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1. ReseaRch RepoRts on ancient Maya WRiting
Number 64 July 2021
A Logogram for WAX “Grey Fox”
in Maya Hieroglyphic Writing
Christian M. Prager
Text Database and Dictionary of Classic Mayan
University of Bonn

2. A
great number of Maya hieroglyphic signs represent animals or their body parts. Most of
these animals are carnivores, such as felines and canines. In this paper, I will identify a
word-sign for WAX “grey fox.” This newly discovered graph1
complements previously
known signs for canines, for example, tz’i’ “dog,” ook “dog” and ch’amak “fox.” So far, this is the
third logogram identified that refers to a specific fox species living in the Maya Lowlands, after
the sign for CH’AMAK, a general term for “grey fox” in Colonial and Modern Yucatec (Barrera
Vásquez 1980:125). Recently, Albert Davletshin and Stephen Houston have identified a logo-
gram WET “gray fox” on a monument from Tonina (Davletshin and Houston 2021).
Recent developments in Maya hieroglyphic decipherment have shown an increasing
shift to previously undeciphered logograms of the Maya script, such as JALAM “weaver”(Grube
2016), CHA’ “metate” (Stuart 2014; 2018), WAN “quail” (Bernal Romero 2016), IB “bean” (Prager
2018; Tokovinine 2014) and UW “moon” (Zender 2018), to name but a few examples. A method-
ology has been developed for deciphering word-signs and syllables of Classic Maya hieroglyphic
writing over recent decades (Houston 2001:9–10; Kelley 1976:19; Zender et al. 2016) and as a
propositional calculus (see below) within the digital framework of the Mayan Dictionary project
at Bonn (Diehr et al. 2019; Prager et al. 2018:78–79). This propositional logic embodies a rating
system that quantifies the plausibility of a proposed decipherment according to defined pa-
rameters. These parameters indicate the confidence of the given decipherment on a scale of 1–8,
with 1 indicating the greatest and 8 the least confidence. This allows the degree of plausibility of
linguistic decipherments to be differentiated and noted accordingly in Classic Mayan dictionar-
ies. An essential indication for a plausible interpretation of a logogram is that it be completely
represented by syllabic signs in controlled and equivalent contexts (e.g. JALAM > ja-la-ma; IB
> i-bi-). In many cases, only the initial and/or final sounds are represented by phonetic comple-
ments preceding and/or following the word-sign in question (wa-WAN | WAN-na; UW-wi;
CHA’-a; i-IB | IB-bi-). In the absence of any full substitution, the plausibility of a decipherment
obtained by phonetic complementation alone is increased if it is also attested in Lowland Mayan
languages and is supported with an accompanying scene or even refers to a type of artifact on
which the hieroglyphic text is found. A further indication to support the plausibility of a reading
is whether the directly obtained decipherment corresponds to an apparent iconic representation
in the graph. If these parameters are also missing, a useful but weaker argument for the plausibil-
ity of the decipherment can be found in the semantic meaning of the word-sign as deduced from
the hieroglyphic context, in addition to the iconography. Because, as a rule, possibly dozens or
hundreds of lexemes from the languages of the Maya Lowlands can match the semantic catego-
ries in question, multiple equivalent linguistic readings that can neither be refuted nor confirmed
may coexist. The best example of this type of issue is the so-called Star War hieroglyph, T325, for
which the readings, “JUB ‘to take down’ (Houston, pers. comm. 1992), EM/EK’EM/EK’MAY ‘to
descend’ (Stuart, pers. comm. 1996; Aldana 2005:313), HAY ‘to destroy’ (Boot, pers. comm. 2002),
TZ’AY and TZ’OY ‘to surrender’ (Lacadena, pers. comm. 2001), CH’AY/CH’AYKAB ‘to be de-
Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 64
A Logogram for WAX “Grey Fox”
in Maya Hieroglyphic Writing
Christian M. Prager
Text Database and Dictionary of Classic Mayan
University of Bonn
Copyright © 2021 by the Boundary End Archaeology Research Center

3. stroyed’ (Marc Zender, pers. comm. 2004) and UK’ ‘to weep, lament’ (Chinchilla 2006)” (Martin
2020:414, fn 10) have been proposed. In the case of the logogram under discussion, WAX “fox,”
however, complete phonetic spellings have been attested in several controlled and equivalent
contexts.
Although the writing system featured a standardized repertoire of word-signs and syl-
lables that was essentially fully developed and stable from 9.11.0.0.0 on (Grube 1994), the textual
corpus contains signs that are attested only rarely or even once. This has limited their deci-
pherment. Thanks to surrounding phonetic or homophonic spellings, some of these signs have
nevertheless been recently deciphered, such as SITZ’ “belly” (Polyukhovych 2016), HUL “to
arrive” (Prager 2020) and AK’ “turkey” (Stuart 2020).2
For many word-signs, however, there are
few or no phonetic spellings, and in very rare cases only phonetic spellings exist. For example,
for the early and widespread logograms CHAN “sky,” BALAM “jaguar,” TUN “stone” and
KAB “earth,” we know only a handful of phonetic spellings (cha-na, ba-la-ma, tu-nu/ni and ka-
ba), which can be traced back to a time between 9.16.0.0.0 and 10.3.0.0.0, where the texts tend to
feature more phonetic spellings and the number of word-signs is low (Grube 1994; Prager 2017).
Conversely, there are numerous phonetic spellings in the corpus for which there are no or few
logographic equivalents: ka-ka-wa “cacao,” tz’i-ba “writing, painting” (TZ’IB), -i-ta-ji “com-
panion,” -u-k’i-bi “drinking vessel” (UK’-bi) and -u-xu-lu “carving.” A wide range of spelling
variation for the individual syllables is observed here, which allowed frequently used terms to be
written in a variety of ways. In some cases, the scribes deviated from the apparent norm to intro-
duce new and rare logographic spellings for hieroglyphic terms that were usually expressed with
syllabic signs. The logogram WAX “fox,” which was not previously attested in Thompson's Cata-
log of Maya Hieroglyphs (1962), is sign 1547st in the Text Database and Dictionary of Classic Mayan,
3
is
an example of this calligraphic practice and is the focus of this short article (Figure 1).
The lexeme wax “fox” was first discussed by Nikolai Grube and Werner Nahm in their
study of wayh-beings in the Classic Maya belief system (Grube and Nahm 1994). Based on the
decipherment of Thompson's sign T539 as WAY, representing the Classic Mayan term, wahy “de-
mon,” by Nikolai Grube, Stephen Houston, and David Stuart (Houston and Stuart 1989),4
it was
proven that the ancient Maya had ideas and beliefs regarding co-essences, a concept which sur-
vives to the present day in the religion of some Maya groups (Brinton 1894; Foster 1944; Helmke
and Nielsen 2009; Köhler 1983; Nuñez de la Vega 1932; Thiemer-Sachse 1992; Villa Rojas 1947).
These supernatural beings were understood as ominous, disease-transmitting forces that could
Figure 1. The WAX logogram
Sign 1547st in the Text Database and Dictionary of Classic Mayan.
(Drawing by Christian Prager 2020)
3
Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 64 (2021)

4. be activated by priests or kings using rituals to weaken opposing kings or to bring about disaster
in a competing city-state (Stuart et al. 2005:160–165). Frequently associated with emblem glyphs
(Calvin 1997), most representations and mentions of wahy are found on ceramic vessels: they
depict mammals, insects, reptiles, birds and gods, combined with human attributes, characteris-
tics and abilities. They have been described by Houston as “humanimals” (Houston and Scherer
2020). The fox is part of the inventory of these supernatural beings, referred to as wa[a]x in the
texts, in the company of jaguar beings, peccaries, deer, dogs, tapirs, coati, bats and primates.
Grube and Nahm (1994:700) catalogued a total of six occurrences of the fox called chak
tahn wax “red-breasted fox” in the hieroglyphic sources (Figure 2). They originally deciphered
the name as yax tan wax and k’ak’ tan wax. More recent photographs of these vessels show, how-
ever, that the supposed elements YAX and K’AK’ are rather sign 109, CHAK “red.” Its spellings
are currently known to be found on four published vessels (i.e., K927, K1901, K9098,5
and So-
theby's Lot 132 [1986]): CHAK. [TAN:na] wa.xi > chak tahn waax, CHAK:ta:na wa. xi > chak tahn
waax, [CHAK.ta]:na wa-xa > chak tahn wax and CHAK.[TAN:na] wa.xi > chak tahn waax, respec-
tively (Figure 3). The fox as supernatural agent is associated with a hitherto unidentified emblem
glyph, whose elements are only partially comprehensible. The vessel K927 shows a hitherto
Figure 2. Depiction of Chak Tahn Waax on the Sotheby's vessel (1986:Lot 132).
(Drawing by Christian Prager 2020)
4 “A Logogram for WAX ‘Grey Fox’” by Christian M. Prager

5. unattested grapheme, bearing the reference number 1572 in the project's new catalogue of signs.
Two occurrences, on the Sotheby's vessel (1986:Lot 132) and another vessel, show the syllable
mi, possibly a phonetic complement for a word-sign ending in –m. Albert Davletshin (personal
communication, 5 December 2020) suggested that the sign may represent a woven incense bag
containing glowing copal. The syllable mi appearing underneath could be interpreted to indicate
that the word poom “copal, incense” is expressed here. Supplementary evidence would of course
be required to produce an identification and reading of this mysterious emblem glyph.
On a vessel of unknown provenance and current location, a representation of a fox ap-
pears, with an accompanying inscription (Figure 4). This is the only known occurrence of the
logogram for WAX “fox” that has so far been found. At the end of the text, the same emblem
glyph appears as that shown on Sotheby's 1986:Lot 132. By contrast to previously known oc-
currences of the proper noun chak tan wax, the accompanying text begins with the so-called
LEAF.HEAD hieroglyph, which Erik Boot identified as an alternative sign for the color “red” or
CHAK (Boot 2009). In our new catalogue, this sign is numbered 1646. After CHAK is a variant
of the sign TAN, which is not completely preserved on the original, and then by a canid animal
head in profile, which must be the word-sign for WAX or “fox” (see also Figure 1). A com-
Figure 3. Phonetic spellings of wax “grey fox.”
a b c d
a. K927
b. K1901
c. K9098
d. Sotheby (1986:Lot 132)
(Drawings by Christian Prager 2020)
xi
wa
xa
wa
xi
wa
wa xi
5
Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 64 (2021)

6. Figure 4. A new spelling of Chak Tahn Waax on a vessel of unknown provenance
using the logogram WAX.
(Drawing by Christian Prager 2020)
Figure 5. Detail of K1901 showing the portrait of Chak Tahn Wax.
(Drawing by Christian Prager 2020)
6 “A Logogram for WAX ‘Grey Fox’” by Christian M. Prager

7. parison to the iconography of this wahy actor on vessel K1901 indicates that sign 1646 is nearly
identical to the representations of the fox heads on vessels K1901 (Figure 5) and the Sotheby's
vessel (Figure 2). Unfortunately, the available illustrations of the hitherto undocumented vessel
do not show a complete representation of the fox, but characteristic paws and parts of the face,
with canid features, can be detected.
According to Kaufmann and Justeson, the lexeme wax is a loan from the Mije languages
and has been reconstructed as *wa7x. In the western Mayan languages, this lexeme is attested
with the following meanings (Kaufman and Justeson 2003:568): CHL wax “gato de monte,” “zorra
gris, Urocyon cinereoargenteus” (Aulie and Aulie 1978:214; Hopkins et al. 2011); aj-wax “fox,
mountain lion; gato de monte” (Attinasi 1973; Schumann-Gálvez 1973), “gato montes, zorra; cha-
cal; gato montes; zorro” (Torres Rosales and Gebhardt D. 1974); TZE wax “gato de monte,” “zorro”
(Slocum et al. 1999; Slocum and Gerdel 1971:199); CHJ wa7x “gato de monte,” QAN wax “gato de
monte” and AKA waax “gato de monte.”
The lexeme tahn bears the meaning “breast” and is attested in the languages of the Maya
Lowlands as follows (Lacadena García-Gallo and Wichmann 2004:155): CHL tajn “chest (not
breast); pecho (no seno)” (Josserand and Hopkins 1988); CHN tan “dentro de, entre, en”; CHN -as(?)
tam-al “durante, donde” (Smailus 1975); CHR tajn “inner side or surface of, center, interior, con-
cave side of” (Wisdom 1950); MOP taan “en frente de, al frente de” (Ulrich and Ulrich 1976); ITZ
taan “frente, frente del cuerpo/front, front of the body” (Hofling and Tesucún 1997); and YUC táan
“front, face, presence” (Bricker et al. 1998). Interestingly, tan is also attested as “ash” in Ch’orti’,
Ch’ol and several other Lowland Mayan languages (Kaufman and Justeson 2003:524–525).
Chak tahn wa[a]x can thus be translated either as “red-breasted fox” or, according to
Albert Davletshin, as “ash-red fox” (personal communication, 5 December 2020). Interestingly,
the latter interpretation as chak tan would exactly correspond to the coat color of the grey fox,
Urocyon cinereoargenteus. The undercoat, flanks, neck and limbs of U. cinereoargenteus are cinna-
mon colored or red-brown and thus correspond to the hieroglyphic name chak tahn wax “red-
breasted fox/ash-red fox,” a canid that is widespread in North and Central America (Fritzell and
Haroldson 1982) (Figure 6). An occurrence of the lexeme wax outside the pottery context is found in
the nominal phrase of person No. 100, depicted in the wall painting of Bonampak, Structure 1, Room
2 (Miller and Brittenham 2013:80–81). According to the accompanying inscription, this representa-
tion is a military courtier referred to as baah took’ or “head flint” and bearing the name k’an tol waax
(Houston 2012:164) (Figure 7). An analysis of the name is not provided in the sources. In Ch’orti’,
the meanings “bruise, bruising, bruise mark” are found under the entries tohr and tor (Wisdom
1950:673). The name-phrase k’an tol waax can thus be understood to mean “yellow-bruised fox” and
would perhaps describe the yellow-brown coloring on the fox's fur.
For centuries, Maya scribes drew on a more or less standardized inventory of syllables and
word-signs that were established relatively early in the history of Maya writing. The decision to
represent words or concepts with syllables alone or exclusively with word-signs was made early in
the history of Maya writing and was more or less passed down as such. Again and again, however,
there appear to be deviations from this norm, as proven by the occurrence of the unique word-sign
WAX or “grey fox,” documented here for the first time. This word, otherwise spelled syllabically,
was replaced with a word-sign that was not used in any other known text from the Classic period.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Albert Davletshin, Nikolai Grube, Stephen Houston, Guido Krempel, David
Stuart and Elisabeth Wagner for providing helpful comments, images and literature.
7
Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 64 (2021)

8. Figure 6. Photograph of Urocyon cinereoargenteus, the grey fox.
(Photograph by James Marvin Phelps, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 7. Nominal phrase of a courtier at Bonampak: K’an Tol Waax “yellow-bruised fox.”
Bonampak, Structure 1, Room 2, Text 37.
(Drawing by Christian Prager)
8 “A Logogram for WAX ‘Grey Fox’” by Christian M. Prager

9. ENDNOTES
1
Regarding the differentiation between sign and graph, a sign is constituted by the conjunction of: 1)
a linguistic-functional level, which, according to Ferdinand de Saussure (1959 [1916]), contains the
notion and the pronunciation as well as the specific function of the sign in its writing system, and 2) a
level of graphic representation which contains all possible forms of expression reflecting the concept
of the linguistic-functional level. A graph is then an abstract, typed form of an individually realized
sign. All graphs that are assigned to a shared linguistic expression stand in an allographic relation-
ship to each other and in their totality form variants of the grapheme of the sign. In short: a sign
comprises the linguistic-functional level (e.g., yi), and the graph is its visual realization in the writing
system (e.g., graph/glyph T17 in the Thompson [1962] catalog).
2
Grube and Nahm (1994:700) proposed the reading AK’ACH.
3
As part its mission, the Text Database and Dictionary of Classic Mayan project is working on a new
catalogue of Maya signs and their graphs, evaluating and revising Thompson's A Catalog of Maya Hi-
eroglyphs (1962). We are critically scrutinizing his system with the help of his original grey cards and
supplementing it with signs not included in the original catalogue. Despite its known shortcomings
and incompleteness, his catalogue remains the standard work for Maya epigraphers; we, therefore,
adopt Thompson's nomenclature while removing misclassifications and duplicates, merging graphic
variants under a common nomenclature and adding new signs or allographs to the sign index, num-
bered sequentially, starting from 1500. Allographs are also further organized following newly defined
classification and systematization criteria, which we described in detail in Prager and Gronemeyer
(2018). Fundamentally, many graphs in Maya writing can be divided into two or more segments
along their horizontal and vertical axes. The principles of segmentation are designated by a two-letter
code suffixed to the sign number. The revision of existing catalogues and their expansion, including
a systematic index of all known allographs of each sign, form the basis for our machine-readable text
corpus of Classic Mayan (https://mayadictionary.de).
4
Grube independently deciphered this glyph without publishing his arguments.
5
Photos of these vessels can be found online by searching “Maya Vase Database.”
9
Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 64 (2021)

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12 “A Logogram for WAX ‘Grey Fox’” by Christian M. Prager