The Lecture At The Angelica Library

The Lecture At The Angelica Library
The Opportunity in Lecturing
Things to Take From my Latest Historical Lecture at the Angelica Library
On August 18th, 2016, I had presented a historical lecture on the Abolitionist History of Allegany
County, at the Angelica Library. A number of times over the years I have given presentations and
lectures at my local library, for the sake of helping to spread ideas and information to others,
developing my skills, and other such purposes. I believe there is some use in reporting and reflecting
upon it, and that there can be some things to take away from it.
As part of my activities for during the summer break, I had figured I would give another historical
lecture at the Angelica Library. I figured that it would be a useful continuity with some of the
historical work that I have been doing. In the preceding semester I had written a paper on the
abolitionist history of Allegany County for a class in American Slavery. Following this, I had
uncovered some further information on aspects of the subject. When it came time for submissions to
the annual Phi Alpha Theta regional history conference, I had decided to write another paper on the
subject incorporating this additional information. I had presented this paper at the conference at
Ithaca College during my speaking section. From that point I had also gained some other interesting
bits of information to add on my knowledge on the matter. For instance, during another section of
the conference I had listened to the presentation
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The Movie ' Departures From The Historical Record
Davis claims that her work is more historical than the movie because the film–maker's "departures
from the historical record." (Benson 57). That is, Vigne's work lacks from historical understanding
because he divires from the right direction due to several reasons including but not restricted to
ignoring the Basque region, neglecting religious issues, and disregarding complicity of Bertrande
except in the last invented scene when she gave water to judge, and she confessed to him. More
importantly, the trial would have been confidential not open to public. In addition, the movie
characterized with the complicity and vagueness, which made it hard to interpret. As reported by
Davis, the film's main problem lies in its failure to capture the ... Show more content on
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Basically, the film is there to make money, so the producers have to make it accessible to as many
people as possible. Undoubtedly, the film producers make their finishing touch in order to make it
appeal to the audiences. They added some changes, such as using wrong color robes for the judges
of the Parlement of Toulouse as well as omitting vital information, which affects the original story
by intention or chance in make it an artistic touch rather than historical touch. It seems to me that
Davis's book is more historical than the movie because she provides a detailed description of the life
of rural families during that time, and the journey of Martin's family from the Basque region to the
Artigat because of political and economic reasons. She goes more and demonstrates the social
circumstances of the French peasantry in the sixteenth century. At any rate, Davis 's account of both
the trial and village life in Artigat is more historically accurate than the movie. Davis brings the
story to life as a historical achievement. That is why Davis writes her book specifically to address
the shortage in the film and to "follow the historical evidence closely." It is unquestionable that
historians tend to be skeptical about their sources; it is the nature of any historical work, when they
address basic facts that happened in the past. Obviously enough, in the most cases,

What The Title Of Hobsbawm 's Book Can Indicate At A First...
Despite what the title of Hobsbawm's book can indicate at a first glance, his work is neither a step–
by–step textbook of factual information about how history should be written nor a series of directly
given guidelines that historians should follow. Instead it is a book composed of twenty–one essays
that represent his own work transformed from their previous form as lectures, contributions to
conferences or articles and reviews in different journals. As Hobsbawm himself explains, his
reflections on history for the better of his fifty–year career in history have brought together this
collection of papers. His essays deal with issues like the uses and abuses of history in both society
and politics and concerns with historical interpretation while also looking at the history of the
discipline itself from the 1890s –when it became an academic subject– to the newer historical trends
and fashions like postmodernism. When looked at separately, the chapters in the book appear to be
too different to fit in the same volume and developed by themselves each can form a new book.
However, Hobsbawm explains his reasoning behind adding each of them to the book. Chapter one
stands out as Hobsbawm addresses future generation of historians (it was at first an introductory
lecture given at a university in Budapest), warning about the dangers of writing history wrongly and
outlining the main responsibilities of historians. Chapters two, three and four focus on the historian's
concern with

Analysis Of Natalie Zemon-Davis's The Return Of Martin Guerre
Natalie Zemon–Davis's 1983 book The Return of Martin Guerre provided both the public and
academic world with a fresh and interesting take on a classic story. Presented like a mystery thriller,
Davis weaves a tale of deception based on a solid framework of cultural history. Her narrative
depends on grounding the characters of Bertrande de Rols, Martin Guerre, Arnaud du Tihl, and their
associates within a web of social context. Davis draws heavily on the traditional Coras narrative, but
also supplements the established story with the version presented in Le Sueur, a new source she
discovered. Additionally, she incorporates unusual sources dealing with broader social context and
infers specifics from a general study of period interactions. It is this latter approach that historian
Robert Finlay disagrees with. He claims that Davis does not appropriately rely on the source
material provided by the Coras narrative and thus gives an unnecessarily dramatic version of events.
The AHR forum on the subject includes both Finlay's review and Davis's response, providing a
model of scholarly debate that extends beyond the actual content of the book in question. In addition
to being a rhetorical critique, Finlay is attacking the foundational methodology of modern social
history that Davis is then compelled to defend.
According to Robert Finlay, Zemon–Davis provides an overly romanticized version of the narrative
that deviates too heavily from the source material. While he qualifies his

Suggestions For Apsi From Billie Jean Clemens
Suggestions for APSI from Billie Jean Clemens 1. A misunderstanding still exists as to the approach
of the redesign. What does it mean to teach history in the digital age where students have access to
facts at the swipe of a finger? Teachers need to understand that the redesign represents a paradigm
shift in the way history is taught, no longer does one need to cover it all at breakneck speed and
hope something sticks. However, how does one teach a conceptual approach to history that
emphasizes the application of historical thinking skills while still holding students accountable for a
core of knowledge? The workshops, through collaborative conversations and the development of
quality lesson plans, need to educate teachers as to what this really looks like in the classroom. 2.
Above all, the workshops need to emphasize the crucial role of historical thinking skills; how one
would teach those skills; AND, how those skills are assessed on the test. While the new Curriculum
Framework has done a nice job of explaining these skills, teachers need explicit instruction on how
the skills are assessed on the exam. For example, in the CF, neither the description nor the proficient
expectations explain that in a periodization essay students must explain how the period was different
AND similar to the developments that preceded and/or followed. Even though this is clearly stated
on the rubrics for the exam, a teacher new to the course would have to realize that both

Kenya 's Independence From The British Empire
The Pipeline In the years leading up to Kenya's independence from the British Empire, a violent
uprising later known as Mau Mau plagued the colony. From1952 to 1960, African forest fighters
waged a war against the British who had little experience fighting against guerilla warfare. In an
effort to bring the crime wave, as the British called it, to an end, colonial officials housed those who
they believed to be working for or in collaboration with the Mau Mau fighters in detention camps.
The Kikuyu, Kenya's largest ethnic group, were those who were primarily targeted by the British.
This is due to the fact that the majority of Mau Mau fighters were members of that tribal/ethnic
group. After several years and many reports of brutality and massacres within the detention camps,
members of the British population began to call for an end to the camps and an end to colonialism.
How were the British Empire and its allies able to justify such a horrific counterinsurgency program,
especially so soon after the liberation of Nazi concentration camps?
Historiography
Perhaps the two most notorious modern historians who have published comprehensive secondary
sources regarding Mau Mau are Caroline Elkins and David Anderson. Each has published a book
about the rebellion and each book will be vital to my research regarding the Pipeline. Elkins' book,
Britain's Gulag in Kenya, goes into great detail about the Pipeline; she heavily critiques' the British
and portrays Mau Mau as a race war.

Essay On Indian Historiography
How the Indian historiography has evolved from precolonial to post–colonial period?
Over the three millenniums, India has developed opulent and complex layers of culture, since
geographically India lies at crossroads of trading routes. From ancient times, people from diverse
background and ethnicity came into India as traders and invaders via land as well as sea routes.
They settled down here and, over the time, India assimilated them in its cultural and social mosaic.
Also, India remained a home of host of empires and kingdoms with each having a peculiar history.
Pre–colonial empires and kingships had history but it would be told orally and would occasionally
be chronicled. It were the Europeans particularly the British armed with documentation and
statistical knowledge who introduced a systematic chronology of the Indian history upon seizing
India. The modern Indian historiography was ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
. As Jalal and Bose have argued that "the cracking and crumbling of the modern nation–state system,
the disintegration of the socialist alternative, the disillusionment with the false promises of
capitalism, and the resurgence of redefined social identities thought to have been obliterated by the
steam–roller of modernization have all rendered interpretations of the modern era in South Asian
and world history much more complex. Recent themes in South Asian historiography have been the
role of intermediate social groups in the construction of the British raj and that of 'subaltern' social
groups in anti–colonial resistance; the part played by the colonial state in the reinvention of
communal and caste categories; the refashioning of social relations of class by the linking of Indian
economic regions to wider capitalist systems; and the impact of the interplay between national,
communal and regional levels of politics on the process of

Jazz historiography
The rapid development of jazz in both the United States and Europe generated a number of diverse
musical expressions, including musics that most listeners today would not recognize as "jazz"
music. In order to remedy this situation, jazz musicians and critics after 1930 began to codify what
"real" jazz encompassed, and more importantly, what "real" jazz did not encompass. This
construction of authenticity, often demarcated along racial lines, served to relegate several artists
and styles (those outside a "mainstream" to the margins of historiography.
The issue of race is central to all discourses of jazz. Alongside race goes the problem of
representation, or, who gets to play what for whom and under what circumstance. Problems of ...
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It creates a false binary in which the only races involved in the creation or playing of jazz are black
and white, thus implicitly writing European, Roma, Latin American, or other ethnic groups out of
the narrative, a mistake this thesis will seek to correct by including guitarists from outside the
black/white binary as valid contributors to discourse. Ideas intimately tied to issues of race and
social impact is the issue of authenticity.
What constitutes real (authentic) jazz and who are jazz's authentic players? For that matter, what are
authentic jazz instruments? Authenticity is usually defined by race, ethnicity, and/or musical
pedigree, though there seems to be a hierarchy at work in those definitions. of authenticity, however,
are not real or absolute; they are imaginary constructs made to suit the ideological needs of fans,
writers, musicians, and critics.
Black musicians are usually considered to be more authentic than white musicians; however, white
American musicians are more authentic than their European counterparts.
While jazz might be an African–American music, it is still often viewed as being uniquely
American. Europeans, in turn, are more authentic than other ethnic sub–groups, like
Roma, or other nationalities. These notions of authenticity were some of the most influential factors
in the shaping of jazz discourse. Pedigree, whether real or assumed,

Historiography The Natural
Historiography Historiography is a historical film theory that focuses on the assumptions, principles,
and methodologies of historical study (Giannetti, 528). Giannetti divides this theoretical study into
four different types of film history: aesthetic, technological, economic, and social. According to
American scholar, Raymond Fielding, "the history of motion pictures–as an art form, as a medium
of communication, and as an industry–has been determined principally by technological
innovations" (Giannetti, 531). With time comes much technological advancement that will allow
filmmakers to accurately portray what they want and give the audiences the intended experience.
Technological advancements have aided in the production of The Rookie and The Natural in the
sense that both films could be shown through a multitude of decadal lenses. Both films show the
main characters in their childhood and how that has shaped who they are, but it also shows them in
adulthood as well. The changes in time range from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While The Natural contains many attributes from each perspective, the analysis can best be related
to structuralism and semiology. Joseph Campbell mentions a good point while discussing the
function of mythology by saying that, "one of the functions of mythology is to guide human spirit
by providing common or universal symbols that offset that darker nature of humans" (Wood &
Pincus, 22). The Natural most certainly follows this function with the underlying network of
symbolic meaning along with its many symbols. Each of the metaphors discussed by Wood and
Pincus can relate to the points previously mentioned in the structuralism/semiology section and their
analysis includes some aspects not previously noted that would further contribute to the underlying
structure, such as the 'universal

Germany 's War And The Holocaust : Disputed Histories
Julia Katzman
December 4, 2014
History of War Professor Nolan
Book Review #2
Evaluating History
Bartov, Omer. Germany 's War and the Holocaust: Disputed Histories. Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 2003. Kindle.
For decades, historians and citizens have struggled to grasp the relationship between the German
army and the mass murders committed during the Holocaust. These questions have persisted since
the concentration camps were liberated and the extent of the atrocities committed during World War
II were revealed. Omer Bartov provides a myriad of scholarly interpretations in his fifth book,
Germany's War and the Holocaust: Disputed Histories. In this work, Bartov provides a historical and
scholarly discourse on the German army and its institutionalization of mass murder. Overall,
Bartov's book is well supported through his extensive use of secondary material and his ability to
appropriately characterize specific nations' reactions to historical Holocaust assertions. However,
Bartov's lack of primary documents, exaggerated critiques, and organizational flaws detract from his
expressed thesis. These deficiencies cause his work to read more as a disjointed series of book
reviews, rather than a single, unified statement. Omer Bartov separates his analysis into three
different sections, each of which comments upon prominent issues in Holocaust scholarship. His
first section discusses the nature of the German army on the Eastern Front during World War II,
where

The History of Those Without Wealth or Education Essay
History has been traditionally told from the point of view of those with wealth and education. But to
truly understand history one must understand the history of the people who were not writing the
history which includes the nation's minorities, working class and those without a high level of
education. Society is made up of a variety of people and history is not complete without telling all of
their stories. History was traditionally written by a select number of people. This leads to a biased
view of history because the educated could not experience every part of society. One example is
American slavery where many of the black slaves were not formally educated so they were not able
to tell their stories. At first the educated white ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example Providential history was written by governors and puritans to justify the ways of God.
Rationalists were usually wealthy and classically educated men with vast private resources who
wrote history for leisure or to educate others with their success. Professional historians were college
educated and wrote history for a living. A branch of Professional history, new social history focused
on the retelling of history which culminated in the last 40 years. In these past 4 decades history was
rewritten to include women and minorities. As they rose in power and influence they began to
involve themselves in the writing of history. The untold stories of the important events in American
history such as the civil rights movement were now told from a different point of view. History
cannot be complete without including all information. If the government decided to eradicate events
that made the nation look bad then history will make no sense. This is happening in the textbooks of
Shanghai. The textbooks now include no information on wars dynasties and communist revolutions.
Even chairman Mao, one of China's most significant historical figures is excluded. China prefers to
focus on the future rather than its past. The new textbooks de–emphasize the history of the peasants
and workers and create an image of a China that cared more about technology and trade.2 Reading
through one of these textbooks, one can sense that content is missing. This is a clear of

How Have New Emphases And Interpretative Lenses Is History
How have new emphases and interpretative lenses emphasizing history from below affected the
more traditional subfields of political, military, diplomatic, and sectional history and how do they
affect world history. During the past century these four subfields have evolved within themselves to
rise from their traditional methodologies of study to incorporating social and cultural historiography
to better analyze their subject matter; while turning from an inner study, as it applies to the United
States, towards a more world view. The authors of this week's reading project's a theme or
commonality that has affected their subfield from the turn of the century until now. They all mention
Frederick Jackson Turner's reading of his famous paper, "The Significance of the Frontier in
American History," where he "argued that frontier settlement, and not institutional and spiritual
inheritance from the Old World, accounted for the origins and peculiar development of American
democracy." This was the first time interpretations of social and cultural were utilized in the studies
of particular subfields that started the Progressive era that lasted until the start of World War II.
During this period studies were from the "bottom–up" versus the old "top–to–bottom" approach;
going from the great men and great events, to the study of the ordinary people and incorporating
previously neglected groups like women and black. Following the war the counter–Progressive or
consensus

History : A New Form Of History
Doing History Essay:
Up until the early nineteenth–century, history had been written in two dominant traditions, "one
predominantly learned and antiquarian, the other essentially literary". However, a postmodern shift
in historiography has led to a new form of history, namely 'disobedient histories'. 'Disobedient
history' as a new form of history moves away from Leopold Von Ranke's ideas of history being a
rigorous scientific inquiry towards a more diverse and cultured form. Some of these forms include
graphic novels, photo journals, dramatised series of events or blog posts. My output was the latter,
my blog post was designed to analyse literary and artistic form of memory in the Holocaust, and the
problems the forms present. By choosing the medium of a blog post I aimed to challenge traditional
academic rules, to use a medium that would serve to democratise history for the modern era, and
also to create conversation with the wider socio cultural scene; with the argument also pertaining to
'disobedient history' as a recognisable form of history method and writing.
As expected, the blog that has been created is not a traditional academic form of historical writing;
however, new works in the field of historical writing may argue differently. In the traditional
orthodox view of history, there has been a refusal to consider historical narratives as a manifestation
of 'verbal fictions'. As Hayden White describes "verbal fictions, the contents of which are as much
invented as

Historiography Of The 1940s
The collapse of the military junta signified the decline of the traditional interpretative schemes and
frameworks for the 1940s that dominated the domestic historiography for over thirty years. This
traditional approach is encapsulated in the theory of the 'three rounds' of the quasi–deliberate
communist attempt to seize power by force of arms in 1943–1944, in December 1944 and in 1946–
1949. The decade of the 1970s saw the emergence of a young generation of scholars who introduced
a revisionist school of thought and marked a paradigm shift in the academic discourse on the 1940s.
This generation, which continued to dominate the historiography of the 1940s until the end of the
cold–war period, questioned many of the traditional interpretations

Turing's Historiography
At this point it is worth exploring why Turing's posthumous image has only been fully reconstructed
and promoted mostly after 1989. There are wider factors in public history at work than the mere
difficulty of obtaining sources. Some of the major barriers to Turing's renaissance during the second
wave of heroism can be reckoned from historiography and context. Indeed these major reasons for
obscurity are sometimes a point of reference for commentators highlighting present–day Britain's
moral superiority over the past in recognising his heroic greatness, as Peter Tatchell has argued. 1
The changing fortunes of LGBT minorities in Britain are complex beyond full summary here.
However, certain developments have played a significant part in suppressing ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
7 The twentieth–century British public demonstrated a fundamental dislike of homosexuality when
polled until relatively late. 8 This attitude has undergone a dramatic reversal over the last fifteen
years, marked by David Cameron's apology for the act in 201X. 9 10 It is also worth noting that
structural initiatives in historiography did not exist as mainstays of public history until recently. For
example, LGBT History Month only emerged in 1994, mostly as the result of American activism in
academia. Amidst a more general liberal malaise over historical and current homophobia, it can be
seen that the current promotion of Turing is, in part, a politicised attempt to atone for what is now
mostly seen as an embarrassing, cruel mistake.
Divorced from disapproval of his personal life, security concerns have been an extremely negative
factor in blocking promotion of Turing. This can be demonstrated through both the evidence above
and the comparable fortunes of his collages. It took until 19XX for Dilly Knox to receive his first
biographical volume, in which X marketed him as yet another "forgotten hero".11 Similarly, the first
documentary to argue that Gordon Welchman was unfairly overlooked as a heroic mathematician
due to the NSA and Margaret Thatcher only aired in September 2015.

The Partition Of Indi A New Understanding Of Partition
In 1947, the partition of India on the departure of British colonial power laid the seed for widespread
bloodshed, Ritu Menon and Kamla Bhasin pioneer a new understanding of partition through the
voices of affected women for the first time, whose stories were buried under the dust of time and the
blankets of the patriarch. Authors, Ritu Menon and Kamla Bhasin both have strong roots in women's
studies. Menon as an independent scholar and publisher focused on violence against women, and
Bhasin for her work with South Asian women's movements for the United Nations. As feminist
scholars and activists, Menon and Bhasin's Borders and Boundaries expands from their previous
scholarly publications. Menon and Bhasin argue the importance of a feminist approach to studying
India's partition against the backdrop of an overwhelming wealth of political and communal
histories, the gruesome reality that Partition was distant from the smooth process written on paper.
They also argue the objectification of women, whose bodies became symbolic territories to 'claimed,
conquered and marked, as "women became the respective countries, indelibly imprinted by the
other."
Encapsulating feminist history, Menon and Bhasin chronologically ordered their argument, outlining
the phases of partition from a woman's perspective. The first chapter, speaking for themselves,
addresses the challenges faced in the research phase of the book and the historiographical
importance for giving silenced partitioned

Essay on The Subaltern Turn: Rereading Grirish Karnad’s...
"As we grow older as a race, we grow aware that history is written, that it is a kind of literature
without morality. That in its actuaries the ego of the race is indissoluble and that everything depends
on whether we write this fiction through the memory of hero or of victim."Derek Walcot (The
Postcolonial Studies Reader 371)
After Edward Said's Orientalism (1978); a new milestone in the history of literacy criticism that
heralded the postcolonial school of criticism many revisionist approaches emanated to question the
self proclaimed 'truths' and 'facts' and the story behind the histories with an aim to discover the other
side of the coin. The Subaltern Studies Group founded in 1982 is another name of such emerging
schools which seeks ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The only group Gramsci had in mind at that time was the workers and peasants who were oppressed
and discriminated by the leader of National Fascist Party, Benito Mussolini and his agents.
Gramsci's deeply formulated ideas about the class of peasants as a social, cultural and political force
aware of its distinct consciousness of subalternity made other subsequent 20th Century South Asian
scholars working on the issues of Indian peasantry historiography resume his effort. This school led
by Ranajit Guha came to be known as the Subaltern Studies Group or Subaltern Studies Collective
which comprised a number of other South Asian historians, social critics and scholars like Shahid
Amin, Dipesh Chakraborty, David Arnold, Partha Chatterjee, David Hardiman, Gyanendra Pandey
and Sumit Sarkar . Gramsci's ideas were further more developed by Ranajit Guha in his manifesto
The Subaltern Studies I and his famous treatise The

Personal Historiography
A long time ago, at my first book keeping job, I was challenged with helping a recently divorced
man reorganize and relocate the office portion of his business. Like most marriages she was the
brains of the operation, when it came to the finances. After the split his business took a major hit due
to his lack of knowledge of the office portion of the company. The man was a great deasil mechanic
but not so savvy with paperwork and tracking expenses. The first step we tackled was organizing the
new office. I am not sure how the old one was ran, but the man didn't have one thing carry over to
the new office. I remember the first time I walked in, it was just boxes piled high with random
paperwork everywhere. It was not an easy task but we worked several nights a week in order to get
it all sorted out. We started from scratch and had to input everything into his new QuickBooks
program and set up folders to organize all of his clientele information. This being my first time
booking keeping and running an office, I had to learn a lot, fast, and mostly on my own. By the time
all this ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It was not as simple as you might think. I set up a box in the cab of his truck and would have folders
labeled for each job he was working on, along with an invoice to fill in as he went. All he had to do
was place the receipts and paperwork in the proper folder and write down the billable hours.
Somehow I kept getting back a box of random receipts and folders with blank invoices. So at the
end of the job we would have to sit there together and pick through said box of receipts and decipher
what went where, so we could bill the clients. It was never an easy task and he ended up losing a
few jobs due to the office hours he was having to put in. I am happy to say that he did eventually get
into a routine with his end of the paperwork and was able to focus more on his side of the

Immigration Historiography
Immigration has been a central theme in the development of the United States. The influx of
foreigners into the country has been met with acceptance and restrictive policy since its formation.
The reaction to diverse immigration created exclusionary policies first introduced in the late
nineteenth century and held in place by national origins quotas until 1965. The purpose of this
historiography is to show how recent scholarship on immigration has developed and changed in the
last fifteen years. This historiography is divided into three types of studies. The first is focused on
how historians have extricated the individual from the broad historiography to give voice to specific
ethnic groups as they negotiated for a place in the country. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The first type of study regards specific groups targeted by restrictive immigration policy. Various
ethnic groups exhibited agency as they combated discrimination. The works of Mae M. Ngai, Estelle
T. Lau, and John S.W. Park are used to support this initial position. Although these works focus on
policy formation they also show immigrant responses to racially specific federal policy. Resistance
and adaptability are themes that connect these works as immigrants negotiated a place for
themselves in the United States. The second grouping of studies will develop imposition theory to
interpret social and political responses to immigration over time. Policy imposed upon a targeted
group is at the core of this theory as the state mandated stringent requirements for entrance into the
country and placed rigorous standards on resident aliens once here. John Higham, Desmond King,
and Martha Gardner assess this plight. These works elaborated on imposition theory, as immigrants
became Americans and struggled against acculturation and preservation of their culture. The last
grouping of studies evaluates the development of a broad immigration policy. Keith Fitzgerald,
Cheryl Shanks, and Roger Daniels studies' span over a century of immigration policy. Evaluating
these broad interpretations on immigration

Enlightenment Historiography Essay
Did Enlightenment historiography neglect history?
Arthur Marwick in his Fundamentals of History suggests that when studying history it is important
that there is a distinction made between History and The Past, the former referring to the knowledge
produced by historians about the past together with the teaching of that knowledge. Marwick states
that the latter is just 'everything that actually happened, whether known, or written, about by
historians or not'. Enlightenment historiography is particularly interesting because it shifted the way
that historians look at and study history, specifically how society started to prioritise human
rationality over faith. Previously, traditional Christian historians would account every major event or
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This way of studying the enlightenment was criticised initially because it is hard to understand the
progress of enlightenment without any social or geographical context of how the path was paved for
great thinkers of the eighteenth century. Darnton suggested that perhaps new methodologies, that
would position the enlightenment into different geographical and economic perspectives as well as
consider how it was transmitted through media in eighteenth century France, needed to be
developed and practiced. This suggests that perhaps the way that historians such as Peter Gay
studied the enlightenment was far too simplistic and placed more importance on the writings of the
great thinkers than on the actual progress of the enlightenment during that time period. Although this
shows that some enlightenment historians ignored the social, geographical and economic context of
the enlightenment, it does not necessarily mean that they ignored History. This essay agrees with
Marwick in the sense that History should be defined as the bodies of knowledge produced about
history and should not be confused with the past. These enlightenment historians focused
specifically on History by looking at just the writings of philosophes such as Voltaire and Kant, and
rather Neglected The Past by not looking at social perspectives and

The Partition onf India
The Partition of India in August, 1947 was a significant event in history that accounted for the
separation of one of the world's oldest civilization into two, independent nations – Pakistan and
India. Like many other wars in history, The Partition of India was instigated by religious, political
and social conflict. This resulted in violence, discrimination and the largest human displacement in
contemporary history. While the Partition was well–studied, much of our understanding was focused
on the political side of history, not the human side of it. This was why oral history played an
important role in manifesting the complexity of a historical event. Our focus here is Maya Rani's
testimony from Butalia's book, The Other Side of Silence: ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
To Rani, 'people dying here, others dying there' (cited in Butalia, 2000, p.268) was something that
happened every day, it was no surprise to her. Thus, Rani's cynical view about the future of India
and Pakistan was conceivably drawn from memories of witnessing horrendous fights and strife
throughout her whole life (cited in Butalia, 2000, p.268).
Official documents have little say about women and children of the Partition as they were viewed as
a collective. Earlier reports on the abduction of women only gave the reader the statistics and brief
statements that glorified community nationalism rather than the victims itself. Many failed to dwell
into the individual trauma of this particular group (Menon & Bhasin, 1998, p.11). Rani's testimony
was significant in that not only it opened us to another outlook from a witness point of view; it also
revealed that people who were not physically involved were also affected psychologically. This was
also the only part in the testimony where Rani displayed sympathy and grievance. Her sensitivity
and deep connection with these victims correlated with age and gender. Her emphasis on the words
'young' and 'girl' throughout her testimony evoked our sense of disbelief that people would do such
inhumane things to each other (cited in Butalia, 2000, p.271). Her hesitant manner, evident

Silk Roads Or Steppe Roads In World History, By David...
David Christian proved his passion for digging deeper into history through use of writing the article
"Silk Roads or Steppe Roads? The Silk Roads in World History," published in the eleventh edition
of the Journal of World History, in the spring of 2000 by the University of Hawaii Press. Christian
points out that trans–ecological exchanges are not fully appreciated and recognized in conventional
historiography about the Silk Roads; he believes they should be–since they play an important role in
the expansion of the roads in the North and were apart of the flourishing of the Silk Roads. In
David's article, he recognizes different interpretations of the Silk Roads throughout different regions
and time periods and relies on a plethora of sources to do. Christian recognizes that the Silk Roads
are ingrained into historiography of China, the Mediterranean world, inner and central Asia, and also
play a vital role as "links between different regions of the Afro–Eurasian landmass." As mentioned
previously, this article observes that historiography focuses on the trade between trans–civilizational
societies and credits them as important to expansion and success of empires and trans–civilizational
regions. In later centuries, the historiography describes the flux and flow of the Silk Roads'
flourishing. Through the use of sources, Christian describes these successes to have been at peak
from 100 CE to the first, second and third centuries.
The Golden Era was claimed to have ended after the Mongol period, due to being out shadowed by
other trade routes and sea routes. However, the article acknowledged that trans–Asian trade and
travel later resumed, but the Silk Roads would never return to their original flourishing state.
Different interpretations of the Silk Roads continued throughout Christian's article. Conventional
historiography in the classical era depicts that the birth of the Silk Roads dates "from the opening of
the state–sponsored trade between China and Central Asia at the end of the second century BCE."
However, David argues that Eurasian steppeland had "vigorous systems of trans–Eurasian
exchanges" before then. Leaders in that time basically got handed pre–established trade systems and
routes.

Critical Problem Of Selective Reliance On Secondary...
Part2
The article of Ian Lustick focuses on the critical problem of selective reliance on secondary
historiographical sources by historically–minded political scientists. Lustick observes that political
scientists often make mistakes by rooting their research without paying attention to the issue of how
to select historical events and thus comes up with an approach that does not treat historiographies as
"History," but as particular interpretations of history that can be used to multiply the number of
observations to outnumber variables to make valid inferences: "if we treat our database as
"historiography" or "histories" and not "History," then the actual number of "cases" expands from
the number of episodes to the number of accounts of those episodes"(Lusktick). The problems with
historiographies is that, historians like many political scientists tend to include their own
commitments and political engagement and eventually fall into selection bias when doing their
research. This bias can occur when he/she selects historiographical accounts prioritizing one
historical events and human behavior that sync with their own political theories over the others. (pg.
608). Lustick deals with the issue of how to choose sources of data without selecting specific ones
that matches your thesis. By doing so, he criticize Barrington Moore's seminal 1966 book, Social
Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy, noting that Moore selectively references historical accounts
to support his

Historiography Of Hamlet
"When did it all start, you ask, this job of ours, how did it come about, where, when? Well, I'd say it
really got started around about a thing called the Civil War. Even though our rule–book claims it
was founded earlier. The fact is we didn't get along well until photography came into its own. Then
– motion pictures in the early twentieth century. Radio. Television. Things began to have mass."
Montag sat in bed, not moving.
"And because they had mass, they became simpler," said Beatty. "Once, books appealed to a few
people, here, there, everywhere. They could afford to be different. The world was roomy. But then
the world got full of eyes and elbows and mouths. Double, triple, quadruple population. Films and
radios, magazines, books levelled ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Bigger the population, the more minorities. Don't step on the toes of the dog–lovers, the cat–lovers,
doctors, lawyers, merchants, chiefs, Mormons, Baptists, Unitarians, second–generation Chinese,
Swedes, Italians, Germans, Texans, Brooklynites, Irishmen, people from Oregon or Mexico. The
people in this book, this play, this TV serial are not meant to represent any actual painters,
cartographers, mechanics anywhere. The bigger your market, Montag, the less you handle
controversy, remember that! All the minor minor minorities with their navels to be kept clean.
Authors, full of evil thoughts, lock up your typewriters. They did. Magazines became a nice blend of
vanilla tapioca. Books, so the damned snobbish critics said, were dishwater. No wonder books
stopped selling, the critics said. But the public, knowing what it wanted, spinning happily, let the
comic books survive. And the three–dimensional sex–magazines, of course. There you have it,
Montag. It didn't come from the Government down. There was no dictum, no declaration, no
censorship, to start with, no! Technology, mass exploitation, and minority pressure carried the trick,
thank God. Today, thanks to them, you can stay happy all the time, you are allowed to read comics,
the good old confessions, or trade

Interpretive Schools: The Role Of Historiography In History
Historiography in a brief definition is the record of what is known about the past and a number of
interpretations through scholarly criticism. It focuses on historical research as it is constantly
changing. Most of the interpretations before the nineteen sixties dealt with politics. It is through
socials movements that scholarly literature began to include social, cultural, racial, gender and
countercultural histories. Many people that studied history interpreted it very differently and out of
this interpretive schools occurred. These interpretive schools sparked debates which continues to
influence history today. Thus, the importance of historiography is that it involves many different
views, many different ideologies and many different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
They believed that there were economic advantages to breaking away from Britain. Colonists were
competing with the English government in the economy and the English were taking their money.
Great Britain constantly argued with the social classes and argued who should rule America. A
conservative merchant class would rise up and start a conflict in order to escape from the terrific
economic policies. This interpretive school was created in the twentieth century and one interpreter
is Carl Becker (1873–1945). Josiah Child fits this interpretive school because of he argued that New
England was becoming too independent and ignored what the British were telling them. Josiah also
as a merchant himself knew that it was in both interests of the two entities to remain separate. After
World War II the interpretive school of the consensus historians came to a rise. Consensus historians
argued that the colonists had developed a democratic society. The colonists were happy with the
status quo that they built. Yet, the British destroyed it after the French and Indian war (1754–1763).
After the proclamation of 1763, the British further infringed their individualism. This is what forced
the colonists to rebel. A supporter of this interpretation is Edmund

The Controversy Of Historiography
Historiography is the methodically of which history is written. There has been some controversy
regarding the way historians portray women over the years, mainly because women tend to be
unrepresented. Their importance is not stressed enough, historian devote little attention to class
issues that seriously affected black women. Even when history is focused on African American
studies, there is more of an emphasis on the black men, as opposed to black women. From the
beginning, European whites have created an image of woman has unworthy and undeserving. In a
world where status is heavily based on race and gender, woman already had two strikes against
them: they are black and non–male. During the colonial days in The United States, only white

The Historiography Of Genevieve
Most of what we know of Genevieve comes from her hagiography. Although this is resourceful, it
leaves us with limited historical documentation beyond the miracles and saintly duties she
performed. What we do know is that Genevieve was born during or shortly after the year 420 in
Nanterre, which is near Paris. Her parents, Severus (of Frankish origins) and Gerontia (of
Germanic–Roman origins) were both peasants within the community. When Saint Germanus
traveled through Nanterre on his way to Britain, he encountered Genevieve. It is told that Genevieve
desired to dedicate her life to Christianity, but historical documentation notes that Saint Germanus
prophesied Genevieve's miracle abilities and persuaded her to become consecrated. Upon the death
of her parents, she moved ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Genevieve prophesied that if people fled the city, they would be ravaged and murdered. Instead, she
encouraged all matrons to pray with her while their husbands fought. This again enraged the
Parisian leaders, but Saint Germanus interceded by offering up consecrated Eucharistic loaves. After
the siege of Paris, Genevieve continued performing miracles and also exorcisms. In 480, Paris was
besieged by the Franks. Genevieve bravely led her matrons with a fleet of boats on the Seine River
to supply trapped citizens with grain and nourishment. Genevieve died around the year 500 at the
age of 82. During her lifetime, she was known as caretaker for the poor and sick. This role is similar
to other saints of her times. After her death, her hagiography praises her miracle abilities since the
shrine of her burial becomes a site for miracles of healings. Genevieve was soon sainted as the
protector of Paris and her name is continually invoked to this day as a provider of healing and
guardianship. Author Lisa Bitel notes how the work of Genevieve helped build Christianity within
barbarian Europe by way of her famed public miracles and continual

The Controversy Of The 1969 Stonewall Riots
The topic that the proposed book focuses on considers the contentious impact of the 1969 Stonewall
Riots upon the struggle for LGBT+ rights. This potential monograph, entitled "Riots for Rights: the
Debatable Influence of Stonewall," pursues to furthermore enhance the argument concerning
whether the 1969 Stonewall Riots began the public LGBT+ movement for further rights, or if the
converse occurred, wherein this momentous protest instead the culminated the LGBT+ efforts of the
previous years, merely pushing it further into public discussion. In the modern era, LGBT+ rights
still undergo fierce argument and debate, and so the proposed book's topic certainly holds relevance
in both a historical and political context that continues into the present day. Furthermore, another
key importance for the publication of this monograph stands that while the voluminous
documentation of the progression in LGBT+ rights Post–Stonewall exists, serious evaluation and
comparison of the rights already developing before the 1969 Riots became widely publicized. "Riots
for Rights: the Debatable Influence of Stonewall" would expand upon these facets and further the
historical understanding of the still–evolving history of the modern–day LGBT+ movement. While
various historical methodologies prove useful for the monograph's topic, in order to properly display
the range of approaches the subject required a select number of methods chosen. The social
historical approach centers on the past

Why Mental Illness Has Changed American Views On Mental...
Mental illness has continually been part of life in the United States, albeit a part of American life
that is not often discussed. Insane asylums for housing the mentally ill developed later during
colonial America. New scientific ideas and the continuing influence of the Enlightenment led to
further usage of insane asylums, where a widely–used architectural style developed. Commonly
known as Kirkbride or linear plan asylums, these asylums were popular in the mid–nineteenth
century, and were massive, intimidating structures built to impress visitors while providing care to
the mentally ill housed inside. This actual style was predominant from the 1850s to just after the
Civil War and their creation and fall from popularity changed ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This thesis will bridge the gap between these two theories. It will also address the theoretical
division in the historiography. The architecture of Kirkbride asylums suggests that there was a dual
purpose in the creation of these massive, imposing buildings; they were created to treat the mentally
ill, but the idealistic writings of superintendents of this period did not reflect the true reality of
asylum life, and thus control played a large aspect in the building and workings of insane asylums in
mid–nineteenth century America. There have been scholarly works published about both Kirkbride
asylums and insane asylums in the United States in general. Dr. Henry M. Hurd, a Superintendent at
John Hopkins Hospital, wrote a four–volume book called The Institutional Care of the Insane in the
United States and Canada in 1916, which was one of the first comprehensive scholarly works on
mental hospitals in the United States. His view is important, as he admonished the Association of
Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane (AMSAII), a group of
superintendents over insane asylums, to change its name and focus, as it had changed since
Kirkbride's time. He gave histories of these mental hospitals, and his figures are used through the
twentieth and twenty–first centuries. Another earlier source on this subject is Margaret McCulloch's
"Founding the North Carolina Asylum for the Insane." Her article focused on North Carolina and

Historiography Of Karnataka
A much early historiography of Karnataka by Aluru Venkatarao also delineates on similar lines
identifying the juncture of Battle of Talikota in 1565 as the time of decline of glory of Karnataka. In
his 1917 work titled Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava , Aluru Venkata Rao writes thus:
Having flourished for 230 years this glorious kingdom disappeared in half a minute by accident. It
dies. That was the end of Karnataka's glory. The kumkum was wiped off Karnatakadevi's forehead!
The mangalsutra round her neck was cut! Karnataka's wealth was destroyed Karnataka's intellectual
wealth disappeared. The sun of Karnataka's valour set. To summarise: since that day, we people of
Karnataka have become an empty name in history. Oh, ye of Karnataka, has the time still not arrived
for a recovery of past glories? Think about it. (71)
For Aluru Venkata Rao, the glory of Karnataka has flourished for about 230 years, while the 1947
historiography of Karnataka takes it much farther back in time. However, a significant aspect to be
noticed in the above quoted excerpt is the metaphorical manner in which the land Karnataka is
sketched in the image of a goddess. The appropriation of Karnataka in the image of ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Shilpa Phadke, speaking in general about the Women's movement in India points to the fact that:
The movement in the late 1970s constructed itself as secular but did not make any effort to define its
identity as such. It was assumed that affiliations with the women's movement were based on gender
and positions of difference were articulately largely on grounds of class rather than caste or religious
community. Class was constructed as a modern identity unlike caste or religious community, which
were seen as pre–modern identities to be transcended.

The Feminist Movement Of Women Essay
Miller's work helped to shed light on the intersectionality of women's movements, not everyone
agreed on what changes feminism should bring or if it should exist at all in Mexican society. Before
her work, "there existed a generally accepted assumption among politically active women that their
common interests as women–in gaining the vote, in health care, in education ––– cut across class
backgrounds and ideological orientations." This was most certainly not the case in Mexico, as Miller
found out, being involved in the feminist movement meant that women risked "losing not only
respectability but their claim, as women and mothers, to the protection of society." Women played a
major role in the protection of the longevity of societal norms, as they trained the next generation.
This idea was so entrenched in the Mexican social mores that women involved in the feminist
movement were considered to not be decent mothers or women. This led to a counter–movement by
the Union of Catholic Women of Mexico that "asserted that women place was in the home, and
equated socialism with free love and feminism." Miller's book fits well with the other revisionist
history work that is going on during the late 1980s and 1990s. She notes that revisionist work has
been going on in all disciplines, not just history, "For nearly two decades, scholars and activists have
painstakingly reexamined every field of human endeavor to reconquer–revindivar–––a space for
women in history, literature,

The Pervasiveness Of Media In Contemporary US Culture
Indeed, the pervasiveness of media in its copious forms in contemporary US culture today is
undeniable. Almost anywhere one looks, one can find media; a magazine at a doctor's office, a
billboard alongside a freeway, a painting at an art gallery, a performance on television or on stage.
Media, undeniably, is ubiquitous. However, in the innumerous forms media comes to us in, every
one of these forms are created for a purpose; to communicate of an idea or message. But how are
students, as well as educators, supposed to interact and interpret media? Auspiciously, just as with
any subject of study, one must become literate in its forms and uses. Thus, media literacy is a vital
tool set for interacting and interpreting content of any discipline; particularly history education.
Certainly, media literacy seeks to teach fluency in the forms of media, how it functions and can
influence trends in society. However, media and its messages are not a direct form of
communication. "Media does not offer a transparent window, as Buckingham writes, 'only a
representation' of an idea (Buckingham, 2004. p. .) Further, this 'representation' of an idea or
message, as Hoechsmann & Poyntz write, always "involve(s) a reflection, selection and deflection
of reality" (Hoechsmann & Poyntz, 2012, p. 73). Thus, to achieve fluency with media, the goal of
media literacy is to develop personal agency within an individual. Personal agency, as defined by
Buckingham, is the ability to be an active

Browning Primary Sources
Historians believe they need to find the truth. They make arguments, write papers, and give lecture
on what they are saying is the truth. Historians want to learn what happened. This is important,
because history teaches many lessons. Students of history agree or disagree with historian's
arguments and what they say happened or what is the cause of some event. The best historians are
the ones who write the strongest arguments. To make strong arguments, it's very important to use
strong sources. Sources are either primary or secondary. The primary sources are the original ones,
which date back to the events of that time period. Secondary sources are the arguments of other
historians or anything that talks about primary sources. Choosing the best sources means
understanding what the source is saying and using accurate information to make your own
argument. When historians feel that the existing work fails to mention or inaccurately claims
something that's important. to the historian, they write their own argument. The historian wants to
write a better argument, which other historians and students will regard ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, he was not old enough to experience the Holocaust and World War II, like Bauer. He was
still a baby. Browning's experience is good because he's not especially emotionally connected to the
Holocaust. He published his most popular book, Ordinary Men, in 1992. This is also much later than
the other two writers. Browning had the benefit of Dawidowicz, Bauer, and other historians work,
like future historians will benefit from his. Browning is a functionalist, and he does not believe that
the Holocaust was strictly Hitler's intent all along. The thesis of Browning's book is that the
Holocaust was caused by many factors, and the anti–Semitism began on a smaller scale as Hitler
tried to kick the Jewish people out of Germany, which eventually spiraled into deciding to commit
crazy mass murder.

Historiography During The Cold War
What is Historiography? The study and analysis of historical writings, the method of analyzing a
historical period based on the perspectives of historians to the event.
What is "critical analysis" in history writing? To critically analyze an event one must read about all
aspects of a historical event in order to fully understand that historical era. This is done by
examining several primary source documents, as well as the perspectives of several historians. This
way we are able to break down a historical time and fully understand its success and failures.
For example: Reconstruction is the most controversial point in U.S. history in regards to its
successes as well as its effect on the course of the country. Historians of the 1900's like ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using military strategies, political doctrines, and economic aid, the United States was able to
prevent the smaller countries from falling to into the grasp of communism. brinkmanship: the
practice of pushing dangerous events to the brink of disaster in order to achieve the most
advantageous outcome. In the Cold War, the arms race and the space race where important aspects
of brinkmanship.
Truman doctrine: established that the United States would provide political, military and economic
assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces, this
was a part of the containment policy of the U.S. to stop Greece and Turkey from being taken over by
the Nazis.
Marshall plan: an American initiative to aid Europe, the United States gave $13 billion
(approximately $120 billion in current dollar value) in economic support to help rebuild European
economies after the end of World War

The Contrasting Roles of Historians and Scientists Essay
Historians utilize primary sources to reconstruct events that have previously occurred in order to
create a clearer image of the past. In opposition, human scientists investigate varying aspects of
human activity to reveal discoveries that are meant to bring significant changes to the future. This is
presented in the assertion that "The historian's task is to understand the past; the human scientist, by
contrast, is looking to change the future." This appears to be false considering that both the historian
and the human scientist require a satisfactory comprehension of past events, as their roles
necessitate a desire to change the future. The respective areas of knowledge of the historian and
human scientist express this through the lens ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The false assertion claims that historians solely work to determine an understanding of the past. The
historian's role is defined with a dictation of understanding the past; however their study of the past
is through today's lens. Thus, they are writing in hindsight. A knowledge issue is present with the
"fallible" eyewitnesses in primary sources which cannot be entirely accepted as the truth due to
flexible interpretations. History, a reconstruction of events, is viewed from a modern standpoint
allowing the historian to produce secondary sources using primary sources as a basis. These sources
suggest that those who control the past also control the future expressing the need for historians to
look at evidence in terms of the future. Furthermore, historical interpretations are inevitably bonded
with a sense of personal value as historians fail to simply regurgitate prior knowledgebut rather use
it as a creative endeavor combining evidence with imagination. This leads to the derivation of a
unique conclusion in retelling events of the past. Although, it can be argued that the historian's
purpose is to eliminate issues such as bias and empathy. However, this proves to be impossible as
they inevitably include a sense of empiricism.
Trends of the past are evident in history. History is not necessarily proven to repeat itself yet a
considerable amount of information suggests this. This information can be analyzed in

Gender And Sexuality As A Category For Historical Analysis
For years, many scholars have provided many discussions over the topic of gender and sexuality.
However, one needs to ask themselves: Are these two topics, gender and sexuality, useful as a
category for historical analysis? The articles written by both Joan W. Scott and Afsaneh Najmabadi,
answer such a question. By critically examining and assessing their two article, can the usefulness of
gender and sexuality as a category for historical analysis be proven.
In "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," Joan W. Scott provides many angles to
explore the relevancy of gender. The first thing that needs to be examined is her argument. The main
argument that Joan W. Scott is trying to make is how beneficial to history using gender as a category
for analysis would turn out. Another factor that needs to be made in assessing her article is how she
presents her argument and findings. Scott formats her article with a beginning, middle, and end. She
begins by defining "gender," and how that term has been used in general. She goes on to describe
some of the theories that have analyzed gender. The next part that she explains is how, of late,
politics has been coincided with the analysis of gender. Finally, she ends her paper by providing her
bottom–line opinion about the analysis and approach of gender.
Now with the structure of her paper in mind, the next important assessment is in the sources she
uses. The sources that Joan Scott utilizes in her argument are mostly

Middle English Prehistory Essay
Prehistory refers to a time period in the past before the introduction of writing, or the time before
history was written by the people. Another definition states that prehistory is the time and a series of
events before and eventually led to the development of something (e.g. a certain material or
philosophy).
Moreover, the University of Leicester define prehistory as a study of the human past from 3.2
million years ago wherein the first stone tools were made, until the modern era. There is no strict
time period of prehistory, and a prehistory of a certain area may end later than that of the other. For
example, Britain ended its prehistory when the Roman army arrived there, while in Australia,
hunter–gatherers have been dwelling in that continent at the instant of the European invasion in the
18th century. Practically, prehistory is more concerned with the lives of the people during those
times and how the characteristics of these societies are interpreted based on records and material ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Latin also had the term historia, or "a narrative of past events, account, tale, story" and the
Greek historia means "knowing by inquiry; an account of one's inquiries". Furthermore, it is related
to the Greek word idein or "to see", and the word eidenai, which means to know. In the 15th century,
Middle English, however, does not differentiate history from the word story, or "a record of past
events". History covers several disciplines, primarily comparative history and historiography.
Comparative history is about learning and comparing the features of human experience and the
different periods and societies in the history of mankind, while historiography is based on how
historians make history, how sources are used in writing history, and how history should be studied
based on certain

The Social History Of Medicine
Earlier issues of SHM include articles that are profoundly insistent upon the importance of 'history
from below' in developing and constituting understandings of health and medicine. As these articles
were primarily structured and written during the cultural and linguistic turn in historical analysis it is
clear that they present arguments that aim to revise modernist approaches to the social history of
medicine. Most of which are interested in the history of published medical texts or the views of the
medical elite. The article by Liora Navon, 'Beggars, Metaphors, and Stigma: A Missing Link in the
Social History of Leprosy' outlines the need for the adoption of a 'history from below' perspective in
addressing understandings of leprosy in Thailand. Her article states that 'the interviews conducted
for this study with patients diagnosed before the 1950s and their offspring reveal that, unlike their
portrayal in archival sources, manifestations of extremely negative or positive attitudes were quite
rare.' Similarly Peter Elmer's review of Medicine and the Market in England and Its Colonies,
c.1450–c. 1850, by Mark S. R. Jenner and Patrick Wallis argues that their work attributes a link
between the creation of a medical marketplace with a 'reorientation towards the role of the patient in
medical transactions'. Found even within the title of the article 'Speed in the Third Reich:
Metamphetamine (Pervitin) Use and a Drug History From Below' by Stephen Snelders and Toine
Pieters,

Historiography Of The British Empire
Any historiography of The British Raj must first start with the understanding that The British Raj
fits within the broader historic concept of The British Empire. In the late 19th Century, many
historians proposed that the history of The British Empire could be broken down into The First
British Empire and The Second British Empire. The British Raj falls within the category of The
Second British Empire within this view. The previous British involvement in India, via The East
India Company, would largely fall within First British Empire. The opinions of historians, not any
official decree by British law or authorities, are the basis for the concept of multiple periods of The
British Empire. There was never an official start, or end date, for either period of empire. The
British Empire was never an official entity, as in there was not a document or constitution dictating
how it was administered. As a result, the colonial administrations varied depending on the colony to
which they belonged. The views on The British Empire, during its height, were not a single
monolithic view shared by all British citizens, but varied across the full spectrum from unwavering
support to strong opposition. Joseph Chamberlain's 1897 book The True Conception of Empire
provides an excellent quote that sums up a common mindset of the era. "We feel now that our rule
over these territories can only be justified if we can show that it adds to the happiness and prosperity
of the people,

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