Reciprocal Altruism And Kin Selection

Reciprocal Altruism And Kin Selection
When we study social psychology, we will learn the concept of altruism and egoism. They are a pair
of antonym. The definition of altruism is "principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others"
and the definition of egoism is "an excessive or exaggerated sense of self–importance." We can help
other people while taking care of ourselves. However, helping others still waste our time and energy.
Although a very small help such as telling strangers the direction of places still consume our time.
Therefore, helping is a kind of costing and we want the return. Return can be spiritually and
materially. For materially return, people will expect substantial return. For example, you help your
colleague because you want him to help you when you ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the article "Are we capable of being altruistic", Alex Haines used dictator games in experiments
to measure altruism and he also had analyzed what many people perceive to be an altruistic act. He
found that participant's every action requires an incentive. The result indicated that people are not
capable to act selflessly. However, there are also some articles that indicated that pure altruism does
exist and it is related to empathy. For example, Todd D. Nelson's article "Motivational Bases of Pro–
social and Altruistic Behavior: A critical reappraisal" support the idea of true altruism and it is
linked to feeling of empathy for the victim. Howeverm Cialdini et al's work "Reinterpreting the
Empathy– Altruism Relationship: When One Into One Equals Oneness" also talked about the
relationship between empathy and altruism. But it stated that altruistic subjects are acting on
egoistic motives untimately because empathic feeling for someone in distress tend to cause them to
confused the distinction between themselves and the other. They considered that the conditions that
lead to empathic concern also lead to a greater sense of
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Altruism in Everyday Life Essay
We can say a general understanding of altruism is a selfless behavior intended for the benefit of
others at a personal cost to the individual who is preforming that behavior. These behaviors will
have no obvious gain for the provider and could also have obvious costs for the one carrying out the
behavior. Taking all of this into consideration can we say whether true altruism exists or not? It does
not exist because no matter what you do whether it be giving a beggar a dollar or saving someone's
life you are going into a loss but you get something in return no matter what it is varying from fame
to a feeling of satisfaction.
First off I'll start off by talking about the bystander effect and how it could influence people's
altruistic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is why you may sometimes see when someone is in need of help people around that person will
be looking around to see the amount of people around and plan their course of action accordingly.
Another stimuli that causes the bystander is symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism
comes from the words symbol and interaction, symbol meaning sign, and interaction meaning
communication. So symbolic interactionism is when there is a situation in which someone is in need
of help and the subject looks around to get an idea of what other people are doing and according to
their reactions evaluates the situation and then decides whether or not to help the person in need of
help. Another form of symbolic interactionism is when a potential helper looks around and observes
people's reactions and depending on how the people react he or she could misinterpret the situation
as to not being an emergency while it is or vice versa.
Sometimes we do something good for someone to benefit them and we might think of it as an
altruistic act but we may be mistaken. Even if the "altruistic" act costs us something, we may be
gaining something without being aware of it. Helping others can sometimes be rewarding even if the
reward you get isn't tangible, eg. happiness, it is considered a reward. For example if a man is
walking down the street and he sees a beggar asking people for

The Origin Of Moral Sense By Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theories regarding evolution and natural selection. In his 1871
book, Charles Darwin explains the origin of morality through studying the behavior of various
species. In his essay, "Origin of the Moral Sense" Charles Darwin uses his theory of evolution to
explain the origin of morality through the study of animals, specifically mammals. Darwin's main
theory of the "Origin of the Moral Sense" is that humans have natural social instincts which in turn
gives them a sense of naturally occurring morality. Darwin's ideas surrounding morality and a
natural social instinct have been echoed and added to by philosophers, almost a century later, David
Barash and Robert Trivers.
In his essay, the "Origin of Moral Sense" Charles Darwin explains the origin of morality and its
relation to evolution. Darwin argues, that like animals, humans are descendants of natural selection.
Darwin argues that not only our (meaning humans and animals) mental capacity evolved, so did our
own moral sense. Darwin's first point in the "Origin of Moral Sense" is that ethics occurs naturally
amongst animals. Darwin believes that animals have a sense of sympathy and need to do the right
thing ingrained in them. Although Darwin believes it is instinctual to "do good", it does not apply to
the same species, only species of the same kind.
Darwin's second point argues that past actions that are good will be ingrained within ourselves, so
we will repeat the same action again. Darwin

Social Phsycology
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
FINAL EXAMINATION (CH 12, 13, & 14)
SPRING 2011
MULTIPLE CHOICE: 3 points each
1. An act performed voluntarily to help someone else when there is no expectation of receiving a
reward is known as
a. nurturance
b. altruism
c. pro–social behavior
d. modeling
2. True altruism is defined by
a. the circumstances surrounding the behavior
b. the person's intentions
c. the person himself or herself
d. culture
3. Pro–social behavior is defined as
a. any act that helps others, even if it is done to make yourself look good
b. a voluntary act to help others with no thought of reward
c. helping that serves to perpetuate one's genes
d. none of the above
4. Ethan volunteers to help with the local Special ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
anger
c. low self–esteem
d. reactance
21. The interference with or blocking of the attainment of a goal is known as
a. frustration
b. normative blocking
c. reactance
d. anger

22. A child who sees an adult on television hitting another person and then hits his little brother is
engaging in
a. disinhibition
b. dehumanization
c. imitation
d. aggression anxiety
23. The realization that health is a psychological as well as a physical issue has given rise to the
field of
a. epidemiology
b. oncology
c. psychological anthropology
d. health psychology
24. The study of health psychology focuses on
a. preventing and treating illnesses
b. promoting and maintaining health
c. improving the healthcare system
d. all of the above
25. The _____ model says health is social, biological, and psychological.
a. psychosocial
b. sociological
c. sociobiological
d. biopsychosocial
26. Annual cancer deaths in the United States could be reduced by _____ percent if everyone
stopped smoking.
a. 5–10 b. 25–30 C. 55–60 d. 85–90
27. Your text describes disorders such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes as
a. preventable
b. epidemic
c. political
d. ecological
28. Deaths due to vehicular accidents could be reduced by _____ percent if drunk driving were
eliminated.
a. 5 b. 20 c. 50 d. 85
29. Which of the following is described by your text as "preventable?"
a. diabetes b. Heart disease c. Cancer d. All of the above
30. Which of

The 10 Themes Of Social Studies
What you have learned about the 10 themes in social studies. What are the 5 strands in social
studies? Are all 10 themes represented in the strands? Explain.
The 10 basic themes of social studies principles were incorporated at the national level for ensuring
better education standards. Each of them includes many of the areas contributing to social studies
areas and evidently reveals a diverse focus.
Man study, creates, and become accustomed to culture. Knowing culture helps people appreciate
themselves and others. Human beings look for their historic ancestry and to position themselves in
the chronological path. A drive to know what things looked like in the earlier period and how the
world and it people evolved helps us resolve significant mysteries about our present situation. ...
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Why are they important?
Establishing reciprocal relationships with families is a strategy by which the teachers look for
information about students' personal lives, their family backgrounds, and community practices. The
information thus collected is integrated into their syllabus and are adapted to structure instructional
methodologies. The advantage of this system is that the children identify the learning system much
more close to their heart and the topics are made much more easily digestible to them.
What are some factors that influence the success of a reciprocal relationship with families? What is
your role as a teacher?
Building a reciprocal relationship with parents can be challenging. There can be many reasons for
that like the poor educational background of the parents or in some cases the parents might have
been poor students themselves. In certain cases the diverse cultural roots of the students' family may
find it difficult for them to get accustomed with the majority culture. As a teacher we need to
empower them an help them feel a comfort zone so that they can open up and collectively involve in
the teaching

Relation Between Relation And Social Capital Of The Act Of...
Molm, Shaefer, and Collett (2007) conducted a study to determine whether there was any sort of
value involved with reciprocity. These authors examine the relationship between what is given
(referred to as instrumental values for both reciprocators) and the symbolic values (or the social
capital of the act of reciprocation). They suggest that there are three criteria that must be met to
measure the value of the relationship, which include recurrence across time, uncertainty in
reciprocation, and voluntary (which means that each party must willingly engage in the relationship
and the reciprocation). These three criteria are also things that can be used to examine relationship
formation. For example, when meeting someone for the first time, a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Murray (2005) gives an example of an argument between a couple and how their level of closeness
could impact one's willingness to fuel the argument through reciprocating negative remarks. Murray
(2005) also looked at certain behaviors that would be reciprocated to avoid sending negative
impressions to a potential mate (i.e. feelings of rejection), which include inferences about their
partner's perceptions of risk, inferences about their perceptions of risk, and promoting the
relationship versus promoting self–interest. These notions of preserving the relationship even
through perceived threats and risk really help relate how risk reduction reciprocity can be seen in the
formation of romantic relationships. This is seen through the reducing perceived risks and threats by
cooperating with another individual on a more romantic level. For example, if a guy feels lonely, but
another guy feels self–conscious about his body, so much so that they may be willing to engage in
self–harm. Then, it is possible that by getting involved with one another they reduce the risk that
they will engage in self–harm, and they reciprocate by helping one another to gain confidence.
Romantic relationships contain many examples of risk reduction reciprocity, but there is also
potential for free riding. For example, free riders could be cheaters, lovers that don't reciprocate
affection, partners that desire lust over love, etc..., and with these free riders the risk

A Research Study On Cooperative Behavior
1.Introduction
Cooperative behaviour has been and may still be a mystery to psychologists and evolutionary
theorists. Cooperation has an altruistic nature that benefits other people, not closely related, while it
is detrimental to the person who is performing it (Trivers, 1971). Therefore, according to natural
selection cooperation should have been disappeared long time ago, as it is not beneficial for short–
term survival of the individual. However, altruistic cooperation is not always disadvantageous if the
sacrifice is awarded in the future, it can be an evolutionary stable strategy. This type of altruism is
known as reciprocal altruism, which can be as beneficial for helper as recipient. Reciprocal altruism
can be viewed as symbiosis. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They discovered that the receiver's image–score had significant effect on donor's decision. Also
there was a preference to donate to receivers with high image score. People with low image scores
are ignored as a consequences of their past actions (altruistic punishment).
In this study we predicted that people are more likely to donate to someone if they have seen that
other player donating to a third party in past (they were generous before). Also we expected to see
people are more likely to donate in general when they are able to see interactions between others.
2.Methods and Materials
2.1Participants
In this study 30 postgraduate students and staff were recruited opportunistically to take part in this
study. An information sheet was distributed prior to the experiment detailing background
information of the study and relevant ethical guidelines such their right to withdraw and
confidentiality was taken into account as pseudonyms were used.
2.2 Apparatus
Costume–written java software was used to carry out the game used in this study, very similar to
Prisoner's Dilemma, on PCs in a computer lab. A server coordinated the game and collected
participant's responses by communicating via TCP in this game software. Software allowed
participants to be able to see pseudonyms of other players, their "bank balance" and see the size of
others

The Theory Of Inclusive Fitness
An oxymoron appeared to exist between Darwin's theory of natural selection (1859) and the
definition of altruism (West et al., 2006). Hamilton's theory of inclusive fitness (1964) appeared to
mediate this problem. However, the theory does not explain altruistic acts towards non–kin in line
with natural selection. Reciprocal altruism (Trivers, 1971), indirect altruism (Alexander, 1987) and
strong reciprocity (Gintis, 2000) have been proposed to resolve this conflict. It is of note that
behaviour in all theories has been noted in animals, but will not be discussed further. Instead, the
essay will focus on which theories are most relevant when understanding human sociality, with the
author explaining why no sole theory is seen to describe the phenomenon. All theories will be
discussed in relation to evolutionary stable strategies (ESS), which refers to plans that when adopted
by a majority of members in a population that restrict any other action existing, which could yield
higher reproductive success (Smith & Price, 1973).
Darwin's (1859) theory of natural selection hypothesised that individual's with traits that increased
their chance of survival would be more likely to reproduce. Such fitness enhancing genes would
thus be passed to their offspring, increasing the trait's frequency in a population. Altruism thus
appears to be an oxymoron to Darwin's (1859) theory. West et al. (2006) defined such social
behaviour that reduces an actor's fitness but increases the

Altruism
"True altruism does not exist". Discuss with reference to psychological theory and research.
Many have defined altruism in a similar context, a special form of helping behaviour that is "an act
that is motivated by the desire to benefit another individual rather than oneself" (Hogg &Vaughan,
2008). An altruistic act does not necessarily have a negative or zero value to the actor (Margolis,
1982) but a true altruistic act is detrimental to the actor's fitness and enhances another individual's
fitness, in other words, a selfless act (Batson, 1991). Throughout the evolution of altruism, there
have been many controversies about the existence of true altruism. Most theories have argued that it
stems from ulterior motives, but does that prove ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another motive of altruism to gain indirect returns is the egoistic motives. It is suggested by
Mandeville (1732), where a person who is in a situation that causes personal distress would behave
altruistically to relieve that particular distress.
Although theories that suggest the non–existence of true altruism may be persuasive, it does not
explain the reasons for selfless deeds done by famous figures for their love and services to people
such as Mother Teresa. Batson (1991) suggested a hypothesis and feels that some people are
genuinely concerned about other people's welfare. According to his empathy–altruism hypothesis,
empathic concerns produce altruism motivation and relieving their sufferings is the main priority.
This hypothesis is supported by several experiments where participants are typically given an
opportunity to help those in need for whom they have been led to different levels of empathic
concerns.
Also, recent news has reported that chimpanzees (Choi, 2007) and toddlers (China Daily, 2006)
have shown true altruistic behaviour.
In conclusion, the existence of altruism has yet to be proven but that does not mean it does not exist.
More research has to be done in this field to explain about other cases to prove its existence.
References
Batson, C. D. (1991). The Altruism Question: Toward a Social–Psychological Answer. Hillsdale,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
China Daily (2006). Experiment finds that

Altruism: Selfless or Selfish? Essay
Altruism: Selfless or Selfish?
"We are all here on earth to help others. What I can't figure out is what the others are here for." ––W.
H. Auden (1)
Whether we are here to help others is a question I've often asked myself, and a question I will not be
able to answer while I am still here on earth. Perhaps before I even consider that question, however,
I should wonder whether we even can be here to help others: is selflessness really possible? Or is
"altruism" merely doing things for others in order to feel good about ourselves? If human altruism
exists, how does our neural system deal with it?
The issue of altruism is complicated by the lack of agreement about many aspects of it, including its
very definition. The word altruism, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Kin selection relates to evolutionary advantage according to Hamilton's rule, C/B < b. The ratio
of the cost, C (which is the expected loss in reproductive success for the doer) to the benefit for the
recipient, B (the gain in reproductive success for the must be less than the probability that the
recipient has the same allele, for the altruist gene to survive (5).
Human altruism is much more nuanced than simply risking one's life for another, and cannot be
accounted for by a simple application of Hamilton's rule. Many self–sacrificial acts that people
perform for each other do not involve a direct risk to their life, and may also involve some benefit to
the actor. Additionally, if the recipient of the act is not a relative, Hamilton's rule doe not apply. In
fact, there is some question as to whether human altruism actually exists, or whether what we think
of as altruism is actually just "enlightened self interest" (3). Many allow for altruistic acts to include
benefits to the actor as long as they are the result of behavior by the recipient of the altruistic act, or
others, and as long as the actor has no control over receiving these benefits (6). Others argue that all
supposed altruism is really motivated by the benefits to the person performing the act. These include
material gains, such as a

Selfish Relations : An Evolutionary Explanation Of...
Malea Neese
Issues in Evolution
Paper 3
Selfish Cooperation: an Evolutionary Explanation of "Altruistic" Behaviors Cooperation among
organisms, particularly among humans, is a phenomenon that has avoided being explicitly explained
by the anthropological and biological community. Selfish genes are theoretically the genes that
should be pervasive among individuals because of the implicated fitness benefits associated with
selfish behavior. Yet, cooperation is abundantly found in human behavior cross–culturally.
Cooperation can be tentatively explained by evolutionary models involving inclusive fitness or
group selection; however, these models represent weak selective processes that are often constrained
by genetic relatedness. This ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Selfish genes are beneficial to an extent; by looking out for yourself, you are reducing the amount of
resources and energy wasted on the venture of pleasing others. It is theoretically more beneficial to
act selfishly in any group situation, regardless of whether the society is cooperative or not. If you
are a selfish individual in a highly cooperative group, you benefit from generous individuals without
actually having to contribute yourself. If you are selfish in a selfish group, you are not detrimentally
affected by exhibiting altruistic behaviors that are not reciprocated. However, in the real world and
when social species are involved, there are heavy disadvantages to being selfish. Boehm (1997) and
Fehr & Gachter (2002) describe the disadvantage to being a selfish individual in a social atmosphere
via descriptions of altruistically based punishments. That is, if you are a selfish freeloader in a
society, the cooperative members of a society will penalize you for this behavior. This punishment
can come in a variety of forms: sexual deprivation, resource denial, exile, social dismissal, and
social pressure. (Boehm 1997) The fitness of a selfish individual is going to be lowered by these
punishments more than it would be lowered by acting in a cooperative manner.
This behavior in humans is especially prevalent based upon the studies conducted by Fehr &
Gachter (2002), and so it can be assumed that freeloaders rarely get away with their bad behavior. In

Altruism: The Case Of The Honey Bee
Humanitarianism, benevolence, selflessness, kindness are words synonymous to Altruism; but what
is altruism, how did it evolve, is it an innate human attribute, is it a learnt behavior or is it an
integral part of religious practices. Altruism is the act of putting the needs of another being before
yours. Some may even define it as sacrificing one's self for the greater good of a species.
How has natural selection produced altruism? Altruism through natural selection has, over the years
been under the microscope has we aim to find the true nature and origins of altruism. Natural
selection was coined by Charles Darwin and it was his belief that only the fittest of all species
would survive. Natural selection has produced altruism in the cases of insects such as the honey pot
ants that work as larders where they store food from the workers for other ants. This is considered
altruism as these ants are sacrificing their normal habitats to ensure that there is always enough food
in storage. The case of the honey bee is similar as the honey pot where the the worker bee forgoes
reproduction in order to take care of its siblings.
What are the three forms of altruism? Explain.
The three major form of altruism are as follows :
Nepotistic Altruism
This type of altruism is based on family. If you have a child, you'll work hard every ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Is it an innate human attribute? Is it learnt behavior or is a requisite based on religion? George Price
was maybe an altruistic person based on his employment history but his viewpoint after he went to
live in England was purely fueled by his religious beliefs. This is a form of psychological altruism
as this portrayed self interest. He wanted to be viewed as a Christ like as the Bible suggests that
Christians were created like their eternal father. With this being revealed, one still questions the
origins of this all important human

Evolutionary Psychology: Robert Axelrod's Dilemmas
Mughessa Bhatti
Psych B9705
Professor Brian Corby
07/20/2015
Final Exam
Q1.
Robert Axelrod conducted a computer tournament between two computers based on the prisoner's
dilemma to investigate reciprocal altruism and cooperation in a social setting. More specifically to
examine the evolution of cooperation. Cooperation and reciprocal altruism are two concepts that (to
some degree) go hand in hand and for this reason they are considered the most studied topics in
evolutionary psychology. Axelrod, like his predecessors, wanted to further understand why humans
cooperate with individuals they are not related to. The prisoner's dilemma is a game that exhibits
co–operation and defection when two strangers are pitted against one another for points. ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Natural selection or genetic evolution requires reproduction to occur for the genes to successfully
pass from one generation to the next. Memes, however, do not require reproduction they simply
have to appeal to the beholder's mind to be passed on. A second difference between the two types of
evolution is also linked to their method of replication (to some degree). The genes need to have
some sort of benefit to the holder for them to be selected for. However, memes in general do not
need to hold some form of benefit to the holder, they can be both beneficial and/or detrimental. As
mentioned, memes simply need to appeal to the mind of the beholder and cause a behavior to occur.
Along the same lines it is important to note that whereas genes hold a benefit for the individual; they
also take environmental changes into account as well thus setting the stage for natural selection.
Another difference between genes and memes is that genes only exist in one form which is within
the genome whereas there are two forms in which a meme exists. The first is that a meme exists in
the form of a mental representation and the second form is the elicitation of a behavior. Genes do
not elicit behavior whereas memes cause behavior and even when they do it is not a source of
replication. The elicitation of behavior is what causes a meme to be represented thus leading a
meme to be replicated

Altruism: Why Do Individuals Act Selfless When It Could...
Altruism Why do individuals act selfless when it could potentially lead to their demise? This
question is commonly asked when dealing with altruism, the practice of selflessness or sacrifice of
one to help another. Altruism is social behavior with a challenging explanation of the continuation
of the occurrence. Although it is an advantage for survival and reproduction overall, for the
individuals risking themselves it is not. This idea was even complex to Darwin (Cacioppo, Freberg
2013). The sacrifice of one could lead to the survival of them all. It is commonly observed within
the animal world. For example, to protect their hive, honeybees will sting, but with this end up
killing themselves. It is suicidal behavior for the benefit for others.

Sarah-Elizabeth Atunrase Final Paper
Sarah–Elizabeth Atunrase Final Paper 5/9/18 Final Paper The two behavioral concepts I recognized
in the DeWaal paper were true altruism and empathy. Altruism is defined as "altruism without
obvious advantages for the actor" (DeWaal). Reciprocal altruism is the act of giving aid or
preforming an act of kindness in order to receive delayed benefits or even immediate benefits
(Lecture 23: Empathy and Altruism). In order to participate in altruistic acts the species must have
empathy. Empathy is important because in order to perform these acts of kindness one has to
understand the emotion of another and be able to imagine what someone else is going through.
Dewaal discusses how altruism in animals must stem from something other than actions with ...
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Instead, he allowed his new "friend" to protect him and help him ward off competition when it came
to eating. Because geese mate for life the tortoise was lucky enough to find a companion and
protection. It can't be determined if the tortoise understood the actions of the goose. I choose this
example because it lacks the feel good feeling or helping someone in need of aid. I do not see
examples of empathetic behavior in this scenario. Another relationship that was less altruistic was
the dog and the cheetah. This is because they never performed beneficial acts at their expense in
order to help each other. They had companionship built over many years no doubt, but they
appeared more like orphaned siblings who have developed their own ways of communication and
no true acts of altruism or reciprocal altruism were demonstrated. As outlined previously, acts of
altruism require the actor to have self–awareness and the ability to have empathy for another. I think
it is because Atlas the Gibbon and the Capuchin troop are "cultural close" and their forms of
communication and playfulness allow them to understand each other altruism and empathy are
easiest to spot in their

No Need For The Lex Syn Parameter
No Need for the Lex–Syn Parameter: The Case of Reflexivization
Reinhart and Siloni (2005; R&S hereafter) claim that two distinct patterns are observed across
languages regarding reflexivization; and this crosslinguistic variation, according to R&S, can be
attributed to the setting of the Lex(icon)–Syn(tax) Parameter in each language, which determines
whether arity operations like reflexivization should apply in the lexicon or in the syntax.
Specifically, according to R&S, in languages like English where the parameter is set to "lexicon",
reflexivization of ECM verbs or of a dative argument is prohibited while nominalization of reflexive
verbs is allowed. This is shown in (1), (2), and (3), respectively.
(1) *John considers intelligent. (Intended: 'John considers himself intelligent.')
(2) *John sent a letter. (Intended: 'John sent a letter to himself.')
(3) She dresses slowly because she is an elegant dresser. (R&S, 410, (48a))
On the other hand, in languages like French where the parameter is set to "syntax", the reverse
patterns may be observed as shown in (4), (5), and (6).
(4) Jean
Jean
se
SE
considère considers intelligent. intelligent (R&S, 394, (9b))
'Jean considers himself intelligent.'
(5) Jean
Jean
s'est
SE is envoyé sent une a lettre. letter
(R&S, 411, (51b))
'Jean sent a letter to himself.'
(6) Jean
Jean
est is un an excellent excellent habilleur/maquilleur. (R&S, 410, (48b)) dresser/"makeup–er" (of
others only)
In short, R&S's claim is that reflexivization is a

Characteristics Of Romantic And Familial Love
Love is a unique aspect of the human condition that does not seem to exist in any other lifeform. In
spite of this, like many other traits that stem from evolution, it is likely that love is a product of that
process as well. Regardless of whether it is subconscious or not, romantic and familial love seem to
go hand in hand as people tend to seek qualities that may benefit a future family. It can be argued
that the sensation felt by a large majority of the population, love, can be attributed to the selfish
genes that inhabit the body. For the sake of argument, love can be described as the relationship
between people and their concern for each other. Dawkins introduces processes like kin selection,
mating strategies, and reciprocal altruism which may play a role in both romantic and familial love.
To summarize these processes: kin selection is when an organism risks their own well–being for a
relative to increase the likelihood of gene replication, mating strategies describe the methods in
which an organism uses to attract a mate, and reciprocal altruism is acting in a manner that
temporarily reduces one's well–being with the assumption that the apparent act of altruism will be
reciprocated.
Perhaps the most obvious example of kin selection is observed in familial relationships. Members of
the family typically have a greater degree of care for each other in comparison to those unrelated.
This love, or in this case, this concern for those related can be explained using the

HOPE Program Agency Case Study
HOPE Program Agency: Promoting Inclusion
The HOPE program is an agency, which firmly believes in the power of inclusion. Alongside
inclusion, the HOPE program provides other services that will help children with developmental
delays. The program offered through the San Diego Office of Education located at 6401 Linda Vista
Road in San Diego, California 92111. The mission statement and philosophy is built around Carl
Dunst's theory on enabling and empowering families. The HOPE program also believes in helping
the families, and the staff work with them, collaborating. They believe in reciprocal relationships,
and that relationships are the foundation for all learning. The program also supports the family in
their beliefs, values, and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are also family support services such as parent–to–parent support, parent education, and
information and parent support groups. All these services and support remind me of Erikson's first
stage of trust versus mistrust. I think HOPE tries to establish trust for the children by making sure
their basic needs are met and that they are being cared for. The support provided by HOPE to the
caregivers, in my opinion, help facilitate bonds of trust to form. Having a child with developmental
delays may be challenging to caregivers, therefore maybe making it hard to form bonds between
child and parent. Having the support from HOPE, may alleviate that stress, building a stronger sense
of trust between the caregivers and child. I also believes this fosters the importance of the reciprocal
relationship because once the trust has been built; the child will have increased confidence in what
the caregiver expects. I loved learning just how many services are offered through this program,
they believe in helping families and offering them the support they need to help their child grow. As
a microsystem, HOPE offers opportunities for children to interact with other peers in school
settings. "The mesosystem, as exemplified by the link between schools and families, can empower
families to share the responsibility for creating a safe school environment" (Berns, 2016, p. 225).
Through HOPE,

Altruistic And Of Altruistic Acts
Introduction In this section, I will deliver my idea on when people tend to be altruistic and who they
are prone to act on it. I make the assumption that the reason why someone would be altruistic would
be something that varies upon the individual, and the event they are altruistic, I hold it as a
multidimensional explanation in answering why. I think this because I can see all these models
having partial truth in the reality of how it is, I am sure that one person might help another due to
empathy, and that another might do it so they get the attention of their possible sexual partner, etc.
Every model can be correct depending on the person, and the event. I include event rather than
solely person, because although a person might often choose to be altruistic in many events for a
particular reason, this same reason doesn't necessarily have to be the case for every event they are
altruistic. However, my topic deals with my belief that who, and when altruistic acts are likely to be
executed. My premises for this idea are that when and who people are altruistic with is something
that is less fluid, than a multidimensional theory on why altruism exists, enough so that it doesn't
become an absolute principle, but a psychological tendency. This is my rough theoretical model for
a psychological tendency in altruism that I believe to be constantly realizing.
Basic Theoretical Model It is in my belief that the idea of diffusion is applicable as an explanation
or support of a

Christianity Essay
Christianity
Humans love to think of themselves as fundamentally selfless, conscience–driven individuals,
while, in Robert Wright's eyes, "we are all self–promoters and social climbers" (Wright 313). Wright
explains all altruistic behaviors as a part of a "shameless ploy" by our genes to ensure the
perpetuation of the invaluable genetic code (212). His assertion that human altruism is really
fundamentally self–serving in nature is intriguing in light of many of the hallowed conceptions we
tend to have regarding our own innate kindness towards each other. Viewed under the microscope of
Christian morality, which demands that its followers perform good deeds without drawing attention
to them, Wright's notion of altruism initially ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If the liquid food that one ant carries saves the lives of four of its full siblings, two of whom are
sisters (and therefore share 75% of the sacrificial ant's genes instead of the usual 50% in brothers),
then the ant's behavior is ultimately genetically beneficial. The sterile, altruistic ant's genes will be
passed on to the next generation via its relatives if they survive; it scores major points in the genetic
game. Thus, especially in the case of organisms with a high degree of relatedness, "altruism of
extraordinary magnitude is justified in the eyes of natural selection" since it will, in the end, ensure
the survival of the altruist's genes in one form or another (164). This kind of kin altruism makes
sense, then; we should be willing to sacrifice ourselves for our family, especially those members
who are most closely related to us, since they share at least a fraction of our genes.
How, then, do we explain non–kin altruism? Even if we accept that sacrificing ourselves for our
family is really fundamentally self–serving, why are we inclined towards kindness for those who are
not genetically tied to us? Again, the answer lies in selfishness. Wright proposes that people extend
favors to each other simply because they will someday be able to collect on them. Take the vampire
bat, for example; after extracting blood from its prey, a bat may return to its cave to regurgitate
some food for a friend who has had less luck that night. By sharing what

Why do Meerkats have Different Alarm Calls?
It is known that in some species alarm calls play an important role in intra–specific communication
and vigilance behaviour. They are encoded in two different ways (Zuberbühler et al., 1999). The
referential alarm call contains information about external events while the affective alarm call
provides information about the caller's motivation (Manser, 2001). Two well–researched non–
human primates using predator specific alarm calls are ring–tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) and also the
vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) (Evans et al., 1993). Other species such as some ground
squirrels, use alarm calls that contain information about the urgency of the situation rather than the
predator type (Manser et al., 2001).
Studies show that meerkats ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Meerkats have three main alarm call types to which they respond in different ways (Manser, 2001).
They are distinguished between terrestrial (mainly jackals), aerial (mainly eagles) and recruitment
calls (snakes and deposits of predators). Meerkats are also known to use different acoustic variations
depending on the urgency (high, medium and low) (Hollén and Manser, 2007).
The function of alarm calls in general has been studied for many decades and raises the question
what leads animals to perform the selfless act of warning others while also attracting the predator's
attention. This self–sacrificing behaviour appears to be altruistic (Sherman, 1977). However,
altruism commonly evolves through kin selection (Charnov and Krebs, 1975) while alarm calls can
be seen between all members of a species, closely related or not. This might be because sooner or
later the individual performing the altruistic act benefits from it (Trivers, 1971). It is likely that the
receiver of the altruistic act will repay the performer by behaving altruistic in the future and
therefore both benefit in the long run (Trivers, 1971). Receivers that decide against behaving
altruistic in return might be punished by not receiving any more altruistic acts, which is why natural
selection favours altruism (Trivers, 1971).
One might think that alarm calls are also useful to distract or even discourage predators from
hunting a group that already has been warned about said

Comparing Tomi And Keet In House Of The Red Fish
When using the Double Bubble Map method to compare two subjects, there are three sides. The
similarities, and the different things about the subjects. In this case, the subjects were Tomi and
Keet, the main characters of House of The Red Fish. One of the many differences between Tomi and
Keet is that Tomi is determined to get his father's fishing sampan to the surface, but Keet is adamant
about keeping it at the bottom of the canal where it lays. The Double Bubble Map is convenient
because it keeps your notes organized, you can also virtually compare any two things, and lastly it's
a fun alternative to taking dull notes. Firstly, this strategy is convenient because of how organized it
is. Even though there are a jumble of circles and words,

Altruism : Pro-Social Behavior And Altruism
Pro–social behaviour and altruism is theoretically an integral part and way of life in my society and
cultural background. It is both cultural and religious, with more literary information preached to that
effect. If pro–social behaviour is limited to "obeying the rules and conforming to socially accepted
behaviours (such as stopping at a "Stop" sign or paying for groceries)" (.Wikipoedia, 2017), then we
are in a more complex system characterised by where you find yourself at any given moment.
People from my anglosaxon background are known to be very prosocial as oppose to those from our
francophone sub–culture in culture. It is easy to get insulted along the streets, taxi or market place
by people you merely asked them for directives. When I found myself in Douala for the first time, I
felt so terrible when I got into a shop and the reception was busy painting her nails, with no
attention, and later reacted to be by saying 'Je t'ecoute', which ;literally means, 'I am listening' .I
simply walked out on her.
Altruism is what I can what is very difficult to describe of fully isolate in my social community.
This is because it is hard to know if the acts that appear to be selfless are really aimed at making the
benefiting person happy of is done with reciprocity intentions. I have been embarrassed when I see
politicians return to the villages and pay a once in a lifetime visit to an orphanage simply because
elections are around the corner. I have always boycotted their rallies

House Of The Red Fish Analysis
Do you find it hard to when looking for the similarities and differences of an object. Well you can
use the Double Bubble Map method to compare two subjects, there are three sides. The similarities,
and the different things about the subjects. In this case, the subjects were Tomi and Keet, the main
characters of "House of The Red Fish". One of the many differences between Tomi and Keet is that
Tomi is determined to get his father's fishing sampan to the surface, but Keet is adamant about
keeping it at the bottom of the canal where it lays. The Double Bubble Map is convenient because it
keeps your notes organized, you can also virtually compare any two things, and lastly it's a fun
different way to taking dull notes. Firstly, this strategy is convenient because of how organized it is.
Even though there are a jumble of circles and words, the adjacent lines connecting one circle to the
next keep the space tidy and easy to find. In addition, when comparing Tomi and Keet, there are
many differences, but just as many similarities between the two. Using the Double Bubble method,
you can easily decipher the things they have in common, and the things that contrast. For example,
both characters share the trait of being stubborn, because Tomi will not give up raising his father's
sampan, the Taiyo Maru, but Keet on the other hand will do anything to keep the sampan on the
ocean floor. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
You could compare dogs to cats, or sharks to lions. There is an endless array of things to compare
and contrast, and you will always find differences and similarities. Like Tomi, he is Japanese and
considered a traitor, but Keet is white and acts as though he is superior to Tomi because of his race.
Or you could compare Oiji–Chan to Mr. Wilson. Oiji–Chan is a Japanese immigrant and was taken
to a makeshift camp on Sand Island. Mr.Wilson is a BMTC Officer and is an American

The Causes of Altruism Essay
How do humans actually behave when faced with the decision to help others? The innate desire that
compels humans to help is called altruism by psychologists. Through this feeling, humans transform
from a selfish jerk to a more compassionate and caring person. Some psychologists believe that this
feeling stems from nature itself. Despite the fact that some altruistic acts originate from the
pressures of society, altruism predominantly comes from the survival of the fittest, the feeling of
empathy, and the selfish desire to benefit your own kin.
Before a case can be made for the causes of altruism, altruism itself must first be defined. Most
leading psychologists agree that the definition of altruism is "a motivational state with ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Because death is the ultimate sacrifice, as it is the "most complete and permanent change", no action
that directly leads to death can possess selfish influences (White, 233). We want not only for
ourselves to succeed, but for the entire species to exist peacefully.
Altruistic acts are often seen through the benevolent acts of family members express towards each
other on a regular basis. Because of the significant amount of genes we share with our kin, the
survival of a family is prioritized equally to the survival of the individual. Each member of the
family will therefore behave altruistically towards each other, due to the evolutionary drive for
survival. The reason that parents behave this altruistically towards their offspring is because
"parents (adults) are in a maximally favorable position to dispense inexpensive aid to offspring
(eggs) that maximally resembles the parents genetically" (Alexander, 462). Even through altruism is
perhaps highest between family members, people also feel more empathetic towards others who
possess similar traits, as a large number of genes are share. As altruism "involves a loss of
individual fitness, [it] can evolve only by group selection" (Nunney, 228). Therefore, we can see
that nature's force of the survival of the group is a primary driving factor for the appearance of
altruism.
Lastly, another definitive explanation for natural

Summary Of Ayn Rand's Theory Of Rational Selfishness
I agree with Ayn Rand's theory of Rational Selfishness and with how she depicts altruism – in terms
of the false idea of benevolence and the actuality of the true concept of self–sacrifice. Before
reading this chapter of Rand's book, I labelled myself as an altruist, because I was raised under the
false interpretation of altruism, I believed it was about giving to those who were in need, even if that
meant you had to do without for the time being. My definition of selfishness was society's
misunderstood definition, living and operating only to accomplish and fulfill my desire. In the
article, "The Ethics of Benign Selfishness" by Tibor R. Machan he discusses the prominence of
altruism and states that one of the reasons why it is so commonly ... Show more content on
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It's not wrong to want to nurture my humanity and survive. The moral code of selfishness does not
support an individual who only focuses on themselves without the care for the interests and
wellbeing of others nor does it promote a deficiency in self–care. Since the entire universe is
connected, no man can operate as an island, human survival involves taking care of one's own well–
being as well as your neighbors. So, self–interest could never be the motivation for the actions and
choices made by all individuals because then society wouldn't progress. As Midgley said, it is one
aspect of life; but in my opinion, the motivation behind our actions and choices, is

The Impact Of Social Behaviors On Human Behavior
Introduction Group behaviour, also known as gregarious behaviour, occurs in a wide variety of
animals including, but not limited to, invertebrates (Ritz, 1994), fish (Shaw, 1970), birds (Lack,
1968), wildebeests (Gueron and Levin, 1993), lions (Bertram, 1975), and primates (Nakagawa,
1990). Benefits of group living include improved reproductive success, increased foraging success,
and improved predation survival (Hamilton, 1971; Reluga and Viscido, 2005). Social behaviours
evolve when the benefits of group living outweigh the costs (Fleagle, 2013). Predation risk is
lowered in social groups by confusing the predator so the predator's success decreases (Hall et al.,
1986; Smith and Warburton, 1992), by providing improved vigilance – more ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Group living in animals can be an act of selfish behavior, one of the reasons being the reduced risk
of predation (Morrell and James, 2008). Species that show this behaviour include sticklebacks
(Krause and Tegeder, 1994), banded killifish (Hoare et al., 2004), toad tadpoles (Watt et al., 1997;
Spieler and Linsenmair, 1999) and ocean skaters (Foster and Treherne, 1981). By keeping close to
others and forming a group, an animal can benefit from collective vigilance, predator confusion, and
the dilution risk, all which reduce the chance of predation to that individual (Morrell and James,
2008; Krause and Ruxton, 2002). Selfish herd theory The selfish herd theory was developed by
Hamilton and is widely excepted as a explanation for the selfish grouping of animals (Morrell and
James, 2008). The Selfish herd theory states that individuals within a population attempt to reduce
their predation risk by putting other individuals between themselves and predators resulting in
groups of animals (Hamilton, 1971). Hamilton's proposed theory contrasted the hypothesis that
evolution of such social behaviour was based on mutual benefits to the population (Hamilton, 1971).
An animal may join a group for its own selfish reasons, seeking to push the risk of being a victim of
predation onto other members (Breed and Moore, 2011). In groups, predation risk is greatest on the
outside edge and lower towards the

The Theory Of Evolution By Natural Selection
Auguste Comte was the first to coin the term 'Altruism' in his 1852 book 'Catéchisme positiviste',
translated in 1858 to 'The Catechism of Positive Religion'. He used it to encapsulate an ethical belief
of his alternatively expressed as 'live for others'. Since then the term's meaning has fluctuated
somewhat; it's been widely appropriated to a plethora of behaviours however possibly not as Comte
meant it. In this essay I intend to explain the evolution of the word, where you may or may not find
altruistic behaviours and most importantly it's like to evolutionary theory.
Evolutionary theory was developed by Charles Darwin and documented in his book 'On the Origin
of Species' (1859). In it's most simplistic terms it explains how and why animals, including humans,
have changed and evolved over time to become the way they are. One of his more well known and
supported theories illustrated in his book is the theory of evolution by natural selection. This says
that within species certain individuals will hold more beneficial traits than others, these individuals
will then go on to outlive other individuals who hold fewer desirable traits. They will then mate and
produce offspring who will carry forward their genetics increasing the likelihood of the next
generation also possessing the desirable traits. For example, during the Industrial Revolution in the
1800's peppered moths which would usually have black and white speckles on their wings, started
turning black. The increased use

Essay on Altruism
Why do we show altruism? Social and evolutionary biologists, psychologists, economists and
philosophers alike have made many attempts at providing an explanation for altruism. As a result,
many opposing theories have developed over the years. In this essay, I will attempt to explain
altruism as the presence of an altruistic gene which is selected for by natural selection in terms of
kin selection. I will explore evidence supporting this theory, as well as evidence pointing to
psychological explanations such as reciprocal altruism, social norms and primitive sympathy.
First, it is important to understand what altruism is. Altruism is any act carried out by an individual
in order to benefit another individual. [1, 2] At first glance, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Nevertheless, one recent study suggests that genetic differences between our ancestors could have
resulted in lethal intergroup competition which disfavoured non–altruists [6]. I will attempt to link
this theory to what is known as kin selection. Kin selection explains altruism as an act increasing the
probability of an individual's genes being transmitted to the next generation. [3] We share half of our
genes our siblings and parents, and a quarter with cousins, nephews and nieces. [1, 2] Therefore,
altruistic behaviour towards these individuals would result in our genes passing on due to their
higher probability of survival. This is known as increasing one's inclusive fitness. [7] Since early
human societies included members genetically related to one another, [6] kin selection between
these individuals resulted in the societies growing in size. Thus, societies genetically predisposed in
displaying co–operative, altruistic behaviour towards each other (through acts such as group
hunting, mutually defending each other, and sharing food) are more capable of surviving, resulting
in the altruistic gene surviving.[1] This, I believe, is the predominant explanation for altruism in
humans today. The act of altruism is a genetic inheritance evolving through the basic instinct of
survival and continuity of species.
Other theorists however,

Altruism: The Illusion of Self-Interest Essay
The behavior of altruism in an individual is when it brings more costs than benefits for the benefit of
another individual. Altruism comes from the Latin word "Alter" which means "the others." This
translation of alturism describes it relatively well. Another great definition of altruism can be found
in a statement of Edward Osborne Wilson, an American biologist. According to Wilson, "Altruism is
defined in biology, as in everyday life, as a self–destructive behavior for the benefit of other."
(Recent Work on Human Altruism and Evolution) Another popularized theory by Richard Dawkins
states that an individual who behaves more altruistic towards others who share its genes will tend to
reproduce those genes. But since we always want ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Social benefits may have to be compensated by material gifts, or by provision of an equivalent
social benefit with respect to the recipient. It is led by our personal beliefs and many also state that
altruism is set by our genes. Reciprocal altruism is a theory which explains the evolution of
altruistic behavior between unrelated individuals by natural selection. It was published in 1971 by
Robert Trivers. But as more is given by the altruists more is expected to be given back. Since many
would state that pure altruism exists, reciprocal altruism is the form of altruism which is being
mixed up. Even if an altruist might not want to receive anything for it, he will still get a
consideration for it, whether social or objective or any other kind. So even if an altruistic action
looks like a pure action after it is over, it will always turn into a reciprocal altruism action. Many
would argue that moral would influence in it as well as the opposite of altruism, ethics. Another two
different main points which have to respect this altruism theory is the universal egoism and the
moral. Although altruism and egoism are completely opposites, there is a connection between so–
called selfish behavior and altruistic acts. The moral action is based largely on such application of
the good or right ones. From the perspective of evolutionary biology, there can be no true altruism,
because it would wipe–out itself, because true altruists do without, ultimately,

The Origins Of Virtue By The Zoologist Matt Ridley
The zoologist Matt Ridley explores the question of why human beings are so cooperative, even
though we are built of "selfish genes" in his book: The Origins of Virtue. The book lines up a large
selection of examples of cooperation, utilizing different scientific approaches such as economy,
sociology, evolutionary biology, anthropology (Rinaldo, 1997). It argues that in some human
relationships natural selection promotes virtue and trust, but at the same time humans are egoistic
and motivated by self–interest (Leigh, 2000). The book begins with the description of the genetic
foundations of human nature and argues that cooperation is grounded in evolutionary theory
(Dugatkin, 1998) and describes cooperation and selfishness utilizing the examples of ants, corals,
bees, mother and embryo relationship. Next, the division of labour is examined using the notion of
Adam Smith about specialization which is essential to trade and elevates the society to be more than
just the sum of its parts. Chapter 3 is devoted to the Prisoner 's Dilemma from game theory, which
can be traced through the rest of the book. It deals with how people are led by self–interest or
cooperation, how reciprocal humans and animals are because eventually we gain more from
cooperation, despite the temptation to cheat (Markóczy & Goldberg, 1997). This chapter is followed
by the extensions and conditions that are necessary to get reciprocal altruism, which is uniquely
mastered by humans. The next two chapters

Morality's Foundations : Nurture Or Nature?
Morality's Foundations: Nurture or Nature?
The foundations of human morality have often been a point of contention in the scientific and
psychological communities, with researchers frequently debating if human morals are innate
sensations that are hardwired into one's genetic makeup or that morals start out as a blank slate that
are simply molded by the environment in which an individual was brought up. In recent times, we
have seen a vast amount of scientific publications favoring both sides of this argument, but most
publications have failed to make one key connection. Typically, recent literature has failed to bridge
the gap between humans and the rest of the Animalia kingdom, as many animals, especially the
members of the Aves and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The term seemingly is used with altruistic because it has been noted that these behaviors in the
evolutionary sense are not true instances of altruism as the animal does gain inclusive fitness
through means such as kin selection, reciprocal altruism, and cooperation – thus indicating these
behaviors are actually selfish in nature (Waal, 2008). Inclusive fitness is a biological theory
established by a mathematical model created by W.D. Hamilton in 1964 that illustrates how an
animal will gain genetic success and increased evolutionary fitness through cooperative and
altruistic behaviors. An animal can gain inclusive fitness by two means, directly through
mechanisms such as reciprocal altruism/ mutualism or indirectly through other means like kin
selection. For example, in kin selection an altruistic helper will have their genes indirectly passed on
through their kin, as their altruistic behaviors have directly increased the kin's evolutionary fitness
and reproductive success (Hamilton, 1964). For instance, this phenomenon is directly portrayed in
the self–sacrificing emission of an alarm call by a common ground squirrel female when in the
presence of a predator. Through various observations, researchers have found that these female
squirrels will typically only emit an alarm call when surrounded by their kin. On the other hand,
however, these

Anthropological Research On Relationships Essay
Relationships, social networking, social media, society, all terms that imply cooperation, and a
willingness engage with other people. Several researchers across multiple disciplines have studied
these interactions and proceedings. Some looking to gain insight into why social interactions take
place, and why relationships exist. Others seeking to explain that only certain types of interactions
have value and what those values are. However, no single discipline focuses solely on cooperation,
relationships, or their innerworkings. There are some that try to explain how cooperation and
reciprocal relationships reduce the likelihood of risk in certain situations, and different researchers
have proposed different models to explain this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
195). This is relevant because it helps to better understand the free riding problem, which will be
addressed and defined later on.
Quite a bit of research exists to highlight many types of relationships and how those relationships
have reduced certain risks, or introduced new risks. Many researchers have tried to consider the
uniqueness of the common examples that have been accented in anthropological research, like the
Bantu people and the Basarwa people that Elizabeth Cashdan (1985) discusses. Although not all
researchers have been as successful in identifying risk reduction reciprocity model in cross–cultural
examples, such as Bliege Bird et. al. (2002), which proposed that this could be because of their
treatment of free riders or just that they practice food and resource sharing without any concern for
reducing risk of loss of resources. Either way, as previously mentioned quite a bit of research has
been conducted to identify types of risk reduction reciprocity strategies, and much more research
has been done to examine different types of relationships. Overall, the primary concern of this paper
is going to be trying to identify a relationship or association between the proposed model and the
formation of different types

Altruism Is Good Or Good?
Altruism is defined as the principle or practice of unselfish concern for or devotion to the welfare of
others. Why would someone think that certain actions are moral? There are two answers. First,
altruism is naturally positive but on the contrary there are situations that decisions are made with
morally bad tendencies and motivations, in circumstantial selfishness. Secondly, altruism is good
because of its affirmative effects. The outcome of altruism does not only effect the person to whom
the altruism is intended for, but it has its indirect ramification on society. There is truth to both of
these answers. We all have experiences of acting out of an impartial concern for the health of a
friend or loved one. These experiences that we have had seem to be an unambiguous instance of
moral virtue. It seems likely that if our society had more acts of altruism, our world would be a
better place to live than if there were no altruism at all.
With that being said, the two doubts about altruism being a good thing should be explained. First of
all, altruistic acts are not always morally good. Imagine the organ donor being racist and this person
wishes to donate or sell their organs, but only to a recipient of their own ethnicity. This person is
doing an altruistic act but not a truly moral one. Certainly there are different ways in which an
altruistic act could be considered wrong. Here are a couple of examples: The person who is doing
the altruist act may be doing damage about

The Movement Of Positive Psychology
The movement of positive psychology is a reminder that our field and study has been focusing on
things like anxiety, disease, weakness, and damage. This movement urged us to shift our focus to
include the study of strength and virtue as well. Positive psychology is stating that the field of
psychology is more than just the study of illness or health but rather it is also about "work,
education, insight, love, growth, and play" (Seligman, 2002). Positive psychology is the study of
strengths that enable individuals and communities to thrive and it is founded on the belief that
people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives.
Pain, suffering, and death can be integrated into positive psychology through the idea of what gives
us meaning in life. As human beings we are always looking for meanings in our life and how we
should live. We want to cultivate what is best within ourselves. As suggested in the readings on
death and dying, the authors stated that when people become aware of their mortality, they become
freer and even more compassionate (Martin, Campbell, & Henery). This is because when we realize
that there is no escaping death, we no longer live life by societal norms and rules but rather live life
by our own rules. We learn to embrace life differently by focusing on the positive aspect of our life
knowing that death is waiting. From a positive psychology perspective, we are shifting our focus
from the negative aspects of our life to the mores positive aspects

Rationale And Significance Of Animal Selection Theory
Rationale and Significance
Since Darwin published his theory of evolution, cooperation in organisms from bacteria to humans
has been a difficult dilemma in evolutionary theory. Even Darwin did not fully understand how
altruistic acts in organisms fit into the natural selection theory. Natural selection theory states that an
individual that has inherited a trait that gives them a better chance at surviving, will be naturally
selected for. An explanation as to why a trait that causes an individual to act in a way that is costly
to it persists in groups has confounded scientists for centuries. Since then, scientists like Trivers and
Williams provide theories to explain altruistic acts that still satisfy the natural selection theory.
Williams appealed to kinship to satisfy the behavior, and Trivers appealed to reciprocal altruism
where an altruistic act was conditionally reciprocated (Trivers 2006, Williams 1966). This study
seeks to look at the possibility of three of the main theories; by product mutualism, kin selection, or
reciprocal altruism as explanations to cooperation in the Pied flycatchers. The birds provide a rich
study system in which they form breeding pairs, large amount of social interactions, and societies
are composed of both unrelated and related individuals. Although many studies look at these
explanations separately, this study integrates all the different explanations of cooperation into one
experiment, keeping the species, environment, and individuals

Exchange Analysis On The Realms Of Financial Trading
Exchange can be defined in a number of ways, it is the process of giving or taking an
object/thing/commodity in return for another (Merriam–Webster, 2017). Or as defined by
Investopedia (2017) an exchange is a "marketplace in which securities, commodities, derivatives
and other financial instruments are traded". The element of "financial instruments" however can be
brought into question. It can be hypothesised that exchange does not always have to exist within in
the realms of financial trading. The exchange journal exercise challenged my idea of exchange as it
highlighted the inherent sociality of exchange relationships. In response to this it also highlighted
the capitalist underpinnings, allowing for insight into the ways in which ... Show more content on
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The agency and sociality of commodities can be exhibited by an exchange via Vic Deals between
my flatmates and I and a person down the road from us.
Our flat requires a couch, it is an object we desire and thus are happy to exchange money, for a
couch. Money however is a fictious commodity as a commodity, according to Polanyi (2001) as
something produced for consumption however money is not consumed; it just circulates through
markets acting as a stand in representing the value of commodities. After locating a couch on Vic
Deals we then message the seller of the couch. Through Facebook a social exchange of basic details,
including the location of the couch, occurs. This is a purely social exchange however it could be
argued that Facebook is gaining revenue via advertising and our patronage on their website. To me
when I actually began to think about capitalism in a deeper sense I realised just how engrained into
day to day life it is, you don't have to be making a purchase in order to interact with capitalist
systems. It turns out that the couch is located very near to our flat which adds the element of
convenience to this ongoing exchange. We decide to go look at the couch and then after looking at
we decide to purchase this couch.
My flatmate transfers $125 to the seller's bank account; in this exchange, the only physical handing
over of goods/commodities is us receiving the couch. Whilst the money does exist it is not in
physical form and is only transferred from

Reciprocal Altruism And Kin Selection

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Reciprocal Altruism And Kin Selection