Detailed explanation of parts of speech

1. 1
The Parts of Speech
A "part of speech" is a category to which a word is assigned in accordance
with its syntactic functions. In English, the main parts of speech are noun,
pronoun, adjective, determiner, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and
interjection. (Oxford Dictionary)
The categories are often referred to as "The Nine Parts of Speech."
(They are sometimes called "word classes.")
The Part of Speech is determined by the Word's Function
In a sentence, every word or phrase can be classified as one of the nine
parts of speech depending on its function in the sentence. Remember that, in
English, a word that performs a particular function in one sentence might
perform a different function in another.
Let's take the word well for example.
 You need to dig a well. (noun)

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 You look well. (adjective)
 You dance well. (adverb)
 Well, I agree. (interjection)
 My eyes will well up. (verb)
The Parts of Speech
Below is a brief explanation for each part of speech with an example.
Part of Speech Basic Function
Noun names a person, place, or thing
Examples: man, city, dancing
Example in a sentence: Take me to your leader.
(The noun leader names a person.)
Pronoun replaces a noun
Examples: I, me, you, he, she, we, us, they
Example in a sentence: Joanne is smart. She is also funny.
(The pronoun She replaces the noun Joanne.)
Adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun
Examples: happy, red, enormous
Example in a sentence: That is an enormous fish.
(The adjective enormous modifies the noun fish.)
Determiner specifies a noun or a pronoun or states quantity
Examples: my, this, some
Example in a sentence: My dog is fine with those cats.
(The determiner my specifies the dog. The
determiner those specifies the cats.)

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There are two dogs but many cats.
(The determiners two and many state the quantity.)
Verb identifies an action or state of being
Examples: work, play, think, guess, write, exist, be
Example in a sentence: Tony works down the pit now.
He was unemployed.
(The verb works expresses an action. The verb was expresses a state of
being.)
Adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb
Examples: happily, loosely, often
Example in a sentence: They walked smartly to the counter.
(The adverb smartly modifies the verb walked.)
Conjunction joins words, phrases, and clauses
Examples: and, but, or
Example in a sentence:
A large bass still eluded Mark and Lee.
(The conjunction and joins the nouns Mark and Lee.)
Interjection expresses emotion
Examples: indeed, well, oops
Example in a sentence: Ouch, that hurt.
(The interjection Ouch expresses pain.)
Preposition shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun)
and other words in a sentence
Examples: at, in, near, on, with
Example in a sentence: Sarah sang with Jeremy.
(The preposition with shows the relationship between Jeremy, sang,
and Sarah.)

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Are There 8 or 9 Parts of Speech?
Prior to the 1960s, determiners were classified as adjectives, meaning there
were 8 parts of speech not 9. Since the 1960s, there has been a gradual
acceptance among grammarians that determiners are different to adjectives.
This acceptance has grown to the extent that determiners must now be
considered a separate part of speech. However, even today, terms like
"possessive adjective" and "demonstrative adjective" are far more commonly used
than "possessive determiner" and "demonstrative determiner".
Also, the equivalents in foreign languages are still described as adjectives
in those countries, adding to the confusion. This much is clear: Determiners are
similar to adjectives, but there are differences. Nevertheless, there remains a
strong argument for claiming there are 8 parts of speech not 9.
What to do then
Go with 9! (You'll get far fewer pedants sending you snotty emails.)

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Phrase
A phrase is a group of words that stands together as a single grammatical
unit, typically as part of a clause or a sentence.
A phrase does not contain a subject and verb and, consequently, cannot
convey a complete thought. A phrase contrasts with a clause. A clause does
contain a subject and verb, and it can convey a complete idea.
Easy Examples of Phrases
Let's start with a sentence that has no phrases and then build some in.
 Janet eats cakes daily. (This sentence has no phrases. All of the parts
of the sentence are single words.)
 My cousin Janet eats cakes daily. (Now we have a phrase. It's a
three-word phrase functioning as the subject of this sentence. Note that the phrase
itself does not contain its own subject and verb.)
 My cousin Janet eats cakes during the week. (We've added another
phrase. This one also has three words, but it is functioning as an adverb.)
 My cousin Janet was eating cakes during the week. (We've added
another phrase. This one has two words. It is a multi-word verb.)

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 My cousin Janet was eating cream cakes from the
bakery during the week. (We've added another phrase. This one has five words. It
is functioning as a direct object in this sentence.)
The examples above prove that phrases function as one single unit within
a sentence. But, let's look a little closer.
The term "cream cakes from the bakery" has its own embedded phrase
("from the bakery"). This is a prepositional phrase describing the "cream cakes."
So, it's possible to have a phrase within a phrase. It's common in fact.
There's more. The words "was eating cream cakes from the bakery during the
week" is also classified a phrase. It's called a verb phrase. (A verb phrase
consists of a verb and all its modifiers. Those modifiers could also be phrases,
as they are in this example.)
Common Types of Phrase
Here are some examples of the common types of phrase.
Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase is a group of words headed by an adjective that modifies
a noun. In these examples, the adjective phrases are shaded and the head
adjective is in bold.
 Dexter had noticeably evil eyes. (the adjective phrase modifies
"Dexter.")
 Victoria was immensely proud of us. (the adjective phrase modifies
"Victoria.")
The term "adjectival phrase" is often used interchangeably with
"adjective phrase," but many grammarians reserve "adjectival phrase" for
multi-word adjectives that are not headed by an adjective. For example:
 My auntie is the lady with all the unicorn tattoos. (The phrase "with
all the unicorn tattoos" is a multi-word adjective describing "the lady," but it is not
headed by an adjective (hence no word in bold). Headed by the preposition "with,"
this is an example of a prepositional phrase functioning as an adjective. It
is best classified as an adjectival phrase as opposed to an adjective
phrase.)
Adverbial Phrase

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An adverbial phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb. In
these examples, the adverbial phrases are shaded.
 He sings in a low register. (Here, "in a low register" modifies the verb
"sings." As it is headed by the preposition "in," this adverbial phrase is also a
prepositional phrase.)
 Luckily for us, we arrived just in time. (Here, the adverbial phrase
modifies the verb "arrived.")
Noun Phrase
A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers. In these examples,
the noun phrases are shaded and the head nouns are in bold.
 How much is that doggy in the window? (Here, the head noun is
"doggy." "That" is a modifier. "In the window" is also a modifier (a prepositional
phrase functioning as an adjective describing "doggy.")
 You can tell a lot about a fellow's character by his way of
eating jellybeans. (Here, the modifier "of eating jellybeans" is a prepositional
phrase functioning as an adjective describing "way." The prepositional phrase itself
contains the gerund phrase (see below) "eating jellybeans." So this simple noun phrase
has an embedded phrase that itself has an embedded phrase.
As you can see, the term "phrase" has a broad scope. Remember that a
phrase is any group of words that function as a single unit.)
Prepositional Phrase
A prepositional phrase is a group of words that consists of a preposition,
its object (which will be a noun or a pronoun), and any words that modify the
object. In these examples, the prepositional phrases are shaded and the
prepositions are in bold.
 I lived near the beach. (As is the case here, a prepositional phrase can
stand alone as a single unit within a sentence. Here, the prepositional phrase is
an adverb of place.)
 How much is that doggy in the window? (Quite often, a prepositional
phrase features in another phrase. Remember this example from above? Here, the
prepositional phrase is functioning as an adjective describing "doggy." It is part of the
noun phrase "that doggy in the window.")
 You can tell a lot about a fellow's character by his way of
eating jellybeans. (Remember this example from above? Here, the prepositional

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phrase is functioning as an adverb modifying "can tell." Notice that the highlighted
prepositional phrase includes another prepositional phrase ("of eating jellybeans").
Yeah, it can get complicated.)
Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase is a phrase that consists of a gerund, its object, and any
modifiers. In these examples, the gerund phrases are shaded and
the gerunds are in bold.
 Moving quickly but stealthily is the key to survival.
 Arithmetic is the ability to count up to twenty
without taking off your shoes. (Mickey Mouse)
Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase is the infinitive form of a verb plus any complements
and modifiers. In these examples, the infinitive phrases are shaded and
the infinitive verbs are in bold.
 She tells you to dance like no one is watching.
 The first step in forgiveness is the willingness to forgive those
who have wronged us. (Author Marianne Williamson)
Participle Phrase
A participle phrase is an adjective phrase headed by a participle. In these
examples, the participle phrases are shaded and the participles are in bold.
 Overcome with disappointment, the professor shook his head
and sighed.
 Within 5 seconds, the dog chasing the hare was out of sight.
Appositive Phrase
An appositive is a noun or a noun phrase that sits next to another noun to
rename it or to describe it in another way. In these examples, the appositives
are shaded.
 Elizabeth I, the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn,
became Queen of England in 1558.
 Thomas Edison, the inventor of the light bulb, is often called
USA's greatest inventor.

9. 9
Phrases Functioning as Different Parts of Speech
Here is a list of the parts of speech with an example of a phrase
functioning as each one.
Adjectives
 I am looking for a book to make me laugh. (This is an example of an
infinitive phrase functioning as an adjective. It describes "a book." Phrases
commonly function as adjectives.)
Adverbs
 I am going there to support you. (This is an example of an infinitive phrase
functioning as an adverb. It is an adverb of reason. Phrases commonly function as
adverbs.)
Conjunctions
 I am not only angry but also disappointed. (This is an example of a phrase
functioning as a conjunction. Most conjunctions are single words, not phrases. This is
an example of a correlative conjunction.)
Determiners
 I know a few people who could give you a hundred and one reasons. (In
this example, there are two phrases functioning as determiners. These determiners
are both quantifiers. Most determiners are single words.)
Interjections
 Holy moly! She won! (This is an example of a phrase functioning as an
interjection. Most interjections are single words.)
Nouns
 Running the tap is necessary to clear the air pocket. (This is an example
of a gerund phrase functioning as a noun. Phrases commonly function as nouns.)
Prepositions
 According to Mark, the system is broken. (This is an example of a phrase
functioning as a preposition. Most prepositions are single words.)
Pronouns

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 No one is infallible. (This is an example of a phrase functioning as a pronoun.
Most pronouns are single words.)
Verbs
 I am going there to support you. (This is an example of a phrase functioning
as a verb. Only one-word verbs (e.g., play, think) in the simple past tense (played,
thought) and the simple present tense (plays, thinks) are single words. The rest are
phrases that include auxiliary verbs.)
The Hierarchy of Word Units
Word (e.g., Shark) (A word is the smallest meaningful unit.)
Phrase (e.g., A seven-foot tiger shark) (A phrase is a single piece of
information made up of more than one word. It will not contain a subject and a
verb.)
Clause (e.g., When a seven-foot tiger shark arrived...) (A clause is a single
piece of information made up of more than one word which contains a subject and a
verb.)
Sentence (e.g., A seven-foot tiger shark arrived.)
(A sentence conveys a complete idea. It must contain at least one clause. Note: A
clause that stands alone as a sentence is known as an independent clause.)
Complex Sentence (e.g., When a seven-foot tiger shark arrived, the
crew stopped fishing.) (A complex sentence is an independent clause supported
by at least one other clause.)
Compound Sentence (e.g., A seven-foot tiger shark arrived, and the
crew stopped fishing.) (A compound sentence is a sentence made up of at least
two independent clauses.)

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Exercise
Q1
Select the correct version.
A: A list of names were found.
B: A list of names was found.
Q2
How is the phrase in bold functioning?
I went to find her.
A: As an adjective
B: As an adverb
C: As a noun
Q3
Select the one with a complete phrase in bold:
A: Youth would be an ideal state if it came a little later in life.
B: Better to write for yourself and have no public, than to write
for the public and have no self.

12. 12
Clause
Introduction
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. (A clause
functions as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.)
A clause contrasts with a phrase, which does not contain a subject and a
verb. The distinction between a clause and a phrase is clearer when you see
them side by side:
Anna
sings...
when she wakes up. (This is a clause. It has a subject ("she")
and a verb ("wakes up").)
in the morning. (This is a phrase. There is no subject and no
verb.)
Easy Examples of Clauses

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 During the day, Vlad slept in a coffin. (The subject of this clause is
"Vlad." The verb is "slept." "During the day" is a phrase because there is no verb.)
 When the Moon shone, he lurked in the shadows. (The subject of
the first clause is "the Moon." The verb is "shone." The subject of the second clause is
"he." The verb is "lurked.")
 He stalked a pretty milkmaid, who lived in the neighbouring
village. (The subject of the first clause is "He." The verb is "stalked." The subject of
the second clause is "who." The verb is "lived.")
Real-Life Examples of Clauses
There are two types of clause:
 An independent clause (one that can stand alone as a sentence).
 A dependent clause (one that is usually a supporting part of a
sentence).
In these three quotations, the independent clauses are shown in bold and
the dependent clauses aren't.
 Even though I made $800 million, I am still grounded. (Boxer
Floyd Mayweather)
(The independent clause could be a standalone sentence, but the
dependent clause couldn't.)
 A computer once beat me at chess but was no match for me
at kick boxing. (Louis Hector Berlioz)
 After I die, I'll be forgotten. (Anon)
The opening words of the dependent clauses above ("Even though," "but,"
and "After") are all subordinating conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions link
a dependent clause to an independent clause.
How Are Clauses Used in Sentences?
Clauses can play a variety of roles in sentences. A clause can act as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb.
(1) Noun Clauses
 She cannot remember what she said last night. (The clause acts
like a noun. It could be replaced with a noun, e.g., "her rant.")

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 Now I know why tigers eat their young. (Mobster Al Capone)
(This clause could be replaced with a noun, e.g., "the reason.")
(2) Adjective Clauses
 My friend who lives in London looks like Homer Simpson. (The
clause acts like an adjective. It could be replaced with an adjective, e.g., "my London-
based friend.")
 You should never make fun of something that a person can't
change about themselves. (YouTuber Phil Lester) (This clause could be
replaced with an adjective, e.g., "unchangeable.")
(3) Adverbial Clauses
 He lost his double chin after he gave up chocolate. (The clause
acts like an adverb. It could be replaced with an adverb, e.g., "recently.")
 I am not afraid of the pen, the scaffold or the sword. I will tell
the truth wherever I please. (Labour-rights campaigner Mary Harris
Jones aka "Mother Jones") (This clause could be replaced with an adverb, e.g.,
"there.")

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Exercise
Q1
Select the example with an independent clause in bold.
A: Even though he likes jam, he hates marmalade.
B: Even though he likes jam, he hates marmalade.
Q2
Which describes a dependent clause?
A: A dependent clause (or subordinate clause) is one that cannot
stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not express a
complete thought.
B: A dependent clause can be a simple sentence.
Q3
Select the example with an independent clause in bold.
A: Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily
B: Ever since you have given up smoking, you get annoyed easily.

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Sentence
Introduction
A sentence is a group of words giving a complete thought. A sentence must
contain a subject and a verb (although one may be implied).
A More Formal Definition of Sentence
A sentence is a set of words that is complete in itself, typically containing
a subject and predicate, conveying a statement, question, exclamation, or
command, and consisting of a main clause and sometimes one or more
subordinate clauses.
Functions of Sentence

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A sentence can convey a statement, a question, an exclamation, or a
command. There are four types of sentence:
A Declarative Sentence.
A declarative sentence states a fact and ends with a period (full
stop). For example:
 He has every attribute of a dog except loyalty.
(Politician Thomas P Gore)
 I wonder if other dogs think poodles are members of
a weird religious cult. (Comedian Rita Rudner)
(Remember that a statement which contains an indirect
question (like this example) is not a question.)
An Imperative Sentence.
An imperative sentence is a command or a polite request. It ends
with an exclamation mark or a period (full stop). For example:
 When a dog runs at you, whistle for him. (Philosopher
Henry David Thoreau, 1817-1862)
 An Interrogative Sentence.
An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question
mark. For example:
 Who knew that dog saliva can mend a broken heart?
(Author Jennifer Neal)
An Exclamatory Sentence.
An exclamatory sentence expresses excitement or emotion. It ends
with an exclamation mark. For example:
 In Washington, it's dog eat dog. In academia, it's
exactly the opposite! (Politician Robert Reich)
The Subject Could Be Implied.
In an imperative sentence (an order) or an interrogative sentence (a
question), the subject or verb is often implied.

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 Run!
 Go.
(This is the shortest sentence in English.)
 Why?
The shortest sentence without an implied subject or verb is "I am" or "I
go."
The Four Sentence Forms
A sentence can consist of a single clause or several clauses. When a sentence
is a single clause, it is called a simple sentence (and the clause is called
an independent clause). A sentence must contain at least one independent clause.
Below are the four types of sentence structure (with their independent clauses
shaded:
A Complex Sentence.
A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least
one dependent clause. For example:
 Diplomacy is the art of saying "nice doggie" until you
can find a rock. (Actor Will Rogers, 1879-1935)
 When you're on the Internet, nobody knows you're a
dog. (Cartoonist Peter Steiner)
A Compound Sentence.
A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. For
example:
 Cry "Havoc," and let slip the dogs of war. (Playwright
William Shakespeare, 1564-1616)
A Simple Sentence.
A simple sentence has just one independent clause. For example:
 You can't surprise a man with a dog. (Screenwriter
Cindy Chupack)
 A Compound-Complex Sentence.

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A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses
and at least one dependent clause. For example:
 When a dog bites a man, that is not news because it
happens so often, but if a man bites a dog, that is news. (Editor
John B Bogart)

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Exercise
Q1
True or false? A sentence is a group of words giving a complete thought.
A: True
B: False
Q2
Select the sentence:
A: Go
.B: Perhaps
C: Never
Q3
Select the complex sentence:
A: My alarm goes off, and then my cat jumps on the bed.
B: As soon as my alarm goes off, my cat jumps on the bed.