The Physics Of Earth Atmospheric Co2 Concentration Essay

The Physics Of Earth Atmospheric Co2 Concentration Essay
Earth atmospheric CO2 concentration ([CO2]) has increased by more than 35% since 1750, is the
highest in the past 400,000 years and is currently increasing by about 2 parts per million each year
(Fig. 1). Because of contributions from human activity, [CO2] is expected to continue to rise in the
foreseeable future and to double sometime during this century if fossil fuels burning continues. As a
consequence, air temperature is predicted to rise 2 to 5˚C by 2100 (IPCC, 2014). Concomitant to the
rise in [CO2], some ecosystems will face challenges in the next few decades as plants experience
warmer temperatures, higher evaporative demand, and widespread changes in drought lengths and
severity (Diffenbaugh et al. 2015). To produce healthy crops and forests under changing climate
conditions, it is imperative to determine whether elevated [CO2] (CO2e) affects cell formation but
even more the physiological traits conferring drought–tolerance.
For the last 40 years, researchers have used enclosed and open–top chambers and more recently
Free–Air Carbon Enrichment (FACE) facilities that experimentally enrich the atmosphere with CO2
(McLeod & Long, 1999). Chamber studies might produce an overestimation of the CO2e effects,
whereas FACE reproduces an environment similar to field conditions (Ainsworth et al. 2008).
Experimental approaches, such as FACE technology, enabled us to examine the interaction effects of
land management practices (e.g., nitrogen addition) and environmental
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Wireless Sensor Networks : An Pest Management System
Abstract– Wireless sensor networks have been used in agricultural scenario because of the need for
enhancing precision, quality and quantity in farming. This paper is about developing a prototype for
the system which utilized a real time wireless sensor network to communicate wirelessly with a pest
management system that measures the parameters air temperature and air humidity in an Apple farm
for the prediction of disease, Apple Scab in Apple. For this purpose an application software has been
developed to derive a relation among these parameters and Disease Severity Index to find out the
need of pesticide spray for disease control of these crops. The information is linked to server to alert
farmers regarding the environmental changes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Another one is an integrated RISC microprocessor with serial analog to digital (A/D) and digital to
analog (D/A) converters that interface various signals coming from the sensors to a PC. An alternate
to this system is to use a reconfigurable embedded control and acquisition system, i.e. Compact–Rio
whose rugged hardware architecture includes I/O modules, a reconfigurable FPGA chassis, and an
embedded controller [12]. But in all such technologies the major problem which persists is their
inflexibility and bulkiness. Size, weight. Being a wired system the range of communication is
limited. The need of the hour is to use a wireless system for communicating between sensors and
server. WSN appears as a key solution to this problem.
WSN devices can operate over a wide temperature range, are less prone to shocks and vibration, and
provide safety and electromagnetic compatibility. A wireless measurement system frees you from
the confines of wired infrastructure [8]. RELATED WORK
Numerous studies have been performed on the application of wireless sensor networks in crop
protection, environmental monitoring, forest monitoring etc.. WSN is being used in Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia for animal agriculture [14].
WSN is also being used in apple farming and precision agriculture. Certain issues and challenges
like fault tolerance, production cost, operating environment have been discussed in detail

A Report On Plant Water Stress
9. Introduction:
Plant water stress is a major factor affecting crop yield. With the ever–increasing human population,
there is a constant stress exerted on water resources (McGwire et al., 2000). So irrigation to avoid or
relieve this stress must be done judiciously, not only to avoid environmental problems such as
groundwater pollution and runoff, but also to keep the cost down on a limited and expensive
resource. Soil moisture sensors are often used for precision irrigation control purposes. However,
soil moisture sensors can only assess the degree of water deficit stress that is imposed to the plants,
but not necessarily the level of water deficit stress that is actually experienced by the plants (Sinclair
and Ludlow, 1985). An ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Conventional methods of estimating leaf water content in the field are time consuming and location
specific. Remote sensing is an effective alternative to field sampling for the retrieval of leaf water
content, being non–destructive and providing continuous spatial coverage of a large area (Sepulcre–
Cantó et al., 2006; Ullah et al., 2012c). Plant water status can be assessed remotely by measuring
canopy reflectance, since they change in response to crop water content (Pen˜uelas et al., 1997;
Ustin et al., 1998; Stimson et al., 2005). As a technique, canopy spectral reflectance offers a number
of advantages, such as easy and quick measurements, integration at the canopy level and the fact
that additional parameters can be estimated simultaneously via a series of diverse spectral indices
(i.e. photosynthetic capacity, leaf area index, intercepted radiation, and chlorophyll content) (Araus
et al., 2001). Given its versatility, canopy reflectance is a valuable tool for high throughput
phenotyping (Montes et al., 2007; Chapman, 2008). Leaf water status has been successfully
estimated using the near infrared and shortwave infrared (Zygielbaum et al., 2009). In contrast, the
mid and thermal infrared (2.5–14 μm) domain is mostly ignored because of a number of challenges,
including unavailability of spectroradiometers (i.e. sensitive to the mid to thermal infrared), and the
subtle variations in

Impact Of Technology On The Environment
Every organisations have encompassed technology as a valuable way of a greater efficiency to daily
duties. As part of better effectiveness and efficiency, the chances of involving technologies, I believe
would turn over undesired consequences at times. Though implication of technologies, specifically
on database performance would benefit at large, detriment caused after employing should be
migrated. As it has been clearly noticeable, major effectiveness however is being disrupt
subsequently after system being upgraded, such as slow responses within database system and
rebooting seems to no longer being effective. Nonetheless, considering to issues of the system,
impacts would by varied causes depending on to points of what and how system is being used.
Challenges lies figuring to what extend does congestions are in as resulting to a poorly performed
application.
It is essential for database to perform as maximized as possible to enable the largest possibilities to
process workloads. However, performance bottlenecks would be in a range of common problems as
a virtue towards several factors. Major influences to performance in databases are workload,
throughput and resources. Workload defines how heavy system commands are in a given time which
would largely endure poor performance that also added factor to consider of the overall capabilities
of the computer to process all data, thus speed and efficiency define a huge role of a throughput.
Further, factor of resources, which

Terrestrial Ecology Lab
Terrestrial Ecology
Introduction
We know that light is an important part of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In a forest system
both the canopy and the understory absorb light. The type of forest and leaf cover present
determines the amount of light that reaches the understory. This can be measured using the LAI
(Leaf Area Index), which is the amount of leaves per unit ground area. Light quantity in forests is
affected by several factors such as tree species, age, and density.
Looking at the amount of light that can penetrate to the understory also shows how much moisture
can reach that level. The amount of light and moisture that reaches the forest floor determines how
much biomass will be present in this layer. The goal of

Nissan Leaf Essay
Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 1. Situational Analysis 4 1.1 SWOT Analysis 4 1.2
Industry Analysis 4 1.3 Competitor Analysis 4 1.4 Consumer Analysis 5 2. Opportunity
Identification 6 3. Marketing Objectives 7 4. Marketing Strategies 8 4.1 Target Segments 8 4.2
Segment Selection 8 4.3 Positioning 8 5. Marketing Mix Decisions 9 5.1 Product 9 5.2 Pricing 9 5.3
Distribution 9 5.4 Communications 9 6. Implementation and Evaluation 11 6.1 Implementation 11
6.2 Evaluation 11 7. Cost–Benefit Analysis 12 References 13 Appendix 14
Executive Summary
The Nissan Leaf is the first to enter the all–electric vehicle market. However, due to the current
recession and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As a 100% electric car, Leaf's direct competitors are hybrid and electric cars. Currently, hybrid
vehicles dominate the alternative fuel vehicle market. The Toyota Prius is the most successful hybrid
car by sales to date. According to IEA, types and number of alternative fuel vehicles available to
consumers will increase significantly from 2011 to 2015 (Clark, 2011).
With sales of 20 000 units, Nissan Leaf is the world's top selling electric car in 2011. Mitsubishi i–
MiEV ranks second, with sales of approximately 17,000 units. Other auto manufacturers are also
planning to release new electric cars in the near future.
Table #1: Direct competition from other electric cars
Model | Manufacturer | Launch Time in US | Leaf | Nissan | 2011 | Volt | GM | 2011 | i–MiEV |
Mitsubishi | 2011 | Focus EV | Ford | 2012 | Smart Fourtwo EV | Chrysler | 2012 | Fit EV | Honda |
2012 | Rav4 EV | Toyota | 2012 |
1.4 Consumer Analysis
When buying a car, 76.5% of consumers in United States say that environmental friendliness and
carbon footprint have at least a medium amount of influence on them (Figure 1). In 2011,
purchasing an electric car or hybrid car became more frequent among consumers. The percentage
jumped from 4.1% in 2009 to 8.9%, and is forecasted to be 17.2% in 2013 (Figure 2). The
increasing willingness to make green choices is expanding the market of electric vehicles. As the
first

Essay On Hyperpectral Sensors
Hyperspectral remote sensing collects spectral images across the electromagnetic spectrum.
Hyperspectral remote sensing detects many more spectral bands than traditional multispectral
remote sensing. Hyperspectral imagers cover the visible, near infrared, short–wave infrared and
thermal infrared spectral ranges which are useful for studying vegetation (Schlerf et al, 2012).
Hyperspectral sensors include the Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) and the
EO–1 satellite, both of which are owned and operated by NASA. These sensors have a higher
spectral resolution and are better able to estimate the biophysical characteristics of vegetation than
multispectral sensors such as MODIS and Landsat (Thenkabail et al, 2000). These ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
AVIRIS does this by discerning the fractional covers of bare soil, photosynthetic and non–
photosynthetic vegetation at a sub–pixel level. AVIRIS has high spatial and spectral resolution that
can map fuel materials and improve fire risk assessment, even around the complex urban/wildland
interface (Jia et al, 2006). AVIRIS data is very useful to researchers and land managers, yet data
availability is often a problem. Acquiring AVIRIS data for the exact area and growing season that a
researcher requires is often a challenge (Goetz, 2009). For this reason, hyperspectral satellite data
from the NASA EO–1 mission is more commonly used. The Hyperion hyperspectral imaging
spectrometer is part of the NASA EO–1 mission. The EO–1mission is part of the New Millennium
Program which is a program designed to drastically reduce the cost of satellite remote sensing while
improving the instrumentation quality. The EO–1 platform was launched on November 24, 2000 and
it now contains the Advanced Land Imager and the LEISAAtmospheric Corrector in addition to the
Hyperion Imaging Spectrometer. Hyperion boasts an impressive 10 nanometer spectral resolution
and a 30–meter spatial resolution. Hyperion is currently in orbit one minute behind the Landsat 7
satellite (Pearlman et al, 2001). Hyperion data is often

What Is The Estimation Of The Forest Femining Methods
With increase in the amount, quality and accessibility of the remote sensing data on one hand, and
advancement, ease of use and capability of the open source machine learning and statistical tools, on
the other hand, machine learning approaches have become very popular and powerful methods for
estimation of the forest biomass in the recent years. cite{Iftikhar}
By far, linear regression is the most well understood algorithm in statistics and machine learning
compared to any other machine learning tools. Table 2 summarizes the studies that has been done on
estimation of the biomass using LiDAR techniques.
Linear mixed effects (LME) regression is the extended version of the linear regression model and
applicable for the cluster data ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There are several ways to select the best features. cite{Thomas}. Also, it has been shown that
selection of the number of the features for classification, neighbors and the predictors are very
deterministic in the quality of the classification cite{NLi}.
Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) are two machine learning approaches that
has been successfully implemented in several studies and resulted in the significantly better results
compared to KNN or other regression models. For example, in the study by Fassnacht et
al.cite{Fassnacht 2014} using LiDAR and Hyperspectral data, it has been shown that RF model
produce a better forest aboveground biomass prediction compared to other tested methods.
RF is the ensemble classification technique based on the many random decision trees classifiers.
Decision tree is the classification approach that relate the target point to the predictor based on the
simple decision criteria. Decision tree can easily become unstable and result in the very complex
decision boundaries, therefore Random forests are used to improve the accuracy of the prediction
and also controls the over–fitting cite{Thomas}. It has been shown that a large number of features
can be handled by RF cite{Liai}. RF also, has been reported to have higher accuracy in predicting
biomass compared to

Proposed Botanical Garden Design Plan
Title of paper
Proposed Botanical Garden Design
Prepared by:
Date submitted
Section
Name of TA
Introduction
Biodiversity refers to the variety of life species that exist on the Earth. Studies on diversity include
understanding the relationship between all the living species on Earth
The Importance of Biodiversity
According to (Newmark, 2010), to the people on Earth and the health of ecosystems, biodiversity is
vital for the following mentioned reasons; it helps us to live healthy and happy through the provision
of foods and materials to the economy. Secondly, because of research into animals and plants,
scientists have discovered the cure to various diseases and hence increased lifespan. Again,
ecosystems can adjust to disturbances such as floods and extreme fires due to diversity. Lastly,
biodiversity forms an important section of ecological services that support live on earth.
How to quantitatively measure diversity
We can measure diversity by dividing it into genetic diversity and ecological diversity.
Understanding variation in genes such as colors, sizes, and shapes, as well as how variety of species
interact either with each other or their environment will help us to measure diversity quantitatively
Native species
A native species is an indigenous species that occurs in given ecosystem without human direct or
indirect influence.
Non–native species
Exotic species are those species that humans or other activities have either intentionally or

Allochthonous Deciduous Lab Report
The influence of allochthonous deciduous and coniferous leaf material on macro–invertebrate taxa
richness in the Woods Creek River
Jonathan Chu
Help Received: None
20150501
Introduction The purpose of this experiment was to improve our scientific literacy by studying the
factors that shape biological communities. Packs of coniferous and deciduous leaves were placed in
the Woods Creek River at the Virginia Military Institute to discover how aquatic macro–invertebrate
communities are influenced by allochthonous material.
The independent variable was the type of leaf pack used (coniferous or deciduous) and the
dependent variable was the type and amounts of macro invertebrates found in the leaf packs. Macro
invertebrates are organisms large ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
& Sowden, F.J. (1959). Decomposition of forest litters. Plant and Soil, 11, 237–248. Teresi, Katrina,
Melissa McLean, Jamie Hoernke, and Anna Botiva. The Effect of Coniferous and Deciduous Soil on
Bacterial Growth in Jackson Park. N.p., 7 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 Apr. 2015.
<http://depts.alverno.edu/nsmt/archive/TeresiMcLeanHoernke.htm>. Dahlgren, Randy, and Max
Turner. "Decomposition." Decomposition. UC Davis, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2015.
<http://lawr.ucdavis.edu/classes/ssc219/biogeo/decomp.htm>. Arctic Monitoring, Assessment
Programme, ACIA – Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, Program for the Conservation of Arctic
Flora, Fauna & International Arctic Science Committee (2005). Arctic Climate Impact Assessment –
Scientific Report. Cambridge University Press Smith, W.K. & Hinckley, T.M. (1995). Resource
Physiology of Conifers: Acquisition, Allocation, and Utilization. Academic Press Ligeiro,Raphael,
Moretti,Marcelo S., Gonçalves,José F. & Callisto,Marcos (2010). What is more important for
invertebrate colonization in a stream with low–quality litter inputs: exposure time or leaf
species?.Hydrobiologia, 654,

Damself Flies Ap Bio Paper
Entomology Tag–Recapture Study
By: Brandon Gertler
Honors Biology (Period G)
December 9, 2014
Abstract
New Community Jewish High School honors biology students conducted research on damselflies
using representative data provided by a previous class. Using the lincoln petersen index, it was
determined that there were approximately 140 damselflies. Using morositas index, it was discovered
that the damselflies are arranged in a clumped distribution
Introduction:
Photo 1: Close up of a Damselfly
Damselflies belong to the odonata family. Blue and black damselflies are very common in the
western United states. The two most common damselflies are Enallagma Cyathigerum and Argia
vivida. (Garrison, 1978) They are close relatives of dragonflies. Damselflies have 6 legs 2 antennae
and 3 body parts: wings, a thorax, and large ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The damselflies were caught at Lake Balboa in Encino. The materials the group used include: Boots,
a micropen, string, a compass, wooden stakes, paint, and chalk. The group set up 26 quadrats and
attempted to discover damselfly movement patterns. Each quadrat was set up using either a flag or a
stone marker. The quadrat each damselfly was located in, was recorded and compared to the data of
the quadrats of the recaptures from sunday. Each quadrat is 2 meters on each side. Each flag that
marked a corner of a quadrat was marked by a letter or number, based on where it was located. The
class had a chart of the formation of the quadrats on which they marked large objects such as
bushes, and rocks. The class attempted to catch damselflies, mark them, and after release them.
Once caught, the damselfly would be taken gently by the wing a marked with the micropen. The
following data was recorded: sex, quadrat caught, total body length, behavior. After completion, the
group returned on Sunday in order to attempt to recapture the

Benefits Over Traditional Wired Sensing Technology
Abstract–Wireless sensor networks have many advantages over traditional wired sensing
technology, due to their embedded construction. This technology has been used in agricultural
scenario because of the need for enhancing precision, quality and quantity in farming. In this paper,
we developed a prototype for the system which utilized a real time wireless sensor network to
communicate wirelessly to a pest management system that measures the various parameters like air
temperature, air humidity and leaf wetness duration in an Apple and Picrorhiza Kurroa (Kutki) farm
for the prediction of disease, apple scab in apple and powdery mildew in Kutki and for this purpose
an application software has been developed to derive a relation among these parameters and
Infection Index to find out the optimum condition for best growth of crop. The information is linked
to server to alert farmers regarding the environmental changes and infection index so that the
necessary precaution may be taken before disease occurs. The major goal is to reduce several
unnecessary sprays and apply only when the crop has highest risk of a particular disease. The system
will be installed in Mashobra, Shimla for apple and IHBT, Palampur for Kutki. Keywords–Apple
Scab, Powdery Mildew, Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Pest Management System, Severity Index
I. Introduction
In the past few years, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) technology has been successfully applied in
military, environment, medical, home,

A Study On The Genome Wide Association Mapping Has Become...
Genome–wide association mapping has become a popular way of quantitative trait locus (QTL)
identification for the majority of crop plants including wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Its advantage
over classical bi–parental mapping methods relies on the size of linkage disequilibrium in the
mapping population. The objectives of this study are to determine linkage disequilibrium decay rate
and population structure in a winter wheat population of 276 accessions which has been genotyped
with the ILLUMINA infinium 90k chip and to identify markers associated with yield and its
components, morphological, phenological, and drought tolerance–related traits.
Wheat is the world's third most important food crop next to maize and rice, (Green et al., 2012). It
accounts for one–fifth of total production among major cereal crops and provides 55 % of the
carbohydrates consumed by humans around the world (Bagge et al., 2007). However, wheat
productivity is threatened by both biotic and abiotic stresses and its potential yield is rarely
achieved. Crop resistance to both biotic and abiotic stresses, including drought has been successfully
improved by plant breeding through phenotypic selection (Cooper et al., 2009). However, there is a
large yield gap between drought prone areas and ideal production regions for most crops, including
wheat. Drought tolerance is a complex quantitative trait controlled by multiple genes (Mir et al.,
2012). It is also complicated by the fact that

Wireless Sensor Networks Have Many Advantages Over...
Abstract– Wireless sensor networks have many advantages over traditional wired sensing
technology, due to their embedded construction. This technology has been used in agricultural
scenario because of the need for enhancing precision, quality and quantity in farming. This paper is
about developing a prototype for the system which utilized a real time wireless sensor network to
communicate wirelessly with a pest management system that measures the various parameters like
air temperature, air humidity and leaf wetness duration in an Apple and Picrorhiza Kurroa (Kutki)
farm for the prediction of disease, Apple Scab in Apple and Powdery Mildew in Kutki. For this
purpose an application software has been developed to derive a relation among ... Show more
Apple scab is caused by a fungal pathogen (Venturia Inaequalis), and can result in severe defoliation
of apple trees if poorly managed. The hills of Thanedar–Kotgarh near Shimla, were found to be
ideal for apple growing, but has expanded through the state, growing from 360 hectares in the 1950s
to more than 150,000 hectares in 2014. Apple production contributes a major portion in Indian
economy [5]. Powdery mildew in Kutki is a very dangerous disease. It is caused by the fungus
Erysiphe necator (formerly Uncinulanecator). In India, it is found in the Himalayan region of
Kashmir to Sikkim and is highly useful in digestive problems, asthma, liver damage, wound healing,
vitiligo etc. But it is one of the endangered species so it needs to be protected from diseases [6]. In
order to protect these two major crops from diseases we developed a prototype system for plant
protection and pest management using a real time Wireless Sensor Network, which will be installed
in Mashobra, Shimla for Apple and IHBT, Palampur for Kutki.
Due to uncertain environmental changes it becomes difficult for a farmer to follow the regular
calendar spray program. Alternate to the scheduled spray of pesticides and fungicides is the use of

Characteristics Of The Null Hypothesis
Our lab investigated the morphological characteristics of leaves found in the sun and shade on
various species of maple and oak trees around campus. Our null hypothesis was Acer and Quercus
acclimate similarly with regards to SLW (specific leaf weight), size, and sinuosity. Our hypothesis
was Quercus acclimation is greater than Acer SLW, size, and sinuosity. We tested these hypotheses
by picking small sections of a branches from both maple and oak trees. A group was assigned either
a maple or an oak tree, and needed a total of three different trees per group. Once three different
trees were chosen, groups needed three shade leaves and three sun leaves of off each different tree.
In total, each group should then end up with 18 leaves for testing. After collecting the leaves, we ran
them through the LiCor 3100 leaf area meter to identify the area of each leaf. Major results found by
the classes' mutual data was each one of our p–values were greater than .05. This means that we
failed to reject the null hypothesis. Thus, the lab results do not support our hypothesis that Quercus
acclimation is greater than Acer SLW, size, and sinuosity.
Introduction
In articles written by Thomas Jurik and Ulo Niinements and Kalevi Kull they discuss how sun and
shade leaves look different and why. Both papers suggest that sun leaves have thicker cuticles and
are more deeply lobed. In addition, sun leaves have less surface area to limit the amount of
evapotranspiration that occurs in the leaves

Osmotic Potential, Chlorophyll ) Potengths
Abstract
The effect of sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations (0.0, 60, 120, 240 mM) on growth, osmotic
potential, chlorophyll content, protein content of (Vicia faba L.) seedlings was investigated.
NaCl caused an increase in plant height with low and medium concentrations and a decrease with
the highest concentration, in both measurement periods. No significant effect was observed in the
number of leaves or leaf area with low concentration, while a decrease was noticed for each, with
two higher concentrations and in both measurement periods.
Salinity increased both fresh and dry weights of the shoot in the two measurement periods. Osmotic
potential (O.P.) showed a significant decrease with the increase in concentrations, and in the
duration of the stress periods.
Salinity significantly reduced chlorophyll 'a' content in both measurement periods. It also
significantly reduced chlorophyll 'b', total chl., and carotenoids contents after ten days of treatment.
An increase was observed in the protein content in the two measurement periods due to the impact
of salinity stress. A directly proportional relationship was found between protein content and the
increase in salt concentrations in the first measurement period, while it was inversely proportional in
the second.
Keywords
Osmotic potential; Chlorophyll; NaCl; Plant height; Protein
1. Introduction
The over salinity of the soil is one of the main factors that limits the spread of plants in their natural
habitats.

Effect On Automobile Pollution
Effect of automobile pollution on plants in Narnaul City, Haryana Richa Kumari1 and Poonam
Yadav2 1 Assistant Professor, Deptt. Of Geography, Govt. College Narnaul, Haryana. 2Assistant
Professor, Deptt. Of Geography, Govt. College Narnaul, Haryana.
ABSTRACT:–
Air pollution is one of the major problems in the world. It is influenced by four major factors, such
as industrialization in the cities, increase in traffic, rapid economic development, and higher level of
energy consumption. The growth of both an industrial and residential area is unplanned in many
developing cities of India, thus, it contributing to the air pollution problems. In urban areas, the
mobile or vehicular population is predominant and significantly contributes to air quality problems.
In recent past, air pollutants, responsible for vegetation injury and crop yield losses, are causing
increased concern. Air pollution is one of the serious problems in the world, its facing today. It
deteriorates ecological condition and can be defined as the fluctuation in any atmospheric
constituent from the value that would have existed without human activity .It has been observed that
plants particularly growing in the urban areas affected greatly due to varieties of pollutants (oxides
of nitrogen and sulphur, hydrocarbon, ozone, particulate matters, hydrogen fluoride, peroxyacyl
nitrates (PAN) etc.) .Chlorophyll is found

The Importance Of Image Analysis
Mohammed El–Helly et al. [8] proposed an approach for integrating image analysis technique into
diagnostic expert system. A diagnostic model was used to manage cucumber crop. According to this
approach, an expert system finds out the diseases of user observation. In order to diagnose a disorder
from a leaf image, five image processing phases are used: image acquisition, enhancement, and
segmentation, feature extraction and classification. Images were captured using a high resolution
color camera and auto focus illumination light. Firstly they transformed the defected RGB image to
the HSI color space then analyzed the histogram intensity channel then increased the contrast of the
image. Fuzzy C Means (FCM) segmentation is used in this ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Algorithms for selecting useful texture features were developed by using stepwise discriminant
analysis. They developed four models i.e. HSI_39, HSI_15, HS_10 and I_11. Classification was
done by minimum distance classifier. The model using 15 selected HSI texture features got the best
classification accuracy (95.6%), which recommended that it would be best to use a reduced hue,
saturation and intensity texture feature set to differentiate orange diseases. The HSI_15 model, I_11
and HSI_39 models achieved classification accuracy 95.6%, 81.11% and 95.6% respectively.
Bauer et al. [10] developed algorithms for the automatic classification of leaf diseases based on
stereo and high resolution multispectral images. Leaves of sugar beet were used in this method.
Sugar beet leaves might be infected by several diseases. In controlled light laboratory environment,
They collected stereo images of single sugar beet leaves by RGB and multispectral cameras. The
leaves were either healthy or infected from diseases such as rusts, powdery mildew and Cercospora
leaf spot. They generated 3–D models of the leaves to fuse information from the two cameras.
Classification is done by k–nearest neighbour and an adaptive Bayes method. The classification
accuracy achieved were 91% for Cercospora leaf spots and 86% for rust disease.
Weizheng et al. [11] developed an accurate and fast new method based

Measures Of Plant Physification And Environmental Analysis
6.5.1 Mapping and identifying vegetation, landscape, insect infestation and invasive weeds
Forest research plans to use an establishment model to understand these interactions building up the
model using existing experimental data sets to gain a better understanding of factors such as site
assessment, plant type, and climatic conditions at the time of planting, fertilisation, early detection
of insect attacks, and weed control. The advantage of remote sensing technique is the combination
of detailed spectral data to aid image classification and tree crown discrimination. For the mapping
of vegetation, landscape, insect infestation and invasive weeds from the remotely sensed data are
usually supervised classification , unsupervised ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
6.5.3 Forest vigour
Cost effective methods are necessary for broad–scale regular assessment of forest vigour cover
complex terrain. Satellite derived vegetation indices such as NDVI can monitor large remote areas
with an effective database for evaluating vegetation vigour. The value of NDVI varies from +1 to –
1. The values nearer to +1 indicate dense vegetation and the values approximate to –1 indicates
water bodies. The high percentages of spectral variance in individual scenes can be explained using
TCT (Huang et al., 2002). The TCT greenness and wetness bands have a strong correlation to the
percentage of vegetation cover. The greenness feature measures the presence and density of green
vegetation (Crist et al., 1986).
6.5.4 Stand volume and biomass
Investigators have been emploeyd multiple regression analysis, K nearest–neighbour, neural
network mapping techniques to assess the ground biomass form the remotely sensed satellite data
(Foody et al., 2003). Gillham and Mellin (2004) carried out multi–temporal image analysis to assist
rangeland managers in evaluating range readiness, observing utilization levels and creating
decisions to spread the length of the emergent season. Landsat TM and ETM+ images were
employed to improve associations between dry biomass weight per unit area

Improving Crop Productions Under Arid And Semiarid...
Introduction Arid and semiarid regions are seriously lacking in fresh water. Water shortages in these
regions have become the basic norm rather than the exception. Most importantly, the situation of
water shortage is growing worse due to abrupt climatic changes and continuous population growth.
All of these factors will decrease the amount of water allocated to the agricultural sector, which
consumes about 75% of the available water supply. Therefore, as the water supply for agronomic
purposes becomes insufficient, development of new germplasms with higher yield potential
becomes more imperative and it will be one of the major adaptation strategies to sustain crop
productions under arid and semiarid conditions. In order to improve the germplasms for these
conditions, it is essential to evaluate a large number of genotypes using multiple selection criteria.
Several morpho–physiological traits, particularly those related to crop processes, yield
characteristics, and drought–tolerance mechanisms such as relative water content, canopy water
content, SPAD value and normalized relative canopy temperature are usually effective as useful
complementary selection criteria for screening germplasms under different environmental conditions
(Chen et al., 2012; Elsayed et al., 2015). Direct measurements of those traits by traditional methods
are destructive and time–consuming and some of them are difficult to do when a large number of
genotypes need to be evaluated across different

The Effect of Recycled Water Irrigation on Young Olive Trees
The problem of water shortage is one of the major limiting factors in food production and
agriculture development in the arid and semi arid regions. Reclaimed water is one of the most
significant available water resources that shall be consumed in agriculture and urban landscape
maintenance. In order to investigate the impact of water quality and its application method on olive
trees this experiment was carried out during 2010–2012 in the semiarid central part of Iran on young
olive trees. The trees were irrigated by a new subsurface–leaky irrigation (SLI) system and surface
irrigation in line with irrigation with recycle and clean water for 24 months. The results revealed that
SLI system could enhance trees growth, leaf area, Fv/Fm and ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of wastewater application with subsurface
leakage irrigation system on growth, photosynthetic index, and minerals accumulation on the
nutritional value on young olive trees.
1– Materials and methods
2–1–site of experiment this research was conducted in the Department of Horticulture, Isfahan
university of technology in Isfahan (51° W, 31° N; Altitude 1600 m), Iran, during 2010–2012, on a
sandy–clay soil. (pH=7.3, EC=2.34 ds/m). Trees were planted at a spacing of 4.0 m by 4.0 m. The
experiment was conducted on young olive trees (Olea europaea L., cv Roghani). The climate of the
area is arid with cold winters. Average annual rainfall and average annual maximum temperature are
122.8 mm and 23.4°C, respectively.
2–2–Experimental design and treatments
Research was conducted using a split–plot experimental design with two factors, and four replicates.
The treatments were irrigation system (subsurface–leaky irrigation (SLI) and surface irrigation (SI))
and water quality (recycled water (RW) and clear water). The trees were irrigated for two years.
Irrigation was applied based on crop evapotranspiration (ETc, mm) and monthly 173.4 lit water
applied per tree (data not shown). The RW characteristics are shown in Table (1). PVC leaky tube
was adopted for SLI system. (Tiny

The Diversity Of Soil Invertebrates
Introduction: The diversity of soil invertebrates is very important to our ecosystem, because most
soil invertebrates are responsible for key soil processes such as nutrient recycling, nutrient retention,
formation of soil structure, and decomposition rates. Invertebrates are one of the most dominant
groups of animals in the world. Recent studies show that animals may constitute as much as 23% of
the total diversity of living organisms (Lavelle et al., 2006).
Common soil invertebrates include arthropods and nematodes. These soil invertebrates provide
major ecosystem services. For example, ants, dung beetles, ground beetles, earthworms, and slugs
aid in seed dispersal, which is important because seed dispersal is known to affect food production
and nutrient recycling as well as decomposition rates. Bees, butterflies, moths, and ants aid in
pollination. These invertebrates are very important because about three–fourths of all plants are
pollinator dependent and insects tend to provide most of the animal pollination globally. Without
pollinators plant species would be more susceptible to extinction. In agricultural systems,
invertebrate pollinators are responsible for the successful production of vegetables and fruits that
maintain livestock production. Nematodes, annelids, and arthropods aid in decomposition (Prather et
al., 2012)
Materials and Methods: The experiment began with the construction of a Berlese funnel, which is an
apparatus used to extract

Preliminary Yield Trials ( Pyt )
that third season plots will give rise to F4:6 seed which will be used to initiate Preliminary Yield
Trials (PYT). Three selected parental genotypes and forty–five of the 100 F4:6 lines from season
three will be tested during season one to four in PYTs composed of three replications in a standard
randomized complete block design (RCBD). Those lines will be evaluated on organic farm land at
two locations in South Dakota. During and after the growing season, procedures similar to those of
previous seasons as well as additional quality traits will be collected and compiled for identification
of the most desirable experimental lines for further consideration. Additional quality evaluation for
oat samples from the PYT will include groat percent ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, with the advancement of season one materials into season two, season one will be
repeated. Similarly, at the beginning of season three, procedures started during seasons two and one
will also be repeated, and so on. Therefore, it will take four seasons to completely populate all
phases of the new organic focused small grain breeding programs. For some promising crosses
single seed descent (SSD) will be used to quickly develop homozygous lines that will be selected,
and seed along to enter them into preliminary yield trials (PYT).
Disease resistance (Fhb1, Fhb6, Fhb5A) and grain quality (Dx5+Dy10 subunits of Glu–D1) will be
rapidly improved in available wheat lines performing well under organic production but lacking
resistance or acceptable quality. Marker assisted/genomic assisted selection will be utilized for these
traits. In oat, frequent changes in crown rust races significantly reduce the life–span of major
resistance genes, and new sources of resistance are often overcome less than 5 years after the release
of new cultivars. While several major genes for resistance to crown rust will be combined in new
germplasm, an emphasis will also be placed to develop germplasm with horizontal resistance
(involving multiple genes with minor effects) to provide more durable resistance against oat crown
rust.

Rhizobacteria Case Study
This specific study investigates an Azatobacter strain, pseudomonas strain and how these two
interact on soybean performance. This experiment was designed as a split plot factorial, it also hard
a completely randomized design. It used four chemical fertilizers and four levels of plant growth
promoting Rhizobacteria. The result was measured by physiological maturity, number of spikes per
unit area, harvest index, plant yield, grain yield, plant height, protein content and girth. This article
related directly to my experiment because the parameters used to obtain the results of my
experiment are similar; also the investigative subject is the same as the one in my experiment. This
experiments results showed that if Azatobacter application ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
This article investigates the effects of bacterial bio–fertilizers on the growth and yield of rice which
is a grain. Bacterial bio–fertilizers investigated in this article include Azatobacter species and
pseudomonas species which were isolated from the soil of agricultural crops through employment of
plating techniques. This isolation was achieved through selective medium such as Rhizobium
medium for rhiobium species, pikovskayas agar for phosphate solubilising microbes and manitol
agar for Azatobacter. These bacteria were used to inoculate seeds. After 50 days of growth the
physical parameters were measured, they included breadth of leaves, number of leaves, length of
shoot, number of flowers, length of root, number of seeds, and number of pods. The result was that
all this parameters increased but in different proportions. These findings are directly related to my
experiment which invests the effects of Rhiobacteria on plant growth; this article has also used the
same parameters I used in my experiment. This article investigates the integrated effect of
Rhizobium and Azatobacter cultures on the leguminous crop black gram. These experiement that
was performed was meant to evaluate the intergrated effect of azatobacter and rhizobium n plant
growth, number of leafs present, the length of the roots, appearance of the nodules, carbohydrate
content and chlorophyll content in black grain which is a leguminous plant. In these

Vegetative Growth Characters Of Broad Bean Plants
This study included three experiments that were conducted during the winter seasons of 2013/2014
(one experiment) and 2014–2015 (two experiments).
4.1 Frist season of 2013/2014 One experiment was designed to investigate the effect of three plant
spacing (20, 30 and 40 cm), three humic acid (HA) rates (control, 1000 and 2000 mg l–1), three
boron (B) rates (control, 100 and 200 mg l–1) and their interactions on the vegetative growth and
earliness as well as the green pods yield of broad bean crop. The effects of the different factors that
used in this study and their interaction on the various characters of broad bean plants are presented
in Tables (2– 16).
4.1.1 Vegetative Growth Characters The results ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The data showed that application of B had no significant influence on plant height, branches No.
plant–1, and leaf area index (LAI) of broad bean plants. While, the boron had a significant effect on
the number of leaves plant–1 of broad bean plants. The results appeared that spraying of B on broad
bean plants resulted in a decrease in the number of leaves per plant, the lowest value of the number
of leaves plant–1 (132.2) was obtained from plants treated with 100 mg l–1, and there was no
significant effect among other levels of B.
4.1.1.4 Interaction Effects between Spacing and Humic Acid.
The statistical comparisons listed in Table (3) illustrated the presence of some interaction effects,
between spacing and HA on some vegetative growth characteristics of broad bean plants that
resulted in different relative responses for the various treatment combinations. These interaction
effects may be showed by the comparisons among the three different HA rates at each of the
different spacing of the plant height and number of leaves per plant. In wide plant spacing 40 cm,
the comparisons illustrated that the increases in HA up to 1000 or 2000 mg l–1 were associated with
significant decreases in the plant height and number of leaves per plant, which was not exactly with
spacing 20 and 30 cm.
4.1.1.5 Interaction Effects between Spacing and Boron. The

Plant Water Stress Is A Major Factor Affecting Crop Yield
Plant water stress is a major factor affecting crop yield. With the ever–increasing human population,
there is a constant stress exerted on water resources (McGwire et al., 2000). So irrigation to avoid or
relieve this stress must be done judiciously, not only to avoid environmental problems such as
groundwater pollution and runoff, but also to keep the cost down on a limited and expensive
resource. Soil moisture sensors are often used for precision irrigation control purposes. However,
soil moisture sensors can only assess the degree of water deficit stress that is imposed to the plants,
but not necessarily the level of water deficit stress that is actually experienced by the plants (Sinclair
and Ludlow, 1985). An assessment of leaf water content, on the other hand, may yield more detailed
insight into the plant's actual physiological response to a certain degree of low soil moisture content,
and how water deficit stress is in fact experienced by the plant. Leaf water content is a key indicator
of plant health, vigor and photosynthetic efficiency (Harry, 2006). Accurate retrieval of plant water
content plays a crucial role in assessing drought risk (Bauer et al., 1986), select genotypes in
breeding for water stress (Munjal and Dhanda, 2005), predicting wildfire and monitoring the
physiological condition of vegetation (Peñuelas and Filella, 1998) and biomass (Cho et al., 2007;
Mutanga et al., 2005; Ullah et al., 2012c), while in the agriculture domain it helps in scheduling

Community Art Project
Ask students to summarize things that they have learned while studying birds. Tell students that they
are going to create piece of art will celebrate all of those things while demonstrating the
amazingness of the bird species and their own creative abilities. Explain that the class is going to
create a unique piece of art, a piece of community art where each person in the classroom
contributes to part of the finished product. Explain that when a group of people put effort into one
project something special can be created because it is more than one person could have done alone.
Explain that the class will be making a zentangle. That a zentangle is a simple line drawing of any
object, where each section of the drawing is then filled in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
A land bird, such as a pheasant, water bird, such as a flamingo or a parrot or bird of prey may be
good contrasting choices. Let children vote. Use the chosen bird to be the central focus of the poster,
make a simple sketch of the bird in its natural environment. Divide sections such as water, plants of
ground into multiple sections so children can make zentangle designs in multiple areas of the poster.
Ask kids to think of what kinds of line patterns could go on the poster. Let a few kids come up to the
board to show the patterns they are thinking of. Next hand out plain index card swatches where kids
can make a few pattern examples that they think would work for the poster. Also, so an online
search of simple line pattern to shoe the kids additional ideas. When kids are finished, collect the
swatches and put them into a metal ring. Next draw a line pattern on the board in an 8 by 11 inch
space. Then cut a circle in the center of a piece of paper. Place the paper over the design on the
board to show how a continuous pattern looks when it is interrupted by a shape. Let the children
know that the edges of the pattern should appear to continue on, even though they are confined by
the shape of the section they are filling. Make a small view finder, matching the size of the index
card swatches and show the students how to use it, over their sketched ideas, to see how a pattern
will look

Moderate Resolution Spectroradiometer
Satellite data In this study, Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) derived
NDVI and LST images and Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Stations (CHIRPS)
derived SPI images products were used to model and evaluate drought monitoring. Brief
descriptions of these datasets are given in Table 1. The products of these satellite data were selected
due to free accessibility and near–real time availability with fifteen years plus time series, apart from
relatively high spatial and temporal resolutions. The temporally smoothed dekadal (10–day
synthesis) NDVI products were downloaded from the USGS FEWS NET eMODIS, the official data
website which is https://earlywarning.usgs.gov/fews/product/116. The monthly L3 ... Show more
All images were projected to a common coordinate system of UTM Zone 37 N for Ethiopia.
Development of NVWSI for drought monitoring The development of NVWSI was based on the
assumption that when there is sufficient vegetation water supply in the soil, there is a normal growth
of vegetation. In other words, normal vegetation growth is affected when soil water deficit has
happened during a drought period. In case of drought, NDVI value (observed by the satellite sensor)
is reduced as vegetation partially closes leaf stomata to reduce leaf surface transpiration in order to
save water in the canopy (Placeholder4). During this self–protective mechanism the leaf and canopy
temperatures (LST) increase. In this modality, the ratio of vegetation index and canopy temperature
can show the state of water supply for vegetation, with the greater ratio implying sufficient water
supply and vice versa and this approach is widely applied in drought monitoring (Sheng et al. 2003;
Zhang et al, 2006; Huang et al. 2008; Gao 2008; Bao 2012). Usually, the simple ratio of the two
variables (NDVI and LST) can be defined as VWSI using Equation (1).

Difference Between Differences And Differences Between...
The results of analysis of variance (Table 3) showed that there were significant differences between
lines in the probability of 1% in terms of all traits; which indicating a high genetic variation for
studied lines. Existence significant differences and genetic variation among genotypes of lentil by
other authors such as Mostafaei et al, (2006), Bayoumi (2008) and Toklu et al, (2009) have also
been reported. Kumar et al, (2012) by studying 43 genotypes of lentil under field conditions found
high diversity for biological yield, seed yield and harvest index. Ruisi et al, (2015) worked on 15
accessions of lentil during two years and stated that high variation existed among genotypes in terms
of pheno–morphological and agronomic traits. In the present study, most (21.54%) and lowest
(4.79%) values of the coefficient of variation of error was observed in biological yield and days to
flowering, respectively. The mean of superior lines (Table 4) showed that a specific pure line with
high values for all traits not found; but desirable pure lines in terms of phenological traits, stem
diameter, number of pods per plant, plant height and seed yield were observed. Line No. 20
(ILL590) with large leaf length, high numbers of pods per plant, more stem diameter, fewer days to
flowering and maturity and high seed yield known as the superior line on weather conditions of
Shahrekord, Iran. After that, line No. 28 (ILL947) was with high levels of seed yield, stem diameter,
number of pods per

Assessment Of Stream Health At Conley Run Through The...
Assessment of Stream Health at Conley Run Through the Sampling of Benthic Macroinvertebrates
C.J. Laurin, C.J. Hess, M.C. Taddeo
Introduction
Located near Cowan, Pennsylvania, Conley Run is a tributary of Buffalo Creek that has experienced
severe degradation due to agricultural activity. Specifically, the deposition of large amounts of
animal wastes, pesticides, and fertilizers has resulted in significant eutrophication throughout the
stream. Furthermore, bank degradation associated with the movement of livestock has caused the
displacement of foreign sediments into stream habitats. These factors, among many others, have
caused the lake to be considered "impaired" by PA–DEP. In response, the Buffalo Creek Watershed
Alliance, the the Union County Conservation District, and the Department of Environmental
Protection and Fish and Boat Commision have partnered in an effort to restore stream habitat and
create a riparian buffer to protect the stream.
A separate tributary of Buffalo Creek, known as Stony Run, lies upstream from Conley Run. Since it
is located in a dense wooded area with little to no agricultural interference, Stony Run has
experienced very little degradation in comparison to Conley Run. However, Stony Run also shares a
number of similar physical characteristics with Conley Run, such as discharge, watershed area,
elevation and slope. Therefore, it will serve as a reference stream for this study.
The objective of this study was to assess the stream habitat quality

Nt1310 Unit 2 Lab Report
Selim Erguden #100867815 GEOM 3002 Doug King Blair Kennedy Lab#6 November 21, 2014
Part A: Non–computer Questions (4 marks) 1. In remote sensing, most units are expressed using the
metric system. For example, the near infrared region of the spectrum is comprised of
electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths extending from about 0.7–1.4m. Express this range in:
meters using scientific notation (i.e., #.# x 10n m), and in nanometers. (1) Meters: 1 um = 10^–6
meters 0.7mm x 10^–6m = 0.0000007 meters 1.4mm x 10^–6m = 0.0000014 meters The range
would be 0.7 x 10^–6 meters to 1.4x 10^–6 meters or 0.0000007 meters to 0.0000014 meters
Nanometers: 1 meter = 1000000000 nanometers 0.0000007 x 1000000000 = 700 nanometers
0.0000014x 1000000000 = 1400 nanometers ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Is this a longer or shorter wavelength than visible spectrum radiation? (1) It is a longer wavelength
than visible spectrum radiation. 3. Define the three terms in the following equation. (2) ρ(λ) = M(λ)
–––––––– E (λ) P is the reflectance proportion of EMR, M is the outgoing reflectance and E is the
incoming reflectance. So in order to find the reflectance we are dividing the outgoing (M)
reflectance to the incoming reflectance (E). Part B: Field Spectroscopy (18 marks) 1. Plotting
spectral reflectance signatures: a. From the spectroradiometer data, plot the spectral reflectance
curves for the 3 non–vegetated target types and 2 vegetation types. Display all spectral curves on
one graph (graphs should be properly labeled). (3) b. Describe the spectral curve of each target type
with respect to its absorption and reflectance characteristics. (3) Grass and Soil: Grass and Soil have
a moderately high reflectance they absorb about 65% and reflect about 35%. The spectral
reflectance for the grass and soil typically increases when the wavelength increases, then it stays
relatively constant and it increases again. Maple Leaf

Berlese Funnel Lab Report
Abstract
In our Berlese Funnel lab we sampled two different types of forest, deciduous and coniferous, both
on our school campus. We set up multiple funnels in our classrooms with heat directly above them.
After collecting leaf litter from our designated forest we placed them in a funnels above beakers of
alcohol. We let them sit for two nights in a row and while in class checked for different organisms
under microscopes. We calculated the different amount of species and how many there were of each.
Introduction:
Antonio Berlese was an Italian entomologist. He worked on pest insects (arthropods), usually those
of fruit trees. Arthropods are the most successful animals on the planet. They make up over three–
fourths of all currently ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
,
Wind: N/NW 1mph sweet gum
Temperature: 74˚ F
Weather: Site #2 Group #2 Coniferous Forest Plant Life:
Relative Humidity: 63% Maple, wild grape, sugar maple,
Wind: N/NW 1mph sweet gum
Temperature: 77˚ F
Analysis:
Shannon–Weiner Diversity Index: Site #1 Coniferous Forest Organism ni pi lnpi pi X lnpi
Lepidoptera 2 2/136 –4.2195 –0.0620
Hymenoptera 3 3/136 –3.814 –0.0841
Chiggers 125 125/136 –0.0843 –0.0778
Ipiliones 1 1/136 –4.9127 –0.0361
Chiolopoda 1 1/136 –4.9127 –0.0361
Canpodeletae 1 1/136 –4.9127 –0.0361
Coleopteran 1 1/136 –4.9127 –0.0361 N=136 H1 = .2961
Shannon–Weiner Diversity Index: Site #2 Deciduous Forest Organism ni pi lnpi pi X lnpi
Acarina 16 16/56 –1.2527 –0.3579
Collembola 3 3/56 –2.9267 –0.1568
Veluel Mite 1 1/56 –4.0254 –0.0719
Chiggers 17 17/56 –1.1921 –0.3619
Spider Mite 11 11/56 –1.6275 –0.3198
Neuroptra 1 1/56 –4.0254 –0.0719

Tick 1 1/56 –4.0254 –0.0719 hemiptera 1 1/56 –4.0254 –0.0719
Beetle Mites 3 3/56 –2.9267

Illinois Beach State Park Case Study
When going to the sand dunes of the Illinois Beach State Park, we wanted to test the effects of
different environment on succession, ecosystem development. The problem was to find out if there
is a succession (ecosystem development) of plant communities taking place. If the sand dune's
closer to the lake are newer than those further inland, then, I believe succession will take place
because the newest dunes do not have rich enough soil to support more complex plants like trees
and shrubs growing in the areas that have already gone through later stage succession. The data
supported our hypothesis.
The area with the most vegetation was the C index. There were certain plants in abundance in
certain indexes, however, most plants remained in every index. The soil also changed throughout
each index. It went from sandy, in an area closer to the water and directly in the sun, to moist in the
forest area, not in direct sunlight. This shows an ecosystem going from a simple to a complex
community. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The WC was only found in the B6 to the C10 indexes, which showed the middle stage. Also, the
cactus found only in indexes C7 to D10 represented the late stage, or the "climax community". We
also found the CJ appearing in the early middle, showing the zone that it occurs in. The tall green
leaf plant was found only during the early B stage, therefore, it must only survive in dry, sandy soil.
In addition, we found some horse tails only in the A index, this represents a primary succession,
whereas in index D, it may have been more of a secondary succession due to the soil being wetter
and

Essay On Decision Tree
Cotton Crop Disease Detection using Decision Tree
Classifier
Jayraj Chopda Sagar Nakum Vivek Nakrani
Department of Information Technology Department of Information Technology Department of
Information Technology
Universal College of Engineering Universal College of Engineering Universal College of
Engineering
Kaman, Vasai 401212 Kaman, Vasai 401212 Kaman, Vasai 401212
Email: jayrajchopda1402@gmail.com
Email: nakumsagar8248@gmail.com
Email: viveknakrani805@gmail.com
Prof. Hiral Raveshiya Department of Information Technology Universal College of Engineering
Kaman, Vasai 401212
Email: hiral.raveshiya.edu.in
Abstract–Smart Farming is a technique that offers high–ended application of modern farming by
acquiring multiple data from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Index Terms–Decision Tree Classifier; Disease Detec– tion;Machine Learning ; Smart Farming;
I. INTRODUCTION
Smart Farming provides technological solutions to the agri– cultural businesses as well as to the
farmers. It has many applications in precision farming, weather forecasting, quality control, data
analyses and collection, etc. With reference to that, crop disease detection is the subset of smart
farming. Crop disease detection plays an integral role in the de– velopment of the crops. In present
era, the approach used for detection by farmers is through naked eye. It requires continuous
observation and monitoring which results into loss of time and it is expensive. In some regions,
farmers need to go various places to take guidance from the experts. Henceforth, automatic
prediction of various diseases on the crop will provide real time benefits to the farmers that will save
time, money, and life of the crop. To tackle the increasing inconvenience caused to farmers, a
machine–learning model, which can predict occurrence of cotton crop disease based on the
temperature in the real environment and from the soil moisture temperature is proposed in this
paper. Here we are considering 3 major cotton diseases of which 2 are evaluated, Anthracnose [Fig

1.1], Areolate or Greymildew [Fig 1.2], Wilt [Fig. 1.3]
(a) Fig 1.1 (b) Fig 1.2 (c) Fig 1.3
Fig 1 : Cotton Crop

Objective 2 Crop Competitive Ability And Disease Resistance
Objective 2a: Crop competitive ability and disease resistance: Assess varietal differences in
competitive ability against weeds and resistance against major diseases for oat, winter wheat and
spring wheat. a.) Quantify weed suppressive ability under organic field conditions; b.) Quantify crop
tolerance of weed pressure in field conditions; c.) Determine which crop characteristics (emergence
timing, leaf blade width, tillering, leaf area index, height, growth rate) are most highly correlated
with crop weed suppressive ability and weed tolerance (Drs. Carr, Gramig, Menalled, and Sexton);
d.) Evaluate two biological control agents (Ballad Plus and Kodiak Concentrate OMRI–approved
chemicals) to control crown rust of oat and tan spot and FHB ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Crop varieties/advanced lines will be planted at seeding densities and row spacing typical for
organic small grain production in the NGP. Within each plot shortly after crop emergence, three 1 x
1 m subplots will be established that contain 1) Crop only 2) Weeds only and 3) Crops + Weeds.
Emergence timing of crops and weeds will be noted. At critical crop growth stages (tillering, flag
leaf, and physiological maturity) crop plants will be evaluated for height, leaf blade width, and tiller
number. At physiological maturity, crown projection biomass of crops and weeds will be sampled.
Using a ceptometer, leaf area index will be assessed at these critical crop stages in weed–free
subplots. At physiological crop maturity of the crop, the subplots will be harvested. Crop and weed
plants will be separated by species and counted, then dried to determine plant biomass and crop
yield. By comparing weed biomass and density between Weed–only and Crop + Weed plots, crop
weed suppressive ability will be quantified. By comparing crop yield between the Crop only and
Crop + Weed plots, crop tolerance to weeds will be quantified. These experiments will be conducted
during years 2 and 3 (2019 and 2020) of this project.
Data analysis: For each variety and location, we will calculate variety competitiveness as:
Competitiveness = 100 – percentage

Avocado Leaf Plasticity Essay
DIFFERENCES IN SUN AND SHADE LEAVES OF AVOCADO TREES BY PHENOTYPIC
PLASTICITY
INTRODUCTION: Phenotypic plasticity, or differing phenotypes from one genotype in different
environmental conditions, is a way for sessile organisms to adapt to changing environmental
conditions (Valladares et al., 2007). Plasticity was expected to be abundant, however, it did not
occur as often in nature due to resource limitations and environmental stress (Valladares et al.,
2007). An experiment by Matos tested the phenotypic plasticity to light availability in shade and sun
leaves of coffee trees (Matos et al., 2009). Their research indicated that "compared [to] sun leaves,
shade leaves had a lower stomatal density, a thinner palisade mesophyll, a ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This process was done twice on each tree in the understory for shade leaves, and in the canopy for
sun leaves. Each leaf was measured for its surface area, length–to–width ratio, mass, specific leaf
mass, and color. Surface area was measured by a leaf area meter in squared centimeters. Length–to–
width ratio was measured by measuring the length (vertically along the bridge of the leaf) and the
width (horizontally on the widest part of the leaf) with a ruler in centimeters, and dividing the length
by the width. Mass was calculated by a balance in grams. Specific leaf mass (thickness) was
measured by dividing the mass by its surface area in grams per squared centimeter. Color was
measured by having three reference leaves provided by the instructor, indicating light (L), medium
(M), and dark (D) leaves and compared our collected leaves. After recording all of the data, these
data were then input into a statistical program called StatCat to determine normality through a
normality test. The data for surface area, length–to–width ratio, mass, and specific leaf mass for sun
and shade leaves were both normal, therefore, we chose a paired sample t–test for all of them. A
normality test was not needed for color for sun and shade leaves due to it being a nominal scale data.
The number of light, medium, and dark shade leaves were tallied up according to color, and the
same was done for the sun leaves. A contingency table was made in

Feminist Absolute Preference
Which two organisms (species) from your sample had the lowest relative abundance? On what do
these two organisms feed? (You will need to do a little research for this ) If you find a good
website or paper please cite it.
All of the species except for worms had the same relative abundance. Insecta Cleopetra feed on
insects. Silk worms consume mulberry leaves. Araneae feed on insects, other araneae, frogs, and
lizards. Insecta
Hymerapetra consumes arthropods. Sparassaidea feed on insects, lizards, and frogs.
Citation:
Breene, G. R. "What Spiders Eat." The Find–a–spider Guide. 21 April. 2015.
Meyer, R. John. "Classification & Distribution." ENT 425. 28 March. 2016.
2. Which organism had the greatest absolute abundance? Which organism had the greatest relative
abundance? ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
3. Which organism had the lowest absolute abundance? Which organism had the lowest relative
abundance?
All of the species except for worms had the same absolute and relative abundance, which happened
to be the lowest. 4. What was the Simpson's Index of Diversity for your sample? Does this indicate a
low or high level of diversity?
If the diversity is low/high, try to give some reasons why it might be low/high.
The Simpons's Index of Diversity for my sample was 0.05. This is a low level of diversity. I believe
this diversity is low because only one area was sampled so this could account for the species being
the same. If multiple areas were sampled then I believe the diversity would be higher.
5. Describe the differences in the Simpson's Index of Diversity amongst the different lab tables in
your

Study The Phhysio-Biochemical Responses In Plant Growth...
Discussion
The present research was conducted to study the physio–biochemical responses in mentholmint
types that differ in Cd tolerance and to analyse the effectiveness of three plant growth regulator
application. In general, kushal had higher growth, photosynthesis, constitutive mineral nutrient
contents, antioxidant enzymes activity, more Cd concentration in roots and less in leaves than kosi.
Comparatively SA application maximally induced these activities in both the cultivars, but to a
greater extent in kushal. Cd is a HM trace mobile pollutant that is known to generate toxicity in
living organisms– plants, animals and humans. In the present work, Cd ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
In the present report, the decrease in plant dry mass in both types was in concurrence with the
decrease in rate of PN, which suggests that PN exert an important role in accumulation of
mentholmint plant biomass during Cd toxicity. Reduction in rate of photosynthesis under Cd stress
is also attributed to low chlorophyll biosynthesis and decreased scavenging activity of Rubisco
protein (Asgher et al., 2016). However, SA increase growth and leaf gas exchange parameters in
both cultivars.SA mediated increase in rate of photosynthesis in presence of Cd stress may be due to
increase in Rubisco activity which increased by SA application. Similar SA mediated increase in
growth and photosynthesis in presence of Cd stress in maize plants has been reported by Krantev et
al., (2008). SA application also show a potentiating role in modulating Cd induced changes in both
cultivars and these results are in line with the results of Choudhury and Panda (2004) in rice plants.
Optimized mineral nutrition is essential for normal growth and development of plants as these are
involved in numerous and diverse processes

Notes On Yield Improvement Stagnation
YIELD IMPROVEMENT STAGNATION
Actual yield, per unit time and per unit land, saw a significant increase over 30 years from around
the 1960s due to intensified crop management involving improved germplasm, increased use of
fertilizer, producing two or more crops per year and irrigation (Cassman, 1999; Finger, 2010). The
exploitable gap between yields achieved and genetic yield potential is closing due to these
advancements, however yield potentials are increasing at a much lower rate than the expected
increase in demand.
The increase in food demand means that average farm yields have to reach 70 to 80% of the yield
potential ceiling within 30 years in different major cereal systems to keep up with demand
(Cassman, 1999). However, several ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
There is some evidence that the improvements in yield made since the Green Revolution, that focus
primarily on carbon partitioning, have been accompanied by higher photosynthetic rates relating to
leaf area and cooler canopies (Fischer et al., 1998). However, photosynthesis has had limited
improvement in crops and falls significantly short of its biological limit, and thus presents itself as a
crucial mechanism by which genetic yield potential can be increased in major crops (Long et al.,
2015).
BIOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS
Yield potential is determined by the product of the available light energy and genetic properties:
light capture efficiency, conversion of intercepted light to biomass efficiency and the proportion of
said biomass partitioned into grain (Long et al., 2006). Current plant breeding has brought the
proportion of biomass partitioned into grain, and light capture efficiency to their theoretical maxima.
This leaves the efficiency of conversion of intercepted light to biomass as the only route yet to be
fully exploited in order to improve yield potential. There are two main constraints on this conversion
efficiency: stressful environments and the non–linearity of leaf photosynthesis response to increased
solar energy. For example, C₃ plants have a leaf photosynthesis saturation level of approximately
25%

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