Thoughts on Sustainable ecological systems: Permaculture from the rural farmer to the urban gardener and related subjects

1. Thoughts on Sustainable
ecological systems:
Permaculture from the rural
farmer to the urban gardener and
related subjects

3. This presentation is a extension
of the following three
presentations:

4. Birds, Bugs and Wildflowers:
organic Integrated Pest Management
for the home gardener
NENHC
April 2015
Springfield, Massachusetts

5. Bioeradication:
research and insights on five
common invasive plants in central
Pennsylvania
NENHC
April 2015
Springfield, Massachusetts

6. 7500 American chestnut trees and
counting, the research that ate my
summer in 2015
NENHC
April 2016
Springfield, Massachusetts

7. Clean Air
Clean Water
Open Space

8. This presentation is broken into 5 sections:
1.) Introduction and key concepts
2.) Permaculture at our home
3.) Bioeradication
4.) Thoughts and research on Castanea dentata,
an important part of native landscapes and
permaculture
5.) Awe, wonder, joy and surprise

10. Walk more
Tinker less

11. Original Proposal: The future of food production
and ecology will be learning ways to work with
ecosystems to develop sustainable agriculture
which is a functioning part of the local ecologies,
not destroy them as is being done at the present
time. Land trusts are ideal organizations to
develop these concepts into practical
applications and serve as the leaders of this
transformation.

12. Introduction and Key
Concepts

13. Nature is not a product which can be packaged
and sold from a store shelf. Therefore, it is not a
“serious business”, but life itself.

14. Biotech and bioengineering are engineering,
not science. They do not seek to understand
the world, but change it without fully
understanding the consequences of what they
are doing, often with disastrous consequences.

15. Land trusts have the ability to move from simply
preserving land to become the leaders in the
transformation of agriculture into a cohesive
part of native ecology across the American
landscape.

16. By taking the creative leadership role land trusts
can transform the American practice of food
production from sterile ecological deserts into
part of vibrantly alive and functioning native
based ecological systems.

17. ecosystems to each other
organisms in one ecosystem to those in another ecosystem
between groups of organisms in an
ecosystem such as pollinators and flowers
the relationships between individual species
to each other
(single flower species/single pollinator species)
the relationship between an
individual organism and another
individual
organism
(single flower/
single pollinator).
A hierarchy of mutualistic ecological relationships we need to account
for when thinking about landscapes

18. One of the most important questions we need
to answer is the difference between a native
plant and a non-native plant.

19. Hybridizing a native plant with another native
plant creates a non-native plant.

20. In Invasive Plant Ecology we have the Enemy
Release Hypothesis.
In part, this states that an overwhelming
number of native organisms cannot use non-
native plants because they did not coevolve
together.

21. Therefore, hybridizing a native plant with
another native or especially a non-native creates
a non-native plant of little or no ecological
utility.

22. By changing the gene structure of a native plant
through hybridizing with a non-native in hopes
of “improving” the plant or making it resistant
to (introduced) diseases or pests is doomed to
be an ecological failure because few if any native
organisms using the native plant will be adapted
or adapt to use this hybrid due the unnaturally
rapid changes in the physical and chemical
properties of the plant.

23. In other words, we do not want to create non-
native plants because it destroys their ecological
utility as a food source for pollinators, ceases to
be a food for larvae, changes their utility for
decomposers and organisms that depend on this
relationship, may destroy their functionality
with soil fungi and a long list of other negative
impacts.

24. Only generalist organisms, such as various
insects, mammals and birds, can utilize non-
native plants and other non-native organisms.
This means the extinction of many native
specialist organisms and their interrelationships
with other organisms.

25. Wild organisms, such as pollinators, within a
species and between species have genetic
variability in size, shape, maturity rates, growth
rates, food preferences, habitat preferences and
their ability to use different individuals within
the same species of a plant population.

26. The differences may appear small to us, but can
be large in the local ecology.

27. For mutualistic relationships to thrive such as
pollinators and flowering plants, native flowering
plants need heterogeneity within the species to
match the same heterogeneity within a pollinator
species and among species using it.

28. These photos are examples of color heterogeneity
within a wild azalea species, Rhododendron
periclymenoides, found within 100 yards of each other
near home on May 19, 2016.

29. For example:
A large diverse meadow of flowers benefits from
a large diverse group of pollinators in that
meadow.

30. Another example:
Last fall I watched a monarch butterfly (Danaus
plexippus) migration on Blue Mountain near
home.
Of the dozens of butterflies I watched, one
preferred the white flowered Boneset
(Eupatorium perfoliatum) while all the others
preferred yellow flowered Goldenrod (Solidago)
species.

34. Limiting the phenotypic diversity of resource
plants by reducing the sources of genetic
material limits the number of (pollinator)
species and individuals within those species
which can utilize a particular plant species.

35. The further from wild stock a native plant
becomes the less ecological utility it has because
we naturally collect seeds from what appear to
us to be the best looking plants within a defined
time window. At the same time, plants which do
well in cultivation may have lost the robustness
and other traits necessary to survive in changing
wild and semi-wild conditions.

36. We absolutely do not want to use cultivars
(especially those from cuttings) because of the
lack of genetic variance in a planting, which
destroys most of its ecological utility in addition
to creating plants which are more vulnerable to
being destroyed by a single event such as a
pathogen or herbivore infestation.

37. Simply put:
No matter how successful a hybrid or cultivar appears
to be it is an ecological failure.
“The operation was a success, but the patient died.”

38. What we do not want in a plant species in a landscape or garden: homogeneity.
The lack of different sizes, colors and shapes has very little ecological utility
because it attracts few species and may be useful to few members within the
species it attracts.

39. What we want in a plant species in a landscape or garden: heterogeneity in size
and shape to match the heterogeneity of size and shape in a species or species
utilizing the plant. The variety of different sizes and shapes in a plant species
increases ecological utility because it is able to be used by members with
different sizes and shapes of the species utilizing it.

40. What we want in a landscape or garden: varying the general shape, sizes and colors
of plant species so there is a lot of ecological utility, i.e. different species and
different members of the various species will utilize different shapes, sizes and colors
for nectaring, egg deposition and similar.

41. Linking landscapes is a limited short term vision.
Whereas, the transformation of the present
approach to agriculture and gardening is a long
term philosophical and practical change
necessary to provide healthy food locally and for
the world while preserving the diverse native
ecosystems which support our agriculture.

42. This radical paradigm shift away from sanitized
landscapes to natural healthy ones full of diverse
native organisms is necessary for agricultural
sustainability at all levels. Ecologically sound
agriculture, whether small plots of the home
gardener (urbia, suburbia, exurbia) or large farms
(rural), requires working with the local ecosystems
to ensure long term sustainability with consistent
sustainable yields using the least amount of effort
and resource expenditure.

43. The integration of native organisms at all trophic levels
into ecologically sound landscapes will provide the
necessary ecosystem services to enhance not only food
production but other aspects of a healthy environment
such breathable air, drinkable water, open space and
aesthetic landscapes. In the process, dependence on
agricultural and lawn chemicals will be eliminated as
environmentally sound methods and practices of meeting
the needs of all stakeholders will be used. This will involve
radical changes in thought patterns and actions, but
benefits will swiftly accrue to all stakeholders from the
tiniest organisms to the largest.

44. This is an ecological desert. There are few plant species with very little variation
within the species. The soil has been depleted of microorganisms, insects and
other biologicals because of overuse, monoculture, herbicides, insecticides and
other agriculture chemicals since it was first planted in the late 1700’s.

45. Part of a diverse landscape with many species and
forest interconnections between fields.

46. Simply put:
Agriculture at all scales instead of being
ecologically destructive can function as an
integrated part of natural systems through
understanding and working within the multiple
levels and multiple dimensions of natural systems.

47. Permaculture at our
home

48. This part of the presentation will discuss the
concepts we developed, their application and
the results we obtained from the start in 2014 to
today in 2016.

49. The ultimate goal in this part of the presentation is
for participants to expand this concept into a
multidimensional landscape level version of what
we are doing at home.

50. During the 2014 growing season we transformed
our yard into a place for birds, pollinators and an
organic garden. The purpose of this
transformation was threefold:
1.) to provide pollinator and bird habitat
2.) to increase the yield in our garden by
attracting pollinators to the vegetables and
native predators of herbivorous insects and
3.) to serve as a model microcosm for what can
be done on a larger scale to not only produce
healthy food, but to rebuild ecosystems which
sustain food production.

51. www.google.com/maps Mar. 9, 2016
This is our challenge: ensuring that pollinators and song birds migrate across this landscape to
and from our home while encouraging others to make our home their home.

52. To do this we planted several wildflower beds,
placed birdhouses throughout our yard, our
woodlot and the pasture next to it and avoided
garden chemicals such as pesticides and
fertilizers.

53. The first two questions we need to ask and answer
are:
1.) what are weeds?
2.) what ecological purposes do “weeds” serve?

54. The third question is:
How do we increase ecological services from
native organisms while decreasing the numbers
and effects of non-native organisms?

55. Coming off these 3 questions is the question of
how do we use native “pariah” organisms to
develop sustainable agriculture in harmony with
local ecosystems?

56. Weeds are unwanted plants in any location; garden,
lawn, pasture and elsewhere.
In our situation, “weeds” such as Solidago sp.,
Eutrochium maculatum, Rudbeckia sp., Verbesinia
alternifolia, Eupatorium perfoliatum, various
Asclepius sp., Mentha sp. and many others were
planted in our vegetable garden and around the
yard to attract native pollinators and insectivorous
birds to increase the productivity of the vegetable
garden while increasing our excitement when
walking around the yard through seeing the
wonderful diversity of pollinators, birds and other
wildlife.

58. Sir Isaac Newton is in charge of mammal control.

59. Overall, the productivity of the garden was high
given the circumstances of living in a rural area
with a high rodent, mostly groundhogs and
rabbits, population. There were very few
problems with insects and disease. The diversity
of pollinators and birds is continually exciting.

60. Our yard and the pasture next to it in 2014 had:
22 song bird houses,
10 bat houses,
4 song bird nesting platforms in woodlot,
14 song bird nesting platforms under deck,
4 kestrel/screech owl houses,
2 barn owl houses
(and counting).

61. • 12 of the nesting platforms under deck were 8”
long x 4” deep – none had nests.
• 2 nesting platforms under deck were 8” long x 6”
deep – one had a nest made of moss.
• None of the 4 nesting platforms in the woodlot
had nests.
• 22 nesting boxes along pasture, around yard,
along the edge of a swamp and in the woodlot –
14 had nests of twigs, 2 had nests of moss and 1
had a moss nest over a twig nest for a total of 17
occupied song bird houses, 77%.
• Both barn owl boxes had common grackle nests
the first year and were empty the second year.

62. • 3 kestrel boxes were in the pasture and 1 in
the swamp at the bottom of our woodlot but
were unchecked for occupants. However, this
year a kestrel was seen near one of the boxes.
If it takes up residence it will be an important
addition to controlling small rodents and large
insects in our garden.

63. • None of the 10 bat houses were occupied
possibly due to less than optimal locations in
and along the woodlot and/or white nose
disease.

64. • The bird houses were occupied in similar
numbers and patterns in 2014, 2015 and
2016.

65. Continuing processes

66. Birds and bats
• The four small nesting platforms in woodlot were
given a roof and a fifth one installed. The roofs
apparently did nothing to encourage nesting. We
will give this one more season before they are
removed.
• The twelve 8”x4” nesting platforms under deck
were replaced last year by nine 8”x7” and four
10”x11-1/4” nesting platforms which filled all the
possible locations under the deck. The results
were the same both summers, just one nest.
• Bat houses will be left alone until better locations
can be determined and/or white nose syndrome
resistant bats occupy them.

67. Garden
• We used bamboo poles tied with twine for trellising as it is
free and a good use for a non-native invasive plant. This will
be changed to concrete reinforcement wire sheets out of
convenience this year.
• Fewer plants spaced further apart. (I doubt that is ever
psychologically possible.)
• Use ⅜” or ½” x 4’ rebar to support peppers.
• We shrunk the wildflower section of the garden in the
second year to provide more space for vegetables.
• Yearly adding the prior year’s composted kitchen waste.
And leaves from our yard. This is tilled into the soil before
planting vegetables.
• We are changing a mint bed infested with Japanese stilt
grass into a pollinator bed using local plants and seeds.
• We are working on better proactive groundhog control.

68. Flower beds
• Continue to encourage the growth and diversity of
native flowers while discouraging non-native plants.
• Seeded the driest flower bed between our garage and
house with Big Blue Stem grass, Andropogon gerardi,
(locally acquired and ordered seed). This was not
successful. Goldenrod transplants did better. This will
continue to be monitored.
• Heavily seeded edges of yard and flower beds with
locally acquired Common Milkweed, Asclepias syriaca
and locally acquired Solidago sp. and other Asteraceae
sp. . The milkweed seeds produced few plants. Local
root stock will be used this year.
• Better groundhog control.

69. Invasive plants
Continued invasive non-native plant removal. To
this point Oriental Bittersweet (Celastrus
orbiculatis), honeysuckles (Lonicera maacki, L.
morrowii and L. japonica), multiflora rose (Rosa
multiflora), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata),
Japanese stilt grass (Microstegium vimineum),
mile-a-minute (Persicaria perfoliata) and Tree-
of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) are being
removed as much as time and energy allow.

70. Birds in 2014 and 2015*
American robin Turdus migratorius
Baltimore oriole Icterus galbula
Blue jay Cyanocitta cristata
Carolina wren Thryothorus ludovicianus
Cat bird Dumetella carolinensis
Common grackle Quiscalus quiscula
Eastern phoebe Sayornis phoebe
Gold finch Spinus tristis
House finch Haemorhous mexicanus
Indigo bunting Passerina cyanea
Mocking bird Mimus polyglottos
Mourning dove Zenaida macroura
Northern cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis
Ruby throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris
Scarlet tanager Piranga olivacea
Warbling vireo Vireo gilvus
* 2016 there was a Tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor) nesting in our yard, a Rose Breasted
grosbeak male (Pheucticus ludovicianus) on a bird feeder and an American Kestrel (Falco
sparverius) near a hawk/owl box.

71. Pollinators
Bumble bee Bombus ternarius
Painted lady butterfly Vanessa cardui
Eastern tiger swallowtail butterfly Papilio glaucus
misc. Apocrita species
misc. Lepidoptera species

72. Flowering forbs throughout our yard
Bee balm Monarda fistulosa
Bee balm Monarda didyma
Black-eyed Susan Rudbeckia hirta
Boneset Eupatorium perfoliatum
Butterfly weed Asclepius tuberosa
Canada goldenrod Solidago canadensis
Common milkweed Asclepius syriaca
Cutleaf coneflower Rudbeckia laciniata
Joe Pye weed Eutrochium maculatum
Lance-leaf coreopsis Coreopsis lanceolata
Marigolds Tagetes patula
Mountain mint Pycnanthemum sp.
New England aster Symphyotrichum novae-angliae
Shasta daisy Leucanthemum × superbum
Thread-leaf coreopsis Coreopsis verticillata
Wing stem verbesina Verbesina alternifolia
misc. goldenrods Solidago sp.
other misc. Asteraceae Asteraceae sp.

73. Vegetables over the last couple years
Asparagus beans* Peas*
Beets Peppers – hot and sweet*
Broccoli* Pole beans*
Brussel sprouts Scarlet Runner beans
Bush beans* Spinach
Cabbage Snow peas*
Collard greens Swiss chard
Cucumbers – bush and vining Tomatillo*
Kale Tomatoes – eating, cherries and paste*
Lettuces Yellow squash*
Onions (for greens this year)* Zucchini*
* Vegetables we intend to grow this year.

74. Herbs we have grown
Basil*
Borage
Cilantro*
Dill*
Garlic*
Lemon grass
Oregano*
Parsley*
Sage*
Thyme*
* Herbs we intend to grow this year.

75. This is how the approach to our home and gardens look to pollinators
and birds across a minimally maintained pasture.
our home

76. Our home with vegetable garden on this
side, next to the pasture.

77. Google Earth Feb. 15, 2015
Our home, Spring 2014

78. Google Earth May 11, 2016
Our home, late Summer 2015
vegetable gardenswildflower bed

79. road
p
a
s
t
u
r
e
woodlot
red = wildflower beds
light blue = house
white = sun deck with
nesting platforms under it
dark blue = garage
brown = vegetable gardens
yellow = mint and shrub beds
black = driveways
swamp
s = songbird houses
b = barn owl boxes
k = kestrel/screech
owl boxes
k
s
s/b
lawn
electric fence
w/ wood posts
north
100’
downhill
slope

90. This design has not worked.

113. This year we are switching from bamboo trellises to steel remesh sheets, 7’x3-1/2’ with 6”x6”
openings, to cut down on the amount of work needed to trellis tomatoes, beans and cucurbits
while increasing ease in harvesting. We will still be using twine to tie the plants to the trellis
and rebar to hold up the trellises and stake the pepper plants.

184. The big question is how do we do the same in
large landscapes as we did at home?

185. 1.) take the necessary time to study the local ecosystems to understand
how/why they function and all the micro ecosystems around you
2.) stop using insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and other (non-organic)
garden chemicals
3.) collect as much wild local native seed as possible
4.) use several different and distinct sources of seeds from vendors to
mimic at a minimal level natural wild plant genetic heterogeneity
5.) leave open spaces around fields such as wide borders to serve as
reservoirs for native plants, pollinators and birds
6.) leave strips of native plants through fields to facilitate the movement
of pollinators and insectivores into fields and across the landscape
7.) alternate fallow and cultivated fields
8.) leave meadows around water sources and irregularities in the fields to
act as reservoirs for native organisms
9.) make multiple diverse corridors for birds, insects and other animals to
migrate through the landscape

186. For early season pollinators and other insects
plant native non-hybridized American Chestnut
(Castanea dentata) trees along with other native
trees and shrubs such as elderberry (Sambucus
pubens), choke cherry (Prunus virginiana) oaks,
maples and similar as sources of early season
nectar/pollen*, food for Corvids, a source of
organics (mast) and a source of the native
organisms which are part of a healthy ecosystem.
*From my experience, many native high pollen/nectar forbs such as members
of the Asteraceae family do not bloom until early to mid-July, whereas many
trees and shrubs bloom from late winter to early summer.

187. Bioeradication

188. Bioeradication is the use of native organisms to
eradicate non-native organisms.
From experience and observation systems of
multiple organisms are more apt to develop to
eradicate a non-native organism rather than
single magic bullet organisms.

189. One important aspect of healthy native
landscapes with agriculture integrated into them
is that they provide ways for native
bioeradicants/bioeradicant systems to move
across landscapes. By this process native
habitats are preserved and enhanced while the
non-native organisms are eradicated.

190. This eliminates non-native issues from the
landscape, enhancing ecosystem services while
removing the need for pesticides.

191. For example, the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug
(Halyomorpha halys) levels around our home
decreased significantly in the last 2 years, from
thousands to low hundreds. There are reports that
passerine (song) birds such as American robins
(Turdus migratorius) are eating them and
from my observations a pathogen is killing them.
Since we live only a few miles from their probable
importation site, Allentown, and where they were
first discovered, Kutztown University, this is
significant.

192. Instead of insecticides, a healthy agricultural
system integrated into a healthy ecosystem will
provide ample resources for the insectivore
passerine birds to live. They will control this pest
and eliminate the need for insecticides.

193. Most of my experience with bioeradication is in
the area of non-native invasive plants. Ailanthus
altissima and Rosa multiflora are good
examples.

194. Common name: Tree-of-heaven
Scientific name: Ailanthus altissima
Origin: China
Local habitat: prefers the edge of wooded areas and open fields even though it will
grow in wooded areas where light reaches the forest floor.
Identifying features: Dioecious tree with odd pinnate compound leaves with blade-like
leaflets which are opposite. Leaflets have one pair to several pairs of teeth
toward the proximal end. Each tooth has a gland on the distal end of the point.
The odor is unmistakable. Clusters of seeds are attached throughout the winter.
Bark has a grey harlequin pattern to it.
Reproduction: wind borne seeds and root clones when injured
Bioeradication system:
insects - Atteva aurea, the Ailanthus webworm, is a native moth whose larvae
feed on Simaroubaceae family members in the American south and Aculops
ailanthii, an eriophyoid mite. Both are specialists to Ailanthus altissima in
temperate areas.
diseases – Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum , Fusarium lateritium, Fusarium
solani , Verticillium nonalfalfae, and other diseases.
flowers – A. aurea prefers compact inflorescences such as Asteraceae
and Lamiaceae.

195. The key to encouraging the system is to
encourage native wildflowers, trees and forbs,
which have inflorescences close to stands of
Ailanthus to serve as nectar sources for adult A.
aurea. In central Pennsylvania trees such as
Castanea dentata and forbs such as Solidago sp.,
Verbesinia sp. and Rudbeckia sp. are good nectar
sources which bloom successively from early
summer to hard frost.

196. My understanding is that A. ailanthii is primarily
spread phoretically (hitchhikes) on A. aurea and
secondarily by wind. Besides feeding on
Ailanthus, A. aurea and probably A. ailanthii
carry diseases which harm and/or kill Ailanthus.

197. Once a disease such as F. oxysporum or V.
nonalfalfae infects one tree in a stand, others
will be infected through the extensive network
of interconnected root grafts common to stands
of Ailanthus.

198. Ailanthus altissima trees

204. female tree in winter with some of the seeds still
attached

205. glands

207. Disease is characterized by chlorosis, bare
branches and later by peeling bark. Eventually
the trees fall.

208. diseased trees

211. chlorotic leaves

214. Aculops ailanthii
1.) claw shaped leaves
2.) distorted rumpled looking leaves
3.) spotted chlorosis which is usually yellow but
sometimes looks dusty white
4.) mites can be seen with a strong hand held
magnifier or a highly magnified macro setting
on a camera as small brown dashes on the
underside of leaves.

215. Aculops ailanthii

217. claw shaped leaves caused by A. ailanthii

221. Atteva aurea

228. webs
chlorosis

229. heavily infested with A. aurea larvae
tree with chlorotic leaves

230. Multi-generation webs which
will eventually defoliate these
young trees.
chlorosis

235. eggs
larva going into the pupa phase
chew marks
made by
larvae

236. Atteva aurea with the probable
presence of Aculops ailanthii

246. Complexity

247. A. ailanthii
A. aurea larva
A. ailanthii

248. A. aurea larva web
A. ailanthii
other herbivory, possibly
grasshopper
chlorotic leaves

249. Ailanthus trees with dozens of A. aurea webs,
A. ailanthii in proximity, disease, half dead
trees from prior year and Rudbeckia laciniata
nearby as a nectar source for adults.

250. Common name: Multiflora rose
Scientific name: Rosa multiflora
Origin: Asia
Local habitat: it prefers fields and field edges even though it will grow in wooded areas
Reproduction: seeds and stems cloning
Identifying features: the only rose I know of where the thorns curve towards the
center of plant
Bioeradication system: Rose rosette disease, an Emaravirus, Phyllocoptes fructiphilus - an
eriophyoid (gall) mite, and a fungal pathogen in the Colletotrichum genus appear
to be killing multiflora rose in the local area. The mites are supposedly
transported by wind, but more probably phoretically by birds such as the
Northern Mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos, which feed on the seeds and
nest in the branches, pollinators and other insects.
Other: The witches broom associated with rose rosette disease is supposed to be disease
caused. However, since P. fructiphilus is a gall forming mite, there is a strong possibility that
much of the deformity is caused by this mite or as a combination of rose rosette disease and
the mite.
CAUTION: When working with multiflora, thorns shatter into small slivers with skin contact
which remain in the skin indefinitely. Therefore check scratches and pricks for pieces of
thorns.

251. Rose rosette disease tends to be found areas with full or partial sun
such as in and along fields .
Colletotrichum is found on plants in the understory.
Both appear to be fatal to Rosa multiflora.

257. rose rosette disease

262. chlorotic leaves are symptomatic of the
fungal pathogen Colletotrichum

266. Thoughts and research on
Castanea dentata, an important
part of native landscapes and
permaculture

267. Abstract
During the summer of 2015 in reaction to the questionable concept I continually
heard about the American Chestnut (Castanea dentata) going extinct I decided to
do a census of the American Chestnut on the Appalachian Trail from the Rausch
Gap to the Lehigh Gap and other local trails. Over 38 days were spent on the
census using a GPS equipped camera with many more days gathering data on
American Chestnut reproduction and how the Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria
parasitica) affected the trees. A total of over 80 miles of Appalachian Trail was
walked along with at least another 40 miles on other trails. More than 7500 trees
of various sizes from seedlings to mature adults were found along two trail
systems separated by about 25 miles. In three separate locations a total of forty-
four trees were found bearing seeds. The limiting factor in American Chestnut
reproduction was clearly shown to be access to direct sunlight, not disease. The
obvious conclusion derived from this time in the field is that the American
Chestnut is coming back without our interference. Attempts to hybridize it with
non-native chestnut species to make “blight resistant” trees are unnecessary and
is detrimental to the ecology of the Appalachian forest. This study will be
continued in 2016 by walking additional trails.

268. This study was conducted throughout the spring,
summer and fall of 2015 with additional data from
spring 2016.

269. The American Chestnut Federation: proudly
tinkering since 1989. Still clueless.
Me: walking for one year. Issue resolved.

270. The American Chestnut is not a problem to be
solved but rather a fascinating study in a human
mediated ecological disaster and the biological
response.

271. The ecological damage which the American
Chestnut Federation can cause is due to:
• a lack of study and understanding of the
Eastern Forests,
• inherently flawed paradigms about how natural
systems function and how human interference
can cause them to function “better” and
• the common human almost demonic drive to
tinker.

272. As an ecologist I continually see where
introductions of magic bullet plants to solve
non-existent ecological problems cause
problems: Sawtooth Oak, Russian/Autumn
Olive, Multiflora Rose, Chinese Lespedeza and
etcetera.

273. Sawtooth oak, Quercus
acutissima, a PGC failure

274. Autumn olive, Elaeagnus umbellata, another PGC “gift”

275. Cleora sublunaria on a mature C. dentata tree, April 19, 2016

276. It is better to patiently study the system to
understand what is happening and determine if
the apparent crisis is a real crisis.

277. If the crisis is real, then develop strategies which
have minimal or no ecological impact such as
looking for resisting/resistant plants.

278. In the case of the American Chestnut, the
answer was always there, but those with power
never looked for it.

279. 7,551* American Chestnuts total were found in the
spring, summer and fall 2015 on two sets of trails
separated by @ 25 miles at their closest.
*If there was 6” or 8 “ between stems in a cluster unless obviously a clone, the stems were counted as separate trees. This
is in line with the concept that animals such as squirrels and corvids made non-recovered caches of seeds which produced
multiple trunks in the same location.

280. 7,251 American Chestnut trees found on the
Appalachian Trail and related trails from Rausch Gap
to Lehigh Gap, @ 80 miles linear distance.
118 American Chestnut trees found on trails in the
Birdsboro Reservoirs area in a quick incomplete
survey to confirm data from the Hamburg Reservoir
area of the Appalachian Trail. (182 trees found at
French Creek, a related trail set, but unrelated study.)

281. Maryland Delaware
New Jersey
our home
Appalachian Trail study area
7,251 C. dentata trees
Downloaded from Google Maps 4/2/2016
Birdsboro and French Creek study area
300 C. dentata trees
25
miles
New York

282. www.google.com/maps
Mar. 9, 2016
Appalachian Trail on Blue Mountain
Birdsboro Reservoirs and French
Creek State Park
@ 25 miles between points
our home
Molasses Hill
Lake Ontelaunee
Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area
Mt. Penn
Expected locations of American Chestnut trees
Hamburg Reservoir
Known groves of American Chestnut trees
Second and Sharps Mountains
Copied from Google Maps on Mar. 2, 2016
Topographical map showing distance between Blue Mountain and the Birdsboro Reservoirs/French Creek State Park with
other relevant information

283. Appalachian Trail
Rausch Gap
Lehigh Gap
Birdsboro Reservoirs and
French Creek State Park
Left to right, top: Dauphin, Schuylkill and Carbon counties; bottom: Lebanon, Berks and Lehigh
counties

284. Non-native Chestnut
Lehigh
Gap
Rausch
Gap
Blue Mountain: Rausch Gap to Lehigh Gap
2015 chestnut survey
Hamburg
Reservoir
Dan’s Pulpit
Allentown Shelter
Roundhead
yellow indicates C. dentata
groves
Lehigh
Valley
Nature
Center

285. One of the two most interesting discoveries is that the
Appalachian Trail is a refuge and a corridor for the
spread of the American Chestnut tree.

286. Other trails in Pennsylvania such as the Mason
Dixon, Conestoga, Mid State, Brandywine River,
Bartram and Laurel Highlands probably serve the
same purpose. I will exploring sections of these this
summer.

287. Another apparent correlation is that wider parts of
the AT and other trails serve as a corridor for the local
spread of the trees in that they provide an easy “low
friction” route for birds such as blue jays to fly along,
turkeys to run down and small mammals to use.
This needs more work as it was not an absolute
correlation, but an apparent one.

288. Extrapolating from a reference*, crows during the fall
migration may be spreading seeds along the ridgeline
the AT uses locally.
*American crow http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/647/articles/migration
Fall migration

289. Over the length of the AT, the apparent southward
spread of seeds during the fall crow migration and
northward spread of pollen during the spring
pollinator migration are two of the most important
ways for the American Chestnut to maintain its
genetic heterogeneity. As part of this process disease
resistance genes spread between groves and widely
spaced trees.

290. Pollinators and crows – maintaining
genetic heterogeneity and spreading
disease resistance along Blue
Mountain
Pollinators move pollen north
during spring migration as the
trees bloom
Crows move seeds south
during fall migration
tree
nut

291. Within a set location, the seeds are spread by
rodents such as red squirrels, gray squirrels and
corvids such as blue jays.*
*Heinrich, B. 2014. American Chestnut Seed Dispersal and Regeneration. Northeastern Naturalist 21(4):619-628.
Heinrich, B. 2014. American Chestnut by Red Squirrels. Northeastern Naturalist 22(4):N19-N23.

292. tree
Seed spread by blue jays with red and gray squirrels
squirrels
blue jays

293. This is part of the process of basic Darwinian
evolution – the more resistant trees reproduce at a
higher rate because they are healthier than the less
resistant. (Eventually, the less resistant tree lineages
go extinct by continually losing the competition for
sunlight and other resources.)

294. Diseases and pests such as Bacterial Leaf Scorch
(Xylella fastidiosa), Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus
planipennis), Gypsy Moth (Lymantria dispar dispar)
the Hemlock Wooly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae) and the
Elongate Hemlock Scale (Fiorinia externa) are opening
up the canopy.

295. Which means the American Chestnut may soon again
become the dominant tree in our eastern hardwood
forests as trees mature and reach the forest canopy.

296. Diagrams of how I think the American
Chestnut and how its genes are being
spread.
gypsy moth
larva

297. gypsy moth laying eggs

298. elongate hemlock
scale
hemlock
wooly
adelgid

299. Trees

317. Seedlings

318. AT north of Auburn Overlook

319. tree from AT north of Auburn
Overlook transplanted at home

320. Sand Spring trail near Shartlesville

321. AT south of Lehigh Gap

322. Disease

323. The Chestnut blight was found in Brooklyn, NY in
1904. It spread to Pennsylvania a few years later.

324. When a tree becomes infected it fights back by one of
three strategies:
1.) coppicing, sending up new shoots from the top of
the root crown of the dead main trunk to produce
multiple small trunks with high levels of disease*
2.) coppicing with moderate levels of disease in
multiple locations on the new medium trunks.*
3.) a single (mildly) diseased trunk with normal
growth habit
*Multiple trunks appear to be a common growth habit among
some trees in our area such as silver maple. This may be a
common defense against disease and other physical insults.

325. coppicing, sending up new
shoots from the top of the
root crown of the dead
main trunk to produce
multiple small trunks with
high levels of disease,
strategy 1

326. Disease on
American chestnut
trees in multiple
locations on
coppiced trunks,
strategy 2

327. Disease on a
American chestnut
tree, a single
(mildly) diseased
trunk with normal
growth habit,
strategy 3

328. Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) with multiple
trunks.

329. Acer saccharinum

330. One question which needs resolving is the
difference between multiple trunks from nut
caches vs. coppicing from disease. The following
two photos are most likely due to caching.

331. Castanea dentata

332. Quercus alba

333. Trees show lack of disease resistance in all age
classes and stem size.

339. Multiple areas of infection are common on
mature trees. Besides American Chestnuts this
pattern was found locally on oak, choke cherry,
birch and other species.

340. Disease on
American chestnut,
Castanea dentata

341. American dogwood (Cornus florida) was supposed to go extinct
due to dogwood anthracnose. It came back from the disease
without human interference.

342. disease on red oak trees,
Quercus rubra

343. disease on black birch tree, Betula lenta

344. disease on choke cherry,
Prunus virginiana

345. disease on white birch, Betula papyrifera

346. disease on silver maple, Acer saccharinum

347. Flowers

348. The second important discovery this past summer is
that the limiting factor in tree reproductive success is
not the Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria parasitica),
but rather access to direct sunlight on the apical ends
of branches.

349. All mature trees which received direct
sunlight had flowers, burrs and nuts.

350. Chestnut flowers are a good source of nectar and
pollen for insects such as bees at a time before many
non-tree flowers bloom. This gives pollinators early
season flowers to feed on as part of a continuous food
supply from mid-spring to frost.

364. Burrs and Nuts

365. Despite the blight, the trees are surviving to
reproduce.

366. • 46 trees have burrs in several distinct locations along
the areas of Blue Mountain surveyed.
• 40 of these trees are between Rt. 183 and Port Clinton
• 1 is on the Appalachian Trail on the top of the ridge at
the northern edge of the Hamburg reservoir watershed
@ 600 yards left of Gold Spring,
• 1 is on a trail near the Berks County highest point,
• 3 are near Round Head and the old AT and
• 1 is on the south side of the Lehigh Gap just north of
the AT.

367. Two trees near home which
produced burrs in 2015.
Left
Berks County, PA highest point
trail
lat. 40:31:15
long. -76:14:47
DBH:10.3”
Height: @34 feet
Right
Hamburg Reservoir, Appalachian
Trail in PA
lat. 40:36:20
long. -75:56 :51
DBH:7.0”
Height: @36 feet

368. 3 feet between
orange tape and
tree base, 6 feet
between green tape
and tree base
Location: Berks County, PA on the trail to the
highest point in Berks county, SGL80, lat. 40:31:15,
long. -76:14:49
DBH = 10.3”
Height: @ 34 feet

369. 3’ between green
and orange tapes x 2
= 6’ between green
tape and base of tree
Location: Hamburg Reservoir, Appalachian
Trail in PA, lat. 40:36:20, long. -75:56 :51
DBH = 7.0”
Height: @ 36 feet

370. Location: Berks County, PA, Rt. 183 north,
SGL110, lat. 40:32:22, long. -76:10:21
Chestnut cluster # 1, 3 trees, DBH L to R, 7
trunks total
Tree 1 = 4.8”, 3.0”
Tree 2 = 3.3”, 5.7”, 6.5”
Tree 3 = 5.3”, 5.9”
Height: tree 1 = @ 38 feet, other trees not
calculated

371. Location: Berks County, PA, Rt. 183 north, SGL110, lat.
40:32:21, long. 76:10:23
Chestnut cluster # 2, 2 trees, L to R
DBH
Tree 1 = 7.1”
Tree 2 = 7.3”
Height: @ 30 feet, 32 feet

372. Location: Berks County, PA, Rt. 183 north,
SGL110, lat. 40:32:21, long. 76:10:25
Chestnut cluster # 3
DBH = 6.2”
Height: @ 36 feet

373. 40 trees with burrs Rt. 183 north
to near Port Clinton
Port Clinton
Rt. 183

374. Burrs appear to open just after rain.

375. Rain swells the burrs causing them to open.

376. Burrs appear to open on both the tree and the
ground. Open burrs on trees can become food for
crows, blue jays and squirrels. On the ground they
can be food for mice, chipmunks, squirrels and
turkeys.

377. Wet soil makes it easier for corvids and rodents such
as squirrels to cache nuts in the ground which
enhances germination success.

378. Swelled burrs are soft from the absorbed moisture
which makes them a good food source for bacteria,
fungi, protists and insects – moist, nutritious, easy to
burrow in and easily digestible.

379. This allows the nutrients in the burr to be swiftly
recycled into the soil while creating a community of
organisms which benefit from the tree while giving
benefit to the tree.

380. Benefits to the tree may include increasing disease
resistance, lowering the load of pathogens and
predators near the tree, moving nutrients into the soil
close to the tree, etcetera.

393. Nut dispersal

400. Nuts in burrs had 3 basic shapes: spoon shaped
(spatulate), egg shaped (ovate) and house
shaped (truncate).
Most burrs had 3 nuts, often 1 ovate with 1
spatulate on both sides or a mixture of spatulate
and truncate shape.

401. wt. (g)
height
(cm)
width
(cm)
thickness
(cm)
3.7 2.2 2.0 1.4
Average dimensions of seeds dehisced on their own
wt. (g)
height
(cm)
width
(cm)
thickness
(cm)
3.5 2.1 1.8 1.5
Average dimensions of seeds manually dehisced
The following is measurements of the egg shaped
(ovate) seeds.
*No measurements were taken for the other shapes.

404. Path forward:
2016
1. finish survey in the Birdsboro/French Creek areas
2. extend the ends of the survey to the Susquehanna
River and the Delaware River
3. survey other relevant trails within 90 minutes of home
4. start looking at reservoirs to find fruiting trees as they
should have more open areas than trails
5. continue looking for seedlings in danger from trail
maintainers and hikers to transplant at home
6. continue collecting nuts to grow at home
7. identify and document pollinators and other
nectarivores on American chestnut flowers.

405. I plan to use a quadcopter (drone) with camera this
year to better understand and document what I see.

406. Our ultimate goal
To grow 2 successive generations (F2 generation) of
burr bearing American Chestnuts from seeds in our
yard.

407. Anyone who wants to join me is welcome to grab a
camera, their shoes, a day pack and do so.

408. Awe, wonder, joy and
surprise

508. Richard Gardner
rtgardner3@yahoo.com
410.726.3045
http://www.slideshare.net/rtgardner3
https://independent.academia.edu/RichardTGardner
We live in northern Berks County, PA.
Anyone who wants to visit us is welcome to.