual and
motoric images related to
the meaning of the term
Retelling
•After studying a text
with a particular
focus on the chunks,
students take part in
retelling
(summarizing)
activities
attempting to use the
same chunks

Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary
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Allocate
Specific Class
Time to
Vocabulary
Learning:
• it is important to have
students meet
• target words several
times.
• Webb and Nation
(2013) note that at least
somewhere between 7–
16 encounters of any
new word are required
for gaining necessary
knowledge.
• Furthermore, the
spacing between the
repetitions is also
important to keep in
mind.
Help
Students to
Learn
Vocabulary
in Context
• The best
internalization of
vocabulary comes
from encounters
(comprehension or
production) with
words within the
context of
surrounding
discourse.
Engage in
“Unplanned”
Vocabulary
Teaching
• The moments when a
student asks about a
word or when a word
has appeared that you
feel deserves some
attention.
• Sometimes, such
impromptu moments
may be extended: the
teacher gives several
examples and/or
encourages students to
use the word in other
sentences.
Encourage
Students to
Develop
Word-
Learning
Strategies
•Word building:
prefixes and suffixes
•Definition clues:
synonym/antonyms
•Superordinates:
animal is the
superordinate of
dog, lion, mouse

The Lexical Approach: Procedures
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a) teaching individual
collocations,
b) making students aware of
collocation,
c) extending what students
already know by adding
knowledge of collocation
restrictions to known
vocabulary, and
d) storing collocations through
encouraging students to
keep a lexical notebook.
Hill (2000) suggests that
classroom procedures
involve:

82
Four old
humanistic
methods
(1970s and
1980s)
Community
language
learning
Suggestopa
edia
Total
physical
response
The Silent
Way
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Community language learning (CLL)
83
•CLL advises teachers to consider their
students as ‘whole persons.’
•Whole-person learning means that
teachers consider not only their
students’ intellect, but they also have
some understanding of the
relationship among students’ feelings,
physical reactions, instinctive
protective reactions, and desire to
learn.
•Applies counselling-learning to teach
foreign language
Developed by Charles
Curran, counselor.
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Community language learning (CLL)
84
•Focus on the whole person and the affective side of learning
and experience of learning process
•Emphasis on providing a safe environment for learning
•Make use of group learning in small or large groups:
“community”.
•Counselor-client relationship
Principles of teaching/learning
•Content of language class comes from topics that learners
want to talk about (no textbooks), and T translates their
requests into an appropriate syllabus.
•Curran sees language learners’ task is to apprehend basic
sound and grammatical patterns.
•CLL is often used in teaching oral proficiency for
introductory conversation courses. Near-native mastery of L2
is the goal.
Syllabus/Goals/Materials
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Community language learning
85
• As “Counselor:
•Learners say things which they want to talk about in L1.
•T translates the learner’s sentences into FL, and the
learner then repeats this to other members of the group.
•Support learning by offering a safe environment
•Interaction: monitor learner utterances
Teacher (counselor):
•Community member: fellow learners and teacher
•Attentive listeners
•Repeat target utterances
•Support fellow learners
•Report frustration and joy
•Counselor of the fellow
Learner (client):
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CLL: Activities
86
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CLL: Activities
87
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CLL procedures (1): counselor-
client relationship.
• A group of learners sit in a circle with the
teacher standing outside the circle:
– a student whispers a message in L1
– the teacher translates it into L2;
– the student repeats the message in the
foreign language into an audio recorder;
– students compose further messages in the
foreign language with the teachers help;
– students reflect about their feelings.
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CLL: Lesson Procedure (2)
89
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Suggestopaedia
90
Developed by Georgi
Lozanov (Bulgarian psychiatrist-
psychiatrist-educator)
• Also known as desuggestopedia,
• The method describes as a “science
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Principles of Teaching: Suggestopaedia
91
• Learning occurs
through
suggestion, when
learners are in a
deeply relaxed
state
• Baroque music is
used to induce
this state.
•Music is important
for relaxation:
intonation and
rhythm are
coordinated with a
musical
background to relax
learner
• Its centrality to
music and musical
rhythm learning
links to musical
therapy.
3 functions of music
(Gaston, 1968) in therapy
• Facilitate the
establishment and
maintenance of personal
relations
• Bring about increased
self-esteem through
increased self-satisfaction
in musical performance
• Use the unique potential
of rhythm to energize and
bring order (structure,
pace, and punctuate the
presentation of
linguistic material)
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Suggestopaedia
92
Objectives
•TO Deliver advanced
conversational
competence quickly;
•Learners are required
to master prodigious
lists of vocabulary
pairs, although the
goal is understanding
and creative solution
to problems, NOT
MEMORIZATION
Syllabus
•Ten-unit
courses consists
of 1,200 word
dialogues
graded by
vocabulary and
grammar
Materials
•Consist of texts,
audios/tapes,
classroom fixtures
and music;
•Texts should have
emotional force,
literary quality and
interesting
characters
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Suggestopaedia
93
Learner Roles
• Receptors: maintain a
passive state and allow
materials to work on them;
 It means Learners must not
try to figure out, manipulate
and study materials
presented but must main a
pseudo-passive state;
 Learners accept the authority
of teachers that designed
techniques (games, songs,
and gymnastic exercises) to
help regain self-confidence,
spontaneity and receptivity of
the child.
Teacher Roles
•Create suitable learning
environments
•Authority
•Skilled in acting,
singing, and
psychotherapeutic
techniques
•Teacher-student relation as
in parent to child
(infantilization)
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Suggestopaedia: Procedure
94
First
concert
• This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt.
be learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might be
might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by
by classical music.
Second
concerts
• Ss are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music,
music, with the text being read very quietly in the background.
background. The music is specially selected to bring the students into
students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of
acquisition of the material.
Practice
• The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and
consolidate the learning and the course finishes with the
the students planning, writing and delivering their own group
group performance.
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Total physical response
95
• TPR is a comprehension-based method to language teaching.
• It is built around the coordination of speech and action, and it attempts to
teach language through physical (motor) activity.
• Learning is supported by body movement and its main focus is on
listening and acting.
Developed by James Asher (professor of
Psychology) in the late 1970s
Learning is the same as L1 learning:
1) Comprehension abilities precede production skills
2) Teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skills are
established.
3) Skills acquired through listening transfer to other skills
4) Teaching should emphasize meaning rather than form
5) Teaching should minimize learner stress
Principles of TPR
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96
Objectives
• To teach oral proficiency to produce learners who can
communicate uninhibitedly and intelligibly with native
speakers
Learner Roles: Listener or performer
• Listen attentively and respond physically to commands
• Have a little control over learning content
Teacher as director
• Create a relaxed and stress-free environment where students focus
on meaning interpreted by movement.
• Make most decisions relating to learning
• Lead the stage in which Ss are actors
• Control the language used in class
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97
• To teach oral proficiency to produce learners who can
communicate uninhibitedly and intelligibly with native speakers.
Objectives
• Sentence-based syllabus with grammatical and lexical criteria being
being primary in selecting teaching items, but focus on meaning not
meaning not form.
• Grammar is taught inductively
Syllabus
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Activities:
• Imperative drills: used to elicit physical
physical actions and activities on the part
the part of learners.
• Role plays: in restaurant, hospitals
• Slide presentations: visual aids for
teacher narration.
• Reading and writing activities: further
further consolidate structures and
vocabulary, and as follow-up to oral
imperative drills
Materials
• teacher’s voice,
actions and gestures
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TPR: Pedagogical Procedures
Review
•A fast-moving warm-up which individual students were moved
with commands such as: Pablo, drive your car around Miako.
Using
commands to
direct
behavior
•Ss learn new material, vocabulary, and verbs that will pertain
to the commands: These verbs were introduced: Wash… your
hands, your face, your hair; Look for … a towel, the soap, and a comb.
• Next, T asks simple questions: where is the towel? (Ss, point to the
towel)
Role
reversal
• Ss readily volunteered to utter commands that
manipulated the behavior of T and other Ss ...
Action
sequence
•Let’s say the command is:
• “touch your head with your right hand.” L2 learners process the
command and physically complete the task as fast as possible. The
gauge for success is how rapid the response is.
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The Silent Way
100
• Teaching should be subordinated to learning. It is based on the
premise that T should be silent as much as possible and provide Ss
as much opportunity to produce L in class.
• Lesson begins with pronunciation practice and moves to practice
simple sentence patterns, structure and vocabulary.
Developed by Caleb Gattegno (1911-1988):
• Learning is facilitated:
• if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and
repeats what is to be learned.
• by accompanying (mediating) physical objects.
• by problem-solving involving the material to be learned.
Principles of Teaching & Learning
• Gattegno sees vocabulary (phrases): (daily life words: culture, food,
clothing, travel, family life, etc. and functional vocabulary: pronouns,
numbers, comparison words, etc.) as a central dimension of language
learning.
• Language is seen as groups of sounds associated with meanings and
organized into sentence s or strings of meaningful units by grammar
rules.
Vocabulary and Sounds
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The Silent Way
Learner
Roles
• Problem-
solver
• Discoverer
• Autonomous,
responsible
learner
• Collaborator
with other
learners
Teacher Roles:
•Technician or engineer
facilitates learning
•Present new language (often
non-verbally) and silently
monitors learner’s interaction;
•Design carefully constructed
teaching sequences
•Uses gesture or action or
charts to elicit and shape
student production with
minimal speaking on T’s part
Activities
• Pronunciation
exercises
• Guided
elicitation
exercises,
followed by
practice
• Peer
Correction;
Self-correction
Gestures
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‘Materials’
The Silent Way
• Materials: Colored Charts, Rods,
Word Charts & Fidel
(pronunciation) Charts
– The materials consist mainly of a set
of small colored rods, color-coded
pronunciation and vocabulary wall
charts, a pointer, and reading/writing
exercises, all of which are used to
illustrate the relationships between
sound and meaning in the target
language.
• The rods were used to introduce:
– Vocabulary: colors, numbers,
– adjectives (long, short, and so on)
– Verbs: give, take, pick up, drop),
– Syntax: tense, comparatives,
pluralization, word order
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Fidel Chart
• The pronunciation charts,
called “ Fidels,” have been
devised for a number of
languages and contain symbols
in the target language for all of
the vowel and consonant
sounds of the language.
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The Silent Way: Lesson Procedure
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• The 1st part of the lesson focuses on pronunciation.
• The class might work on sounds, phrases, and even
sentences designed on the Fidel chart. T models the
appropriate sound after pointing to a symbol on the chart.
1
•Later, T silently point to the individual symbols and combination
of utterances, and monitor Ss’ utterances.
•T may say a word and have Ss guess what word the sequence of
symbols represent. The pointer is used to indicate stress,
phrasing, and intonation
2
•After the sound, phrase and sentence practices, T models an
utterance while creating a visual realization of it with the colored
rods. Then T has Ss produce the utterance and indicates whether
or not the responses are accepted. Finally, T creates a situation
in which Ss can practice the structure through the manipulation
of the rods.
3

Procedure
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• There are three dimensions to a
method at the level of procedure:
a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues,
information gap activities, etc.) to present new
language and to clarify and demonstrate
formal, communicative, or other aspects of
the target language;
b) the ways in which particular teaching
activities are used for practicing language;
and
c) the procedures and techniques used in giving
feedback to learners concerning the form or
content of their utterances or sentences.

PPP
Presentation:
 T introduces a situation which
contextualises the language to be
taught. The language is then
presented.
Practice:
 Ss complete guided practice activities
using the new language;
 Ss practise the language, using accurate
reproduction techniques: choral
repetition: where they repeat a word,
phrase or sentence all together with the
teacher ‘conducting’and individual
repetition
Production:
 Ss take part in freer, more open-ended
activities using the new language. It
means Ss use the new language to make
sentences of their own (personalisation)
Communicative
Language
Teaching (CLT)
1. Pre-communicative activities:
Accuracy-based activities which
focus on presentation of
structures, functions and
vocabulary.
2. Communication activities:
Fluency-based activities which
focus on information-sharing and
information-exchange.
• Reading and listening lessons:
• Pre-while-post …
activities.
• Conversation lessons often begin
with controlled practice
activities, such as dialog
practice, and move toward open-
ended activities, such as role
plays.
Task-
based
• Pre-task:
introduction to
topic and task
• Main Task
(Task Cycle):
 Task,
 Planning
 report
• Post-task: a
follow-up task
that builds on the
main tasks.
 Language
focus:
analysis &
practice
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Oral-Situational Language Teaching
A sequence of Five Activities (Richards & Rogers, 2015)
1. Presentation: The new structure is introduced
and presented.
2. Controlled practice: learners are given intensive
practice in the structure, under the teacher’s
guidance and control
3. Free practice: the students practice using the
structure without any control by the teacher
4. Checking: teacher elicits use of the new
structure to check that it has been learned
5. Further practice: the structure is now practiced
in new situations or in combination with other
structures
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Variations
on PPP
• Keith Johnson (1982) suggested
the ‘deep-end strategy’ as an
alternative:
• Production:
– encourage the students into
immediate production
• Presentation and Practice:
– If Ss having problems during this
production phase, then return to
either presentation or practice when
necessary after the production phase
is over
108
MR. VATH VARY

ESA
(Harmer, 2007)
• “E” engage
– Get the students engaged before
asking them to do something like
a written task, a communication
game or a role-play.
• “S” study:
– describe any teaching and
learning element (meaning
and form) where the focus is
on how something is
constructed. T then models the
language and the students
repeat and practise it.
• “A” activate
– any stage at which the
students are encouraged to
use all and/or any of the
language they know
109
MR. VATH VARY

Why is an approach or method adopted?
 Factors responsible for the rise and fall of
methods:
 Paradigm shifts:
- influences of linguistics, psychology, and
SLL
 Network support:
- ministry of education, key educational administrator,
leading academics, and professional bodies and
organization promote a new approach or method
 Practicality:
- simplicity, little time to master, conformity to
common sense, used in many different kinds of
situations, require special training and resources
 Teacher’s language proficiency
- mostly non-native L teachers: e.g. no
advocates of Direct Method 110
MR. VATH VARY

Why is an approach or method adopted?
 Used as the basis for published materials and tests:
- Some instructional designs can readily be used as basis for
syllabuses, courses, textbooks, and tests:
- Some methods are widely promoted by publishers and their
representatives
 Compatibility with local traditions:
- Culture determines the style of teaching and learning
- Teacher-centered or student-centered
 Eclecticism:
 Most teachers and educational institutions are far less
prescriptive, but to:
 examine a range of different methods;
 have theories about how people learn, and transform these theories
into beliefs about which elements from the methods that have been
suggested teachers should incorporate into their classroom practice.
111
MR. VATH VARY

Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.pptx

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