Ancient Warfare in Ancient Greece, Rome, and Israel

What can we learn by reflecting on the ancient warrior culture
and warfare in ancient Greece, Rome, and Israel?
Why was the Greek army and navy superior to those of her
neighbors? Why were the Spartan and Athenian hoplite infantry
forces and the Athenian triremes, able to defeat the mighty
Persian forces?
Did the Roman army become more proficient and professional
under the Roman emperors? Why was the Roman army such an
effective fighting force?
How does the Old Testament depict the warrior culture of
ancient Israel and Judah? Did the armies of Joshua really
massacre the wicked pagans in the Promised Land?

Please, we welcome interesting questions in the
comments. Let us learn and reflect together!
At the end of our talk, we will discuss the sources
used for this video.
Please feel free to follow along in the PowerPoint
script we uploaded to SlideShare.

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The brutality of living in a warrior culture was subdued when an
empire conquered surrounding city-states and held them. Those
who were not enslaved but were left behind often led a quasi-
independent existence, paying tribute to the far-off king. After
several generations they lost their martial spirit, as they no
longer feared that they would be conquered and enslaved, as
they were under the protection of the empire. This happened
when the Greek colonies on the western coast of Ionia, or Turkey
today, were conquered by the Persians. The Greek historian
Thucydides tells us that the mainland Greeks were not able to
train the trireme crews of the Ionian Greeks as they lacked
military discipline and martial spirit.

https://youtu.be/QabwtFANCDc https://youtu.be/uhtGzfxVdzk
https://youtu.be/1ra58mg33nM https://youtu.be/wyjWBAG6xrc

Likewise, after the Macedonians conquered the
Greek mainland under Alexander the Great, the
Greeks were not able to overcome the invading
Romans several generations later. Likewise, after
the Romans conquered Judah and Israel, by the
time of Jesus many Jews had lost the military spirit
of the Maccabeans.

Alexander the Great, victorious over Darius at the battle of Gaugamela, by Jacques Courtois, 1600's

The Chaldees Destroy the Brazen Sea, or ablution basin for priests, by James Jacques Joseph Tissot, 1902

This could explain why Jesus in the New Testament
exhorts us to love our enemies and turn the other
cheek, while the Old Testament, written when the
Jews were in a warrior culture, only exhorted the
Jews to love their fellow Jews. Why love other
nations who might slaughter your men and enslave
your women and children? Indeed, in his book on
Hillel, Rabbi Telushkin comments that Jews are not
fond of turning the other cheek because they believe
in justice for the oppressed.

.
Beatitudes, by Tissot, painted 1890's

In our first video we discussed how most ancient
cultures, and in particular the cultures of ancient
Greece, Rome, and Israel, are warrior cultures out of
necessity, as warfare was a fact of life. We reflected
on what Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey reveals about this
warrior culture, and how this underpinned ancient
attitudes towards concubines and slaves. In the
ancient world, slaves were either born into slavery or
were captured during wars or by pirates.

Slaves were the employees of the ancient world, and
sexual abuse of women was a problem under all
systems of slavery, and is still a problem today,
especially when women hold low-paying or entry-
level positions.

The Greek innovation to ancient warfare was their hoplite warrior phalanx, a
formation of eight to ten rows of a hundred or more warriors, sometimes extending
a quarter of a mile. The shields of the front row would interlock, and the entire
formation would press upon the enemy, the soldiers would first throw their spears
then jab with their swords from behind their shields, strictly maintaining their
position. This required training and practice, the Athenians expected their nobles to
drill during the year, while the Spartans had a year-round military that practiced
year-round, living in barracks.
These Greek hoplite phalanxes were terrifying to encounter on the battlefield. In the
first Persian War, in the Battle of Marathon, the Athenian phalanxes approached the
Persian forces at a run, shouting war hoops, the Persian mercenaries were not quite
used to this élan, they panicked and were slaughtered as they ran. In the second
Persian War the three hundred Spartan hoplites held off the entire Persian army in
the famous battle at the Pass of Thermopylae.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoplite

Battle of
Marathon,
Georges
Rochegrosse
1859

Before the Battle for the Pass of Thermopylae, the
Spartans were seen brushing their long braids. The Persian
king asked his Greek military advisor why they would do
this, and he responded that is always what Spartans do
before they know they will face death in battle. Spartan
women would admonish their sons to either return as
heroes or dead on their shields. Herodotus relates that
when a Spartan was told that the Persian army was so
numerous that when they fired their arrows, they would
blot out the sun. The Spartans responded that this was
good, it meant they could fight in the shade.

A spartan woman giving a shield to her son, by Jean-Jacques-
François Le Barbier, painted 1826
Three Spartan Boys Practising Archery,
Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, circa 1812

Battle of
Thermopylae,
by Jacob
Abbott,
1800's

Often hoplite armies parried in a stand-off with no winners.
Usually battles were only an hour, some sources estimate that
typically there was five percent casualty rate for winners and
three times these casualties for the losing side, though other
sources suggest that in particularly brutal battles the losing side
could suffer horrendous casualties if they broke and ran and were
slaughtered by the opposing army.
The well-off noble citizens of ancient Greece were expected to
purchase their hoplite equipment. This included a round leather
shield covered in bronze, a bronze helmet and breastplate,
greaves or shin armor, an eight-foot-long thrusting spear, and a
short sword.

A history of the ancient world, for high schools and academies, Alexander the Great is charging at the left, 1904

Most Greek cities had only the infantry hoplites, they had
no cavalry forces because horses were not that effective
when fighting in mountainous Greece. Later King Phillip
and his son Alexander the Great of Macedon would
improve upon the Greek military formations by equipping
his hoplite soldiers with fifteen-foot-long spears and
adding cavalry units of archers and swordsmen, or other
units that took advantage of military skills of his non-Greek
subjects.

Depiction of a Macedonian phalanx, first published in Ancient and Medieval Warfare: The History
of the Strategies, Tactics, and Leadership of Classical Warfare, United States Military Academy.

Were the Spartans the best hoplite infantry soldiers
in the Greek world? Although the Spartans were
fulltime soldiers, Athens could field a hoplite army
equal in both skill and bravery to any Spartan hoplite
army, and it was the Athenian hoplites who defeated
the Persian army in the Battle of Marathon. Before
the Peloponnesian Wars, the Athenian hoplites had
bested Spartan hoplites in battle.

The Athenian Empire was an ancient Mediterranean version of
the British Empire. Athens was a naval power with an extensive
trading network from Egypt to the shores of the Black Sea, and
they had a large fleet of several hundred triremes that defeated
the Persian navy. These triremes had three files of rowers, about
170 in total, carrying a small contingent of archers and hoplites.
Triremes were fast ships that had a bronze battering ram below
the waterline at the front of the ship that was used to sink the
opposing ship. Triremes were like huge rowboats, they had to
beach overnight and at mealtime, rarely did they attempt to
cross the Mediterranean.

Olympias, a modern
reconstruction of an
ancient Athenian
trireme, build in
1987, is a
commissioned ship
in the Greek navy.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trireme
The Olympias,
a modern-day
reconstruction
of a trireme.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)

The rowers were citizens who usually were not property
owners, they were a full-time professional navy paid by
the state. It took a great deal of skill and stamina to row
these triremes, the crews drilled year-round. These sailors
were participants in the radical democracy of Athens, then
as now veterans demanded that their voices be heard by
the government. We also reflect on Greek warfare by land
and sea in our review of the Histories of Herodotus.

Ship dashed
against ship, till
the Persian Army
dead strewed the
deep like flowers,
by Walter Crane
.
Greeks defeating
Persians at Battle
of Salamis. 1901,
TimeLife

Like Alexander the Great, the Romans fielded professional armies that
could fight for years at a time in distant theaters of war. Alexander’s
Greek army and the later Roman armies intermarried with the locals and
recruited foreign soldiers. Under the Roman Emperor Octavian, the army
started to recruit volunteers into the army as professional soldiers who
would enlist for many years. By the end of first century, volunteers
outnumbered conscripts in the Roman army, probably one in five of
Roman citizens were conscripts in the army. Non-citizens could enlist as
auxiliaries who were promised citizenship at the end of their service,
adding cultural diversity to the army. When soldiers were injured or had
served for twenty-five years they retired on farms in the provinces,
sometimes receiving a stipend, which helped to integrate the empire.

Modern
reenactors
parade with
replicas of
various
legionary
standards.

Soldiers of the
Roman Army
reenactors on
maneuvers in
Nashville,
Tennessee

The historian Garland tells us, “the conditions
of service in the Roman army were sometimes
appalling. According to Tacitus, some men
served for 30 to 40 years, ‘their bodies maimed
by wounds.’ When they were finally discharged,
they might be given ‘a waterlogged marsh or
unplowed hillside’ to farm.”

One of the fatal weaknesses of the old Roman Republic is the
army rather than the state recruited the soldiers. Starting with
Julius Caesar and the early Roman Emperors, the Roman armies
were more loyal to their generals than to Rome, which meant
that the empire would often be embroiled in civil wars when
competing generals fought to be Emperor. The system was
reformed during the reign of Emperor Diocletian, who
established a bureaucracy to administer both the military and
empire, dividing the empire into a more easily administered
Western and Eastern divisions.

Vercingetorix
throws down
his arms at
the feet of
Julius Caesar,
53 BC, by
Lionel Royer,
around 1900

The Battle of
Actium, won
by forces of
Octavian
against those
of Mark
Antony and
Cleopatra, by
Laureys a
Castro, 1672

Gallic Wars: The
Gaul Littavicus,
Betraying the
Roman Cause,
Flees to Gergovie
to Support
Vercingétorix , by
Théodore
Chassériau, 1840

The training of Roman armies is similar to modern armies,
new soldiers had to go through a four-month boot camp
located near the Tiber River. They were taught how to use
a sword, spear, bow and arrow, darts and slings, and how
to swim, build a camp, and practice formations. They
fought in formation somewhat like the hoplites, but more
mobile, more like the army of Alexander. The Roman army
was organized into legions, they would charge when they
were about thirty yards from their enemy, hurling their
spears.

Roman soldier reenactors in Great Britain, on the Wall of Hadrian

Historical Roman re-enactors: Testudo formation / Christian Chi-Rho standard / Roman Cavalry

Like the Greeks, they had a shield, helmet and breastplate,
spear, dagger and sword, all weighing over sixty pounds. In
addition, they marched with the tools needed to build a
camp, pickaxe, saw, space, and basket for moving earth.
When they weren’t fighting, they built and maintained the
road system of the Roman empire and other infrastructure
like bridges.
Under the Roman emperors, like the United States armed
forces, the army became more proficient and professional.

Historical re-enactors: one wearing replica equipment of a Roman legionary, AD 75; one dressed as a Praetorian
vexillarius, one replica equipment of a late 1st-century centurion

Co-emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius
Verus, British Museum, 170 AD
The biographer of Marcus
Aurelius stated that no other
nation in the ancient world
“matched the Roman army in
discipline, technique and
efficiency. The Roman army was
superbly trained, and its arms
and equipment were superior to
those of its enemies. Her
commanders had perfected the
use of cavalry as shock troops,
and the skill of her engineers was
legendary: whether the task was
to build a bridge over the Danube
or break down the impregnable
fortresses like Masada, they
could always find a way.”

In Marcus Aurelius’ time, “only men of senatorial rank could
command a legion; members of the equestrian order were
restricted to commanding the brigades of auxiliaries.” Legions
posted in the provinces worked closely with the governors.
Although disaster could strike when a less competent
commander misdirected the forces under his command, when
left alone the Roman legions could rarely be beaten. For example,
when the co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Veras, was
titular head of the legions battling the Persians in Parthia, he
spent his time hunting and carousing, leaving his capable
commanders to run the successful war.

Roman auxiliary
infantry crossing a
river, probably
the Danube, on a
pontoon bridge
during the
emperor Trajan's
Dacian Wars
(101–106)

German armies
submit to
Marcus
Aurelius, and
celebrating his
Roman triumph
in 176 AD over
the enemies in
Marcomannic
Wars,
Capitoline
Museums, 176–
180 AD

As time passed, the provinces became more Romanized, and more of the so-called
barbarian warriors were inducted into the Roman army. After the Parthians were
subdued under Marcus Aurelius, the German tribes surreptitiously formed a
coalition to challenge Roman power in Germania and the Alps, there were fears the
Germanic tribes would invade Italy as the Carthaginian general Hannibal and his
elephants had done centuries before. The German forces were more effective
because they adopted some Roman military practices, though they were still no
match for the long-term strategy and military discipline seen under the leadership
of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Also, their barbarian warrior ethos dictated that they
would attack in mass against the strongest point of the Roman line, which, though
more courageous, was often a problematic tactic. The Romans fought a war of
attrition, patiently dividing and conquering the Germanic tribes one by one, and
though they slaughtered the men from some tribes, other tribal warriors were hired
as mercenaries to fight in other theaters of war and were effective fighting forces
for Rome.

Triumph of
Marcus
Aurelius, by
Nicolas
Beatrizet,
1550 /
Roman
soldiers
spearing
Barbarians,
olumn of
Marcus
Aurelius,
175 AD

Hannibal
defeated by
Scipio Africanus,
by Bernardino
Cesari, 1600's

Detail from the
Column of
Marcus Aurelius
in Rome,
depicting the
"rain miracle in
the territory of
the Quadi", in
which a rain god,
answering a
prayer from the
emperor, rescues
Roman troops by
a terrible storm, a
miracle later
claimed by the
Christians for the
Christian God.

Warfare in the Old Testament Times

Warfare is mentioned over three hundred times in the Old Testament, swords four
hundred times. Ancient Israel was caught in many of the ancient wars since it was in
the cross-roads of trade routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt. Since Judah was
mountainous, its armies relied heavily on infantry, but the Bible mentions that King
Ahab of the Northern Kingdom had chariots, and that he was felled by arrow
probably shot by a composite bow. Assyria and Babylon had cavalry archers on
horseback, but not Egypt or Israel. An Israeli chariot had three horses pulling three
men, a driver with a spear, an archer, and a shield bearer. We know from our Sunday
School stories that King David slew Goliath with a sling, but the ancient slings were
not the puny toys we imagine, the sling in the ancient world was a deadly combat
weapon. A skilled slinger could sling a rock over 120 miles per hour, faster than the
fastest fast ball.

The death of King
Ahab, by Julius
Schnorr von
Carolsfeld, before
1883

David and Goliath,
by Daniele da
Volterra, 1500's,
sling is on the
ground.

Slingers from Trajan's column, Victoria and Albert museum, London / Heracles killing Stymphalian birds, 540 BC

Jerusalem and most ancient cities had walls and fortified towers with a
guarded rampart manned by soldiers, ready to rain rocks and arrows and
boiling oil on the attackers stuck in the moat. Placing cities under siege
was a big part of ancient warfare, these sieges could last six months or
more, sometimes a year or two. Pets did not last long in an ancient city
under siege. The attackers would try digging under the moat and the
walls, the defenders would dig counter tunnels, with smoke, bees, and
soldiers fighting in dark tunnels. Assyrians and Romans would sometimes
build siege ramps built behind movable towers manned by archers to
breach the ramparts above. Or sometimes they would use battering rams
to smash through the walls or gates.

Battle scene, Defeat of Sennacherib, by Gillis van Valckenborch, 1597

Roman Triumphal arch panel showing spoils of Jerusalem temple

We read in Samuel how King David was tempted by Bathsheba bathing on her roof
one spring day when he had his general Joab march out with the army in the spring
because, as the Old Testament says, spring is when kings march out to war. In the
ancient world, in both Greece and Israel, wars were often fought in the spring after
the rains had stopped and the crops had been harvested. Spring was when the
Ottomans invaded the Balkans, fighting all the way to the walls of Vienna, deep into
the Middle Ages.
The Assyrians were particularly cruel warriors. Probably the ten tribes of Israel that
the Assyrians defeated were lost to history because in many cities the Assyrians
followed the ancient common practice of slaughtering the men of the defeated
army and enslaving their women and children, totally obliterating all traces of their
society. The book “Life in Biblical History” has an interesting comparison of the
biblical and Assyrian accounts of the siege of Jerusalem by Sennacherib.

Bathsheba Observed by King David, by Jan Matsys, 1500's / David spies on BathSheba, by James Tissot, late 1800's

Bathsheba Observed by King David, by Jan Matsys, 1500's / by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini, 1711

Ashurbanipal
inspects booty
and prisoners
from Babylon,
645-640 BC

Although the Psalms mention the cruelty of the forced march of
the exiled Jews to Babylon, once they reached their destination
the Babylonians allowed the Jews to settle their men, women
and children in their separate communities, and allowed them to
worship Yahweh in the traditions of their fathers. Although we
cannot say for sure that no Jews were enslaved, we get the
impression in Ezekiel that the Jewish community was left
relatively undisturbed, and they were able to reach a level of
prosperity that enabled them to sponsor synagogues and rabbis
that wrote down the moral laws and traditions and the ancient
stories of their forefathers.

The Flight of the
Prisoners, from
Jerusalem to
Babylon, by
Jacques Joseph
Tissot, 1902

When Cyrus the Great conquered Babylonia, he
allowed those Jews who wished to return to their
homeland, but many Jews chose to stay behind in
Babylon. Whereas before Jews were the descendants
of those who fled Pharaoh to the Promised Land,
now the Jews were understood to be those who lived
by the commands of the Torah, now both written and
oral.

Cyrus the Great of Persia, by Jean Fouquet, 1470
Cyrus restores the treasures of the temple, by Thomas de Keyser, 1660

The book “Life in Biblical Israel” devotes many interesting
pages on how Jerusalem and other fortunate ancient cities
were able to dig down behind the walls until they hit the
water table or an aquifer to ensure a pure water supply
during a siege, which could last six months or more.
Jerusalem was fortunate to have the spring of Gihon under
the city, in the wet season there was plenty of water, and
even in the dry season the spring’s cave could fill three
times a day.

Artist’s reconstruction
of the Pool of Siloam in
the Second Temple
period. The pool was
filled by the Jerusalem
Springs when they were
running.

Did Joshua’s Massacres Really Happen?
Joshua Ordering the Sun to Stand Still, by Joseph Marie Vien, 1744

We puzzle how a Loving God can instruct the Jews to
massacre the pagans of Palestine in the Book of
Joshua. The answer to this puzzle is the God of
Joshua is an ancient God who leads his chosen
people into battle against the despicable foe, the
God of Joshua is the God whom Miriam worships in
her song, when she sings of the God who throws
horse and rider into the sea after the Jews cross over
the parted Red Sea..

Pharaoh's army engulfed by the Red Sea, by Frederick Arthur Bridgman, 1900

This Song of the Sea in Exodus sings of our warrior God:
I will sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously;
horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.

The Lord is my strength and my might,
and he has become my salvation;
this is my God, and I will praise him,
my father’s God, and I will exalt him.
The Lord is a warrior;
the Lord is his name.
Pharaoh’s chariots and his army he cast into the sea;
his picked officers were sunk in the Red Sea.
The floods covered them;
they went down into the depths like a stone.

St Augustine, in his work, On Christian Doctrine,
teaches us that when reading the Old Testament
stories, we should interpret allegorically those stories
that do not appear to describe a proper moral lesson,
and do not appear to support the two-fold Love of
God and love of neighbor.

For instance, when the Lord commands Israel to
massacre all the inhabitants of the towns of the
idolaters in the Promised Land in Joshua, we should
interpret this as a command to root out all the sins in
our lives.

Victory of Joshua
over the
Amalekites, by
Nicolas Poussin,
1626

This view is seconded by the findings of modern archeologists, they have
found almost no weapons in the ruins of the early ancient Hebrew cities
in the period after the Exodus. There were few walled towns, many
settled in towns away from the coasts, away from the cities where they
were not safe, and settled as farmers and herders in the hills north of
Jerusalem where they scratched out a living as subsistence farmers.
Archeologists have not found layers of burnt destruction in the
archeological layers of many of the cities in the Middle East around the
time of the Exodus, the evidence is more mixed. Some scholars postulate
that the stories of gradual settlement in the Book of Judges describe
more accurately the settlement of the Promised Land.

Victory of Joshua
over the
Amalekites, by
Nicolas Poussin,
1625 (another
painting)

Professor Amy-Jill Levine of the Teaching Company, in her lecture
on the Conquest, argues that the evidence on widespread
destruction is mixed, you do see some layers of destruction,
these could be from the Exodus, or they could be from the
normal intra-city conflicts in the ancient world. Likewise, she
argues that a close reading of the text in the Book of Joshua is
mixed, not all cities were totally obliterated as a quick reading
would lead you to believe. We encourage you to listen to her Old
Testament lectures, they are fascinating, but listen carefully, she
packs as much as she can in these lectures.

Victory of Joshua
over the
Amalekites, by
René-Antoine
Houasse, late
1600's

The Torah, the stories of the Patriarchs and the Exodus, like
the Iliad and the Odyssey, were originally stories sung by
bards in an oral tradition, perhaps sung for centuries
before they were put to writing. The war stories in the
Book of Joshua fulfill a deep need in a warrior society for a
caring God who protects his chosen people, a warrior God
who accompanies His people into battle, like the Lord who
animated the whirlwind and whose glory shown in the
Tent of the Tabernacle during the Exodus to the Promised
Land.

Joshua, the Israelites,
and the Ark of the
Covenant, St Giles'
Cathedral, Edinburgh, by
Edward Burne-Jones,
1887

The Battle of Jericho, by Julius Schnorr von
Carolsfeld, 1800's / by Jean Fouquet, 1420

What would it be like to listen to these ancient stories told
by our ancestors by the light of an ancient campfire? The
technical term for this is form criticism. These stories were
sung in an uncertain ancient world where you never knew
if this would be the year an enemy army would invade and
slaughter and enslave all the inhabitants of the land. These
stories were to give God’s people hope in uncertain times
that their Mighty God would care for them and protect
them from their enemies and their foes, and would grant
His people victory when they faced these formidable foes.

Battle of Pelusium Between Persians and Egyptians, 343 BC

Meeting between
Abraham, with his
army, & Melchizedek,
by Peter Paul Rubens,
1625

Reflecting on the Iliad and Odyssey is essential if you wish
to understand Greek history and philosophy, and IMHO,
the Old Testament as well.
We recommend reflecting on the histories by the Greek
historians Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and the
Roman historian Plutarch.
There are many books that discuss life in ancient Israel and
Judah. Two excellent sources are Life in Biblical Israel and
the Social World of Ancient Israel, and they have many
interesting illustrations.

Other valuable sources we used extensively are the
lectures on The Other Side of History, Daily Life in the
Ancient World, and the lectures on the Old
Testament stories. Both of these are by the Great
Courses or Teaching Company, now known as
Wondrium.

https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/the-other-side-of-history-daily-life-in-the-ancient-world
https://amzn.to/37poL1H

https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/old-testament

We discuss the Greek and Roman historians in depth
in our Book Reviews on Greek History and
Philosophy.

To find the source of any direct
quotes in this blog, please type in
the phrase to the search box in
my blog to see the referenced
footnote.
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