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1. WILDLANKA Vol.8, No.4, pp. 206 - 214, 2020.
Copyright 2020 Department of Wildlife Conservation, Sri Lanka.
W.D.S.C.DHARMARATHNE1* and N. WIJESINGHE2
1University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Department of zoology, Sri Lanka
2University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
*Chathurangadharma@gmail.com*
A REVIEW OF ALBINISM RECORDS IN WILD ANIMALS ACROSS
SRI LANKA
ABSTRACT : Although rare, albinism has been observed in almost every vertebrate species on earth
and it persists in wild animals in nature. Albino animals have been recorded and studied since Carolus
Linnaeus in the mid1700s. A number of comprehensive lists of albino animals observed in the wild
were published and numerous articles continue to be published today. In a Sri Lankan context reliable
published records regarding albinism is lacking and the goal of this study was to review and document
the wild albino animals encountered in natural habitats of Sri Lanka. This review yielded 17 records
of albino animals in Sri Lanka across three animal classes. The records were compiled from a mix of
published and “grey” literature which highlights the importance of having an official written record
of albinism occurrences in the wild. This would enable the further study and documentation of these
animals and understand their relationships with the changing natural world.
KEY WORDS: Albinism, wild records, vertebrates, Sri Lanka
INTRODUCTION
Sri Lanka is one of the 34 biodiversity
hotspots identified in the world and has the
highest biodiversity per unit area of land
amongst Asian countries. However, information
is lacking in some fields of biology and among
this records of albinism in wild animals.
Animals that are white instead of their normal
color quickly capture our attention and
imagination. Albinos are rare, but common
enough that almost everyone has seen one, or
knows someone that has.
Albinism is primarily an integumentary
coloration condition and epidermal derived in
humans and animals due to a lack of melanin
pigment. Albinism is best recognized by
abnormal coloration of the skin, hair, feathers,
scales, or eyes (Hiler, 1983). In mammals,
albinism occurs when an individual inherits
one or more mutated genes from both parents
that interfere with the body’s production of
melanin. Albinism can be defined in several
different ways, but there are a few distinctive
types of albinism depending on certain defining
characteristics. True or complete albinism is
the total absence of integumentary and retinal
pigmentation the main pigment that determines
the color of skin, fur, and eyes (Sandoval-
Castillo et al., 2006). The production of melanin
occurs within melanocytes, specialized cells
that are present but not fully functional in
albino mammals. Non-mammal animals can
also be albino, but because they can produce
other pigments in addition to melanin, they may
not appear fully white. Even albino mammals
can show some color if their melanin-making
genes have not been totally damaged. Partial
albinism occurs when pigment is reduced or
absent from the skin, feathers, or eyes (Berdeen
and Otis, 2011). Partial albinism can be broken
down further to levels of incomplete, imperfect,
and partial albinism (Jehl, 1985, Berdeen and
Otis, 2011). Partial albinistic individuals are
more frequent in small and isolated populations
(Holyoak, 1978, Bensch et al., 2000). Leucism
or leukism is a form of partial albinism
characterized by retention of color in the eyes,
bill, and legs but the skin or plumage contains
no color pigment (Forrest and Naveen 2000).
To tell the difference between an albino animal

2. December, 2020] A REVIEW OF ALBINISM RECORDS IN WILD ANIMALS ACROSS SRI LANKA 207
and one that isn’t look at the eyes: blood vessels
normally masked by pigment show through
in albino creatures, making their eyes pinkish
in color. However, within albinism there are
varying degrees of coloration ranging from
a coppery white to very white. Hence it’s a
common misnomer to assume that all albinos
have pink eyes, as some may have blue, brown
or hazel eyes instead.
Albinism is caused by several different
genes (Summers, 2009), while leucism is
controlled by a single recessive allele (Owen
and Shimmings, 1992). Albino animals are rare
because the albino series of alleles are recessive.
Multiple alleles control skin, hair and eye
pigmentation and different alleles control the
amount of pigmentation. Phaeomelanin, which
is responsible for red and yellow coloring,
is first affected; then eumelanin, which is
responsible for black and brown pigmentation,
is reduced step by step (Searle, 1968, Acevedo
et al., 2008).
Aside from hereditary influence, albinism
has been attributed to many different factors.
Sage (1962) showed albinism can also be due to
diet, senility, shock, disease or injury. Scientists
attribute albinism to environmental factors such
as low quality habitat and diet.
Ecologists consider albinism a major
disadvantage to animals in the wild for a number
of reasons, the most obvious being an animal’s
lack of crypsis with its surroundings (Uieda,
2000, Sandoval-Castillo et al., 2006, Acevedo
et al., 2009). Albino animals don’t have it easy;
their whiteness makes them prime targets for
predators. It is easier for a predator to see a
white animal compared to one that blends with
its environment. Albino alligators for instance,
make such an obvious target for predators that
they’re often eaten before they reach adulthood
(Halls, 2010). Albino animals are also at a
disadvantage because of poor eyesight. A lack
of pigment in the eyes affects vision, making it
harder for animals to find food or avoid danger
(Miller, 2005).
They are also vulnerable to sunburn and
cancer due to the lack of melanin (Halls, 2010).
All these disadvantages also reduce their ability
to mate and are likely to die before they get to
pass on their genes. However some creatures
do find success in the wild, for example albino
squirrels are one of the few albino animal
species that have a higher success rate in the
wild (Esteve and Jeffery, 1998). This may be
due to their visual defects being less adverse
when compared to other albino mammals.
In addition to natural threats, albino animals
are also more vulnerable to poachers. These
animals are in high demand due to popularity
in the exotic pet trade and products derived
from rare creatures. Therefore, awareness and
normalization about these animals are essential
to ensure their occurrence and survival in wild
populations and their captivity is kept minimal.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Available published literature regarding
albino wild animals in Sri Lanka was considered
in this review. We defined “Albinism records”
as a published paper or articles in newspapers
and social media regarding albino animals
recorded in the wild. We conducted the search
on 20 October 2020 with no time bounds using
the search terms (wild animals* OR albinism*)
AND (Sri Lanka OR (the names of each
individual in Sri Lanka)) in titles and keywords.
Thenwerecordedthefateoftheanimalafterthey
were discovered by the scientist and authorities.
If they were captured we documented each
individual’s initial condition and how they fared
in captivity. Furthermore, an in-depth literature
review was conducted to summarize previous
research on the effects of albinism on wildlife.
A comprehensive list of albino and leucism
animals which were recorded in the wild was
documented.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This study provides the first literature review
of albinism in wild animals across Sri Lanka.
Our results yielded 8 published literatures on
partial to true albino animals in Sri Lanka and
the rest comprised of site visits to museums and
private collections (5), verified web posts (2)
and newspaper articles (2). Our results showed
a lack of published scientific articles when it
comes to documenting records of albino animals
in Sri Lanka. Most of the other documentation

3. WILDLANKA [Vol. 8 No. 4
208
was done through forms of digital media which
need to be properly logged to ensure they are
not lost overtime.
A breakdown of each record according
to animal class and number of species are
represented in figure 1 and 2.
FIGURE 01: Number of wild albino animal
records according to the animal groups across
Sri Lanka from 1993 to 2020.
FIGURE 02: Number of albino vertebrate
species listed by class according to the animal
groups across Sri Lanka from 1993 to 2020.
Most of the albino animals were found in
the reptilian and mammalian classes and they
were spread across different species. Our results
only showed two documented cases of albino
birds and no record of albino fish or amphibians
were found (Table 2).
The first albino white elephant was recorded
in 1993 (Fernando, 2004). This new born female
was observed in a herd of 12 animals near Heen
Wewa in Yala national park, Block I. This was
the first record of a “white elephant” from Sri
Lanka. In 1996 another sighting of this albino
elephant was recorded at Diganwala, another
water hole in Yala Block I. Eight years later
in 2004, it was spotted again in a herd of 17
individuals, including two young calves and a
number of juveniles. Lastly in 2012 it was seen
at the Mahaseelawa lake in Yala Block I in
April and June (Fernando, 2012)
The first records of true albinism in sambar
deer (Rusa unicolor unicolor) were recorded
in the wet zone region of Ududumbara and
Suriyapura, Kanthale dry zone in Sri Lanka
(Vithanage et al., 2019). As of 2020 there is
also an albino individual in captivity at the
Girithale wildlife rehabilitation center (plate 1).
Plate 1: True albino Sambar deer (Rusa
unicolor unicolor) at Girithale wildlife
rehabilitation center (Photograph- Chathuranga
Dharmarathne 2020/09/26).
There is also a taxidermy specimen of a
true albino Spotted deer (Axis axis) and Red
muntjak (Muntiacus muntjak) at the Girithale
wildlife training center (Plate 2 &3).
Dharmarathne and Jayakody had sighted
the first albinism record of the Dusky-stripped
squirrel (Funambulus obscurus) at Horton
Plains National Park in 2018 (Dharmarathne
and Jayakody, 2018, Plate 4).

4. December, 2020] A REVIEW OF ALBINISM RECORDS IN WILD ANIMALS ACROSS SRI LANKA 209
Plate 2: True albino Spotted Deer (Axis axis)
at Girithale wildlife training center museum
(Photograph-Chathuranga Dharmarathne
2020/09/26).
Plate 3: True albino Red Muntjak (Muntiacus
muntjak) at Girithale wildlife training
center museum (Photograph- Chathuranga
Dharmarathne 2020/09/26).
Plate 4: True albino Dusky-stripped squirrel
(Funambulus obscurus) at Horton Plains
National Park 2018 (Photograph- Chathuranga
Dharmarathne).
There was an old record of a white monkey
in Sri Lanka near Ambespussa , Kurunegala,
and in Tangalle area (Tennent 1861) and the
literature stated the eyes and face of the monkey
were black. This may be due to a colour morph
named Galanthus, which is a snow-white colour
variant of the same species (Rodrigo, 2011).
However, according to some researchers this
is a result of phenomena known as leucism
(Rodrigo, 2011).
A sighting of an albino Indian roundleaf
bat (Hipposideros lankadiva) was recorded by
researchers in Wavulgalge which is a natural
cave situated in Koslanda in the Eastern region
of Sri Lanka (Yapa et al., 2000). This organism
was seen in a cave for over a year, albinism in
bats is rather rare and this was the first record of
an albino bat in Sri Lanka.
Two records of albinism in birds were
recorded in Sri Lanka, this included an albino
Nightjar and an albino Red vented bulbul. An
albino Nightjar was recorded on 7th
August
2011 at the Udawalawe National Park (Perera
and Jayasena, 2012). Two species of nightjars
exists in the region, the common nightjar
(Caprimulgus asiaticus) and long-tailed
nightjar (Caprimulgus atripennis). As this
sighting was of a completely white bird and it
did not call at the time, the species could not be
definitively identified. A case of total albinism
in a Red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer) was
recorded in February 2014 at a suburban town
in Gampaha (Gabadage et al., 2015).
Records of albino reptiles in Sri Lanka
pertained mainly to snakes and turtles. There
was only one record of albino turtles and they
were found at the Sea Turtle Reserve Centre
in Kosgoda, Sri Lanka. Two Hawksbill Sea
turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) were rescued
from a fisher man’s net and sent to the reserve
(Whitewolf, 2013).
Records of albino snakes were more
common and frequent. There was an observation

5. WILDLANKA [Vol. 8 No. 4
210
Plate 5: True albino cobra (Naja naja) at
Dambulla region (Photograph- Chathuranga
Dharmarathne).
of Albino Trinket snake Coeloganthus helena
from Katepola village Ratnapura District
on 18th
December 2013 (Wijewardana and
Priyadarshana, 2015). There were some records
of the albino cobras (Naja naja) in the Colombo
zoological gardens.Apart from that we observed
few incidents of locals keeping albino cobras
in their houses for different reasons (Plate 5).
Some traditional healers and Sri Lankan gypsy
people also use these animals to make profits.
A rare albino python (Python molurus) was
found in Galenbindunuwewa Ritigala forest
and was taken into the care of the Wildlife
Department (Samaraweera, 2020) (Plate 6).
Lastly a common wolf snake, Lycodon aulicus
(Linnaeus, 1758) with leusism was recorded
from a village house near Hasalaka in the dry
zone part of Kandy, Sri Lanka on 31 October
2018 (Pathirana et al., 2019).
Although rare in nature, albino animals
have been spotted in most natural habitats.
These unique creatures have partial or complete
loss of pigmentation which results in a pale
skin tone when compared to their pigmented
counterparts.
Partial albinos have some of the coloration
typical of their species, but some parts of their
body appear white. An outward appearance
of white doesn’t necessarily give an animal
true albino status and it is often confused with
leucistic animals. Observing the color of the
animal’s eye would provide more information.
If it has pink or light blue eyes they are likely
albino, whereas leucistic animals have mostly
white skin, hair or scales but will have some
dark pigmentation in their eyes and nails.
Leucistic animals are not as rare as true albino
animals but many are displayed at zoos.
The birth of an albino animal is held of
cultural importance in many societies giving
them a mythical status. Symbolism related to
“white animals” occur across different cultures,
although they might not explicitly be regarded
as albino their presence is often revered. In
Buddhist culture, the appearance of a “white
elephant” in queen Mahamaya’s dream was a
premonition to the birth of the Buddha (Choskyi,
1988). Hence white elephants are rendered
sacred and pure. In addition, a “white snake”
part of Japanese Buddhist goddess Benzaitens
Plate 6: True albino Rock python (Python
molurus) (Photograph-Department of Wildlife
Conservation).

6. December, 2020] A REVIEW OF ALBINISM RECORDS IN WILD ANIMALS ACROSS SRI LANKA 211
Common Name
Sri Lankan
Elephant
Sambar deer
Spotted deer
Red muntjak
Dusky stripped
squirrel
Purple-faced Leaf
Monkey
Indian roundleaf
bat
Nightjar
Red vented
bulbul
Hawksbill sea
turtle
Trinket snake
Cobra
Cobra
Rock python
Wolf snake
Species
Elephas
maximus
maximus
Rusa unicolor
unicolor
Axis axis
Muntiacus
muntjiak
Funambulus
obscurus
Semnopithecus
vetulus vetulus
Hipposideros
lankadiva
(Species not
confirmed)
Pyconotus cafer
Eretmochelys
imbricata
Coeloganthus
helena
Naja naja
Naja naja
Python molurus
Lycodon aulicus
Type
Partial
albinism
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
Leucisim
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
True albinism
Leucisim
Condition
Live sighting
Live specimen in
captivity
Taxidermy
Taxidermy
Live sighting
Live sighting
Live sighting
Journal article
Live sighting
Live specimen in
captivity
Live sighting
Live specimen in
captivity
Live specimen in
captivity
Live specimen in
captivity
Live sighting
Source
Website log
with photographs
Museum-Girithale
wildlife training
center
Museum-Girithale
wildlife training
center
Museum-Girithale
wildlife training
center
Journal article
Book and
newspaper article
Journal article
Journal article
Journal article
Blog post
Journal article
Colombo
Zoological
gardens
Private collection
Newspaper article
Journal article
TABLE 01: Previous records of albinism in animals in Sri Lanka obtained from wildlife sightings.

7. WILDLANKA [Vol. 8 No. 4
212
headdress symbolizes fertility and flow
(Ludvik, 2012). Albino animals are considered
to be sources of immense power and good
fortune and to do harm would bring misfortune.
For example “white lions” in South Africa
are considered gifts from god and considered
sacred (Tucker, 2010).Since they lack color,
albino animals have a ghostly beauty and some
may count themselves lucky to see one.
Our study also highlighted that most of the
records found on albino animals in Sri Lanka
pertained to a lot of “grey” literature which
included website blogs, YouTube videos and
newspaper articles (Table 1). Without having
a proper documented list of albinism records
in Sri Lankan wildlife it would be difficult to
keep track of their occurrences as most of these
“grey” literatures may not be available long
term.
There should also be a shift on how albino
animals are perceived in the mainstream in
order to stop their exploitation. There is a high
demand for albino animals in the pet trade
and animals that are legal to be bought or sold
can bring a higher price if they are albinos.
Breeders of captive animal markets often test
and select for albino offspring which can result
in a lot of inbreeding. For example white tigers
(although not necessarily albino) are often
inbred to an extreme where genetic mutations
occur (Mishra et al., 2016). This often results
in poor living conditions for the animals and
high mortality rates. Several zoos proudly
keep albino specimens as they attract crowds
due to their rarity. However these animals can
easily be exploited for money, putting them in
poor welfare conditions. For example, roadside
displays of albino snakes were observed in Sri
Lanka, where the legality of possession is often
questionable (Rare moments in the world 2017).
The exoticization of albino animals would result
in the perpetuation of their capture and display
which would result in poor welfare conditions
for the animals. Instead we suggest using their
fascinating elements to their own advantage and
making them conservation ambassadors. The
public draw can be used to educate the masses
about protecting the species as a whole and the
importance of keeping the animals wild. This
would ensure that the albino allele will persist
in the wild and the animals would not lead a life
of captivity.
Albino animals face many obstacles in
survival wherever they may range. Many albino
birds for instance have brittle feathers that may
be worn away more quickly than usual (Halls,
2010). Dark pigments like melanin help to
protect skin and eyes from overexposure to
sunlight. Many albino animals face a higher risk
of melanomas and retinal damage. Lacking a full
complement of eye pigments, true albinos often
have poor eyesight and are unusually sensitive
to sunlight. In the case of some albino reptile
species that bask in the sun to warm themselves,
sunlight may quickly prove fatal.
They may also be rejected by their peers in
many social species and have disadvantages in
finding a mate due to appearance. For example
albinism may make life more difficult for some
birds and other animals that use color and
courtship displays to attract mates. Having a
display missing a crucial splash of color may
put the animal at a competitive disadvantage
(Miller, 2005). The effects of predation on
albinos apparently vary according to the
animals´ habitat and the type of predators.
Albinism is difficult to study in the wild
as it occurs randomly within a population;
therefore it is important to maintain a proper
database of albinism records of animals in a
region. Due to all of the disadvantages they
face scientists believe some albino species
may disappear entirely within the next 20 years
(Peter, 1999). Therefore albino animals can be
used as an indicator to see what environmental
changes influence the genetic variation in a wild
population. Hence their resilience to changes
over the years can be studied by maintaining
proper written records.
CONCLUSION
This review showed that albino animals
are indeed rare and considering the available
literature very few records exists in Sri Lanka.
Our search considered research papers and a
mix of “grey” literature which highlighted the
importance of recording for the future studies of
the albino animals in Sri Lanka.

8. December, 2020] A REVIEW OF ALBINISM RECORDS IN WILD ANIMALS ACROSS SRI LANKA 213
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Professor Darshani
Mahaulpatha, head of the department,
department of zoology, University of Sri
Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. We would
like to extend our gratitude to Chaturanga
Bandaranayake and Yasas Bandaranayake,
Directors of Abimana development foundation
and Felidae Carnivora Project (FCP), Sri Lanka.
We appreciate the generous cooperation of the
Girithale Wildlife Training center and Horton
Plains National Park staff and last but not least
to all researchers who contributed to record and
conservation of albino animals recorded in Sri
Lanka.
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