Advantages Of Biodegradable Polymers

Advantages Of Biodegradable Polymers
Increasing fossil energy cost as well as decreasing availability of petroleum based polymers; the
researchers have been accelerated to search viable alternatives to reduce the burden of ecosystem.
To date, intensified research have been conducted in biodegradable polymeric materials from natural
resources in order to fulfil the requirements set by environmental regulation to develop a more
sustainable and benign material [9, 5].Biodegradable polymers are obtained from natural resources
like cellulose, starch or by biological reaction of renewable based monomer and it decompose into
carbon dioxide and water molecules. Amongst the available biopolymers, poly (lactic acid) (PLA) is
one of the most fascinating biodegradable polymeric materials and it has been used for many
industrial applications ranging from packaging to automobiles owing to its ultimate strength along
with recyclability. PLA produced from starch rich resources (corn, ... Show more content on
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Nevertheless, it is necessary to improve the toughness and thermal stability owing to broaden its
application.
Lignocellulosic (plant) fiber reinforced with PLA have been extensively studied and further attracted
considerably in polymer composite field [2]. High strength to weight ratio, less cost, low density,
high modulus, abundant availability, good wear/abrasion resistance and its biodegradability [5] are
the main advantages of lignocellulosic fiber.These properties allow them to compete with synthetic
ones and it is expected to considerably lower the overall cost of materials [2]. Extensive literature
survey indicate that PLA reinforced with commercially available lignocellulosic fiber such as
banana, sisal, cotton, flax, ramie and
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Acyl Compounds
ACYL COMPOUNDS: SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Experiment # 8
I. Objectives
 To observe the general properties of carboxylic acids.
 To compare the acidity of carboxylic acids and phenols.
 To verify experimentally the interconversion among acyl compounds.
 To become familiar with the physical and chemical properties of fats and oils and to understand
the chemical basis of these properties.
 To learn how to prepare soap.
 To compare the properties of soap and synthetic detergents.
II. Data and Observation
A. Comparison of soaps and detergents
1. Hydrolysis
Observation
Reaction with blue litmus paper
Acetic acid
+
Red
Benzoic acid
+
Red
Sodium Benzoate
+
Red
(+)–miscible
(–)–immiscible
(red)–acidic
(blue)–basic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
15 drops of the sample was added. This was repeated with 0.02M CaCl2 (hard water).

4. Emulsifying action
Observation
Detergent
A cloudy layer was formed that settled above
Soap
An emulsion layer was formed that settled above
Water Blank
Kerosene settled on top
For the test for emulsifying action, 8 drops of kerosene was placed in a test tube. 5 mL sample was
added. The tube was shaken vigorously for three minutes. The mixture was allowed to stand for 5
minutes. This was tested with a water blank.
III. Discussion and Interpretation of Results
A. Solubility and Acidity of carboxylic acids
 Carboxylic acids are substances that have a general formula of RCO2H. They are considered as
Bronsted–Lowry acids or proton donors. They are polar since they can be both be hydrogen–bond
acceptor and donors due to the presence of the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups respectively. There are
instances that the hydroxyl and carbonyl group have the tendency to self–associate and become less
soluble if the carbon no increases.
 In the experiment, all the samples are soluble in water since they are polar and their number of
carbon atoms which can be shown with their chemical formula:

Carboxylic Acid Lab Report
Carboxylic acid synthesis, reactions and pharmacological activity Carboxylic acid is organic
chemical compound that contain a functional group that is carboxyl group –COOH which is made of
hydroxyl group and carbonyl group both attached to the same carbon which is attached to hydrogen
atom or alkyl group thus the general formula of the carboxylic acid is R–COOH with R represent
alkyl group or a hydrogen atom. Carboxylic acid functional group is partly ionized in solution so it
is a weak acid, however it's acidity is considered as the chef chemical characteristic of it as it is
generally more acidic than the other organic compounds that contain hydroxyl group and more
acidic than the common organic functional groups but it is generally weaker than the common
mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
All acid derivates can be hydrolyzed by water to yield carboxylic acids, the condition of this
reaction are vary wildly from mild to severe conditions as it depend on the compound that is
involved. The easiest acid derivate to hydrolyzed is acyl chloride because it require only the addition
of water, carboxylic acid salts can be hydrolyzed simply at room temperature by the addition of
water and strong acid such as hydrochloride acid (HCl) on the other hand carboxylic nitriles, esters
and amides are less reactive and must be typically heated with water and a strong base or acid to be
converted to carboxylic acids, if a base is used then a salt is formed instead of an acid which can be
easily converted to an acid by the addition of hydrochloric acid, the amides are less reactive and
require more vigorous treatment and nitriles can be partly hydrolyzed under milder

Analysis Of Esters Lab Report
PREPARING ESTERS
INTRODUCTION
An ester is an organic compound where the hydrogen in the compound's carboxyl group is replaced
with a hydrocarbon group. Esters are derived from carboxylic acids and (usually) an alcohol
(Helmensine A, 2017). The reaction required to produce an ester is called esterification.
Esterification is the reaction in which a Carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol in the presence of
a catalyst (commonly concentrated sulphuric acid) to form an ester (Esterification, 2017). This is an
example of a general class of reactions called condensations.
Esters are common in our everyday lives. Esters are colourless, volatile liquids with pleasant aromas
and create the fragrances and flavours of many flowers and fruits (Organic Chemistry Life, 2013).
Esters are also excellent solvents for organic compounds. Sunburns lotions, nail polish removers,
plasticisers and glues use esters as solvents (Veerenda, 2017).
The aim of this experiment was to investigate different reactions between a range of alcohols and
carboxylic acids to produce a variety of esters of different odours and discover how they can be used
commercially in household products. MATERIALS & METHODS
The experiment was divided into three parts. Firstly, to record the aroma of each alcohol and
carboxylic acid that would be used in the experiment. Secondly, to prepare five different esters and
record the results. Finally, reporting the balanced equations for each of the

Table 1 Organizes All Observational And Statistical Data
Table 1 organizes all observational and statistical data throughout the experimentation. Mass and
volume amounts from various reagents were based upon these values and therefore are insignificant
in a table. Each beginning, intermediate, and final product demonstrated shows the initial mass
recorded before the next reactionary process began. At the end of each experimentation set, a dollop
of sample was utilized to examine IR peaks and melting point range. The IR peaks displayed are the
peaks present in the experimental samples that support the pure identity of the product. General
observations during and after procedures were noted and are displayed above.
Figure 4. IR spectra of benzaldehyde
Figure 5. IR spectra of benzoin ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
DISCUSSION
The first place to start on overall success of the experimentation would be the IR and melting point
values. If the IR and melting point reveal to match exactly with literature values, the whole of
experimentation can be deemed successful. Unfortunately, the reality is not as simple, for even a
slight impure peak or skewness in melting point shows flaw in the sample product. Benzaldehyde
was the first chemical in question. For this lab example, pure benzaldehyde was provided. For
exemplary purposes, the IR of benzaldehyde was taken to track the peak alterations that could occur
in later steps. The melting point provides further evidence of the purity of the benzaldehyde, but
purity was assumed and therefore melting point was not taken. Benzaldehyde is a simple aromatic
compound with a aldehyde group; therefore, expected peaks are the aromatic ring constituents, C=O
bond representative of aldehydes, and C–H bonds representative of aldehydes. According to the
expected literature values in place for this functional groups, benzaldehyde was sufficiently pure,
containing all the correct values. With the correct IR spectrograph available, all following IR
samplings follow stepwise in junction with the first. Further skewness can thus be considered flaw
in procedure and not benzaldehyde. Benzoin condensed from a catalyzed reaction with Vitamin B
and benzaldehyde, mixed with various basic and acidic

Multistep Synthesis Essay
Results:
Limiting Reactant: Eq 1 Limiting reactant = Benzoin
Theoretical yield of Benzil:
Eq 2
Theoretical Yield Benzil | 0.296 g | Mass of Crude Benzil | 0.188 g | Mass of Final Benzil | 0.127 g |
% Yield | 43% | % Recovery | 66% |
Table 1: Mass of crude/final Benzil, % yield, and % recovery
Percent Yield: % Yield = (Final product/Theoretical product) x 100 Eq 3 = (0.127 g/0.296 g) x 100 =
43% yield
Percent Recovery % Recovery = (Final product/Crude product) x 100 Eq 4 = (0.127 g/0.188 g) x
100 = 66% recovery
Theoretical Yield Benzilic Acid:
Eq 5
Theoretical Yield Benzilic Acid | 0.109 g | Final Benzilic Acid | 0.060g | ... Show more content on
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The percent yield, calculated using the theoretical and final amount of benzil, was 43% (see Eq 3).
The percent recovery, calculated using the crude and final amount of benzil, was 66% (Eq 4). The
melting points of crude and final benzil were 82.5 – 85.6C and 94.2C respectively (Table 3). The
literature value for pure benzil is 95C and the final crystallized benzil temperature value is very
close to the literature value. This testifies the purity of the experimental benzil. The melting point
value of the crude was much lower and the range was much wider due to the impurities. For further
conformation of the purity of experimental benzil, the infrared spectroscopy was observed. . The
following functional groups were determined on the infrared spectroscopy according to their
corresponding wavenumbers: aromatic, sp2 C–H bonds, and C=O/carbonyl group (Table 4). Benzil
incorporates all of the above functional groups. The melting and infrared spectroscopy confirmed
that the final product created was Benzil.

In the following reaction, benzil was rearranged to from benzilic acid by reacting it with potassium
hydroxide in ethanol. 0.100 benzil was utilized and the theoretical yield of benzilic acid was 0.109
grams (see Eq 5). The final yield and weight of benzilic acid was 0.60 grams. The final yield and
theoretical yield were used to calculate the percent yield, 55% (similar to Eq 3). The melting point
of benzilic acid was 148.3C and the literature value for

Separation Of A Carboxylic Acid Lab Report
Organic Lab I No. 5–6
Separation of a Carboxylic Acid, a Phenol, and a Neutral Substance
(Two–week lab)
Reading Assignment
1) Chapter 7
Introduction: P. 135– first paragraph
Theory and Techniques (p142–145) o Properties of Extraction Solvents o Mixing and Separating the
Layers o Drying Agents o Part 1: The Technique of Neutral Liquid/Liquid Extraction The
description is for dichloromethane–aqueous solution mixture, but you will use the same technique
for your tert–butyl methyl ether–aqueous solution mixture. Note, however, that the ether is less
dense than water, while dichloromethane is denser than water. o Part 2: Acid/Base ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Discussion Assess your results: recovery yields (where you may have lost yield), purity from
melting points (degree of purity/impurity, what could be the source of impurity).
Reaction Equations
Part 1. Salt Formation by Acid–Base Reaction
PHENOLS Phenols are weak organic acids and more soluble in organic solvent than in water.
Phenols only react with NaOH (strong inorganic base) to form water–soluble ionic salt. Phenols do
not react with NaHCO3 (weak inorganic base). [pic]
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS Carboxylic acids are strong organic acids, soluble in organic solvent and
not soluble in water. Carboxylic acids react with both NaOH (strong inorganic base) and NaHCO3
(weak inorganic base) to form water–soluble ionic salt. CO2 gas will be produced when bicarbonate
reacts with carboxylic acid.
[pic]
NEUTRAL COMPOUNDS Neutral compounds do not react with either NaOH or NaHCO3. They
are soluble in organic solvent and not soluble in water.

Part 2. Recovery of Non–Ionic Acids by Acidification
The carboxylic acid is recovered from the carboxylate salt dissolved in aqueous solution by
acidification. Once protonated, the carboxylic acid becomes non–ionic, thus insoluble in water. As a
result, the acid precipitates out as a solid. This solid will be recrystallized for purification. The

Disadvantages Of Carboxylic Acid
The combination of a carbonyl (C=O) group and hydroxyl (−OH) group on the same carbon atom
results in the formation of a carboxyl (−COOH) functional group. Compounds containing at least
one carboxyl functional group are commonly known as carboxylic acids, and have the general
molecular formula CnH2n+1COOH. Carboxylic acids with two or more carboxyl groups are called
dicarboxylic acids, tricarboxylic acids, etc. The carboxyl group is one of the most frequently
occurring functional groups in chemistry and biochemistry. Apart from the carboxylic acids, the
carboxyl group also parents a large family of related compounds called carboxylic acid derivatives
(amides, esters, thioesters, acyl halides, anhydrides, etc.)
The most important property of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While alcohols form an unstable alkoxide ion, which is highly susceptible to reforming the original
alcohol by attraction H+, carboxylic acids form a carboxylate ion that is more stable due to the
delocalization of electrons throughout the region surrounding the oxygen atoms. It is also noticed
that the acidic nature of the carboxylic acids is decreases as the carbon chain gets longer and
increases if an electron–withdrawing group is added to the

Optimization of Ritalin for more Effective Results Essay
Ritalin (Methylphenidate) Optimization
Ritalin Pills
Abstract:
Attention–deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is currently the dominating psychiatric disorder
found in children. The creation of the drug Ritalin based on the molecule
Methylphenidate in the early 90's sparked a widespread use of this psycho stimulant, which still
remains as one of the most popular drugs used to counteract the symptoms of ADHD. My ultimate
goal in this research project is to design analogs for the drug Ritalin in the hopes of discovering a
more effective version of this medication. Through research, it can be concluded that none the
analogs suggested are suitable candidates for new drugs based on the results.
Introduction:
With 3–5 percent of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The molecular structure of methylphenidate contains a phenethylamine portion which superimposes
on its supposed neural substrates dopamine and norepinephrine, allowing it to interact with its
intended receptor (figure 2). (1) A closer examination of this compound's molecular structure reveals
that it complies with Lipinski's rule of five, even though its partition coefficient is yet to be found. It
molecular structure contains 3 hydrogen acceptors and 1 hydrogen donor, whiles its molecular
weight is 233.31 g/mol, well under the suggested limit of 500 g/mol.
In this project, analogs of the drug compound Ritalin (methylphenidate) will be designed in order to
attempt to optimize it. When the designs ar e complete, the software provided by the chemistry
department of UC Davis will be used to generate the necessary data to predict their effectiveness
and assess their potential in becoming suitable candidates for new drugs.
Fig. 2: Methylphenidate compared to
Dopamine and Amphetamine
The first analog of Ritalin (figure 3) has a structure that is somewhat similar to that of the original
drug. However, the ester functional group(figure 4) is replaced by an imine group (figure 5). This
creates a molecule that has one less hydrogen bond acceptor, making it less polar then the original
structure of Ritalin. The possible consequences of this change consist of both a

Development of a Polymer-Based Matrix Tablet
In the present study development of a polymer–based matrix tablet was undertaken to produce a
sustained–release dosage form of Acebrophylline, since this dosage forms is relatively simple and
cheap to produce when compared to other. Different batches of drug Acebrophylline tablets were
manufactured by wet granulation technique, and evaluated for Pharmacopoeial and non–
Pharmacopoeial specifications. Dissolution testing was undertaken using USP Apparatus 2 (Paddle
Type), which allowed for a more realistic assessment and prediction of in vitro drug release rates.
Samples were analysed using a high performance liquid chromatographic method (HPLC).
Formulation F5 shows optimum drug release. Drug and rate retarding polymers ratio used in this
formulation were Methocel K100 LV (14.86% w/w) and Methocel K4M (10.14%w/w), in ratio
(5.4:1.34:1). The results of in vitro drug release studies were treated with zero order, first order
kinetics, Higuchi, Hixon–Crowell and Korsemeyer‐Peppas model. In our experiments, the in‐vitro
release profiles of drug from all the formulations could be best expressed by Higuchi's equation, as
the plots showed high linearity (r2= 0.972 to 0.999 ) to confirm the diffusion mechanism. The data
were fitted into Korsemeyer‐Peppas model. All formulations F1 to F6 showed high linearity (r2=
0.969 to 0.998), with slope (n) values ranging from 0.383 to 0.683. This indicates that F1,F2 and F3
shows purely diffusion and F4, F5 and F6 shows coupling of diffusion and

History Of Aspirin
The synthesis of aspirin is very important in today's society. One of the age old methods of treating
patients with inflammation problems, blood coagulation problems, fevers, and having a high risk of
heart problems involves the patient ingesting an oral supplement of aspirin. Using aspirin as a
therapy can decrease the risk of a second heart attack (Baigent 2009). In fact, the FDA has approved
four drugs for the prevention of vascular problems, and aspirin is one (Furie 2010). In addition,
aspirin is used daily by many seniors in the U.S. In a recent survey, it was found that in people
ranging from 45 to 75 years of age, 52% percent reported that they were currently taking aspirin,
and 20% reported that they had used aspirin in the past (Thompson, ... Show more content on
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In an esterification reaction, a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol. The synthesis of aspirin is an
esterification reaction. Initially, the proton, i.e. the hydrogen ion, from the acid attacks the acetic
anhydride and attaches itself on a double bond oxygen. This makes the compound more
electrophilic, meaning that it has a higher affinity for electrons. This is what sets off the reaction.
The salicylic acid then acts as an alcohol and attaches its OH group onto a carbon on the acetic
anhydride. Then, the hydrogen from the OH group (the alcohol group) of the salicylic acid falls off,
forming a tetrahedral intermediate, and the hydrogen ion reassociates with the conjugate base of the
acid used as the catalyst. Next, the hydrogen that came from the acid initially, transfers its electrons
and forms a double between the adjacent oxygen and carbon. However, the hydrogen atom does not
fall off after the transfer of electrons but is kept there with a positive charge. With this, another
transfer of electrons occurs and an acetyl group is generated from the breaking of the acetic
anhydride. Now, the acetyl group breaks off the positive hydrogen attached and acetic acid is
generated as a result. With this, the ester, the aspirin, is created (Watson

Percent Recovery Lab Report
Percent Recovery was calculated by taking the total amount of grams collected and dividing it by
the amount of grams initially started with and multiplying that number by 100.
Phthalic Acid: (.15g / .20g) * 100 = 75%
Benzoic Acid (Water): (.03g / .05g) * 100 = 60%
Benzoic Acid (Methanol): (035g / .05g) * 100 = 70%
Naphthalene: (.532g / 1g) * 100 = 53%
Discussion
After the process of recrystallization was completed, the melting points and weights were taken for
each solid. Some melting points recorded for the solids were very close to the values listed in the
literature. However, others differed by sizeable margins from the values listed in the literature. The
range observed for the melting point of naphthalene was 78–81°C. This coincides with ... Show
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The text suggested that the solvent be removed by evaporation via a hot water bath or filtration
(Weldegrima 2016). A situation occurred during the lab where time had become a constraint and the
hot water bath was being occupied by the naphthalene. The instructor advised that the sand bath be
used to isolate the crystals from the solvent, or the crystals and liquid be poured on filter paper and
hand dried. The sand bath was too hot and started to melt the solid. This led to the pouring of the
liquid and crystals onto filter paper. This method left more room for error, as drying the crystals
would be more tedious and it would be more difficult to remove all the crystals from the test tubes.
The optimal percent recovery is a 100% for each solid. However, it is expected that less would be
obtained. The percent recovery for the benzoic acid in both procedures and the phthalic acid were
between 40%–25% less than the desired 100%. The low percent recovery can be attributed to the
method previously mentioned, to separate the solvent from the crystals. When pouring the crystals
and liquid onto the filter paper for the benzoic and phthalic acid, it could clearly be seen that there
were many crystals still stuck to the inside of the tube. A spatula was used to recover as much of the
crystals as possible, but not all of the crystals could be collected. This left many crystals still in the
test tube which would have skewed the results for percent recovery, as they could not be weighed as
well. The naphthalene was different, as it was not pure to begin with. A 1g solid mixture including
an unknown amount of naphthalene was used. The lack of information on how much naphthalene
was started with, makes it very cumbersome to determine the percent yield. However, .532g of
naphthalene was recovered in total. There

Esterification Of Its Alcohol And Carboxylic Acid Components
Esterification
Aim
The aim of this practical is to produce the ester, 3–methylbutyl ethanoate (isoamyl acetate) through
esterification of its alcohol and carboxylic acid components. This will require expert understanding
and operation of reflux, isolation and distillation processes.
Procedure
Reflux Assemble apparatus for reflux as shown in figure 1. Begin pre–heating mantle. Measure and
add 12mL of butan–1–ol and 9mL of ethanoic acid (glacial acetic acid) into a 50mL boiling flask.
Add boiling chips. Slowly add 1mL of concentrated sulphuric acid. Reflux mixture for 30–40
minutes; ensure smooth boiling. Pour cooled refluxed mixture into a conical flask; apply stopper.
Isolation
Pour cooled mixture into a separating funnel containing 20mL of water. Shake and allow contents of
solution to separate into layers. Determine the aqueous (non–organic) layer by observing the
addition of a drop of distilled water. Discard the aqueous layer, retaining the organic layer in the
separating funnel. Add 10mL of sodium carbonate solution, shake gently and allow effervescence to
occur. Discard aqueous layer, wash with 20mL distilled water. Decant organic solution into a conical
flask containing fused calcium chloride. Stopper, swirl and allow to stand for 15 minutes.
Distillation
Assemble distillation apparatus as shown in figure 2, begin pre–heating mantle. Decant organic
solution into a 50mL boiling flask, add boiling chips. Distil the organic liquid, record boiling range

The Use Of Glycerol Residue
ABSTRACT: The use of glycerol residue, a palm oil waste from Oleochemical industries as a raw
material for the production of succinic acid with immobilized cell fermentation process was
investigated. In this work, the raw material, immobilized cells to produced succinic acid were
characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR) and Scanning Electron
Microscope instruments. Based on the results, the functional group appearing for treated and
commercial glycerol is the hydroxyl, aromatic methoxyl, alkenes, soap, carbonyl and alcohol group.
The hydroxyl group which is O–H appeared at a spectra value of 3394.2700 cm–1for the treated
glycerol and 3299.9600 cm–1 for the commercial group. Respectively. From the analysis of SEM
for bead, it was found that majority of pores fall within range and the shapes was ellipsoid and a
thick skin around strains was detectable, therefore indicating that immobilized cell prepared for
fermnatation process is an attractive source for succinic acid applications. . Key words: succinic
acid, immobilized cell, glycerol residue, characterization 1. INTRODUCTION Over the last decade,
succinic acid have been attracted a great deal of world attention with its excellent organic compound
and key compound in producing more than 30 commercially important product which lead to many
promising applications. (Agarwal et al., 2005). Succinic acid mostly produced by chemical
processes which is using liquefield petroleum gas or petroleum

Preparing Esters by Esterification Method Using Carboxylic...
Preparing Esters by esterification method using carboxylic acid to an alcohol, which is 1.0 ml of
ethanoic acid to the ethanol, and ethanoic acid to the propan–1–ol, also adding H2SO4 as a catalyst
for the reaction
Abstract:
Esters are a group of organic compound, famous for their interesting odours and smells. In this
investigation student used ethanoic acid and ethanol with sulfuric acid as catalyst to produce ester,
which was known of its smell. However it was expected to have a pleasant smell, but it has a smell
like a nail polish in cold water and a vinegar in hot water. While the second test was ethanoic acid
and propan–1–ol and it has a similar smell like that of ethanoic acid and ethanol, although the
product of ethanoic acid and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The smell of ethanol is alcoholic, slight and clear. The smell of ethanoic acid, ethanol and sulfuric
acid is like nail polish remover plus a little vinegar, very strong in the cold water. While for the hot
water the product also smelled like a nail polish remover, although not as strong as the cold water.
Ethanol + ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate + water
C2H5OH (aq) + CH3CO2H (aq) CH3CO2C2H5 (aq) + H2O (l)
Table #1 Cold water250 ml of beaker filled with ice (cold water)Its temperature was 59.6 = 60 oC |
Qualitative | Quantitative | Ethanoic acid and ethanol | | * Smells like nail polish remover (plus a
little vinegar) | Ethanoic acid and propan–1–ol | | * Oil stains formed, maybe from watch glass. It is
liquid like water. * Smelled like vinegar. |
Test 2:
The second reaction: also an ester formed between ethanoic acid and propan–1–ol acid, adding two
drops of sulfuric acid. Propan–1–ol has a smell like sour and tart alcohol (liquid) but not as strong as
ethanol. In the cold water Propan–1–ol, ethanoic acid and sulfuric acid have a smell like vinegar but
not as strong as ethanoic acid, ethanol and sulfuric acid. When the ethanoic acid, propan–1–ol and
sulfuric acid are moved around in the beaker, they leave substances on the sides like a clear

The Structural Formula Of Carboxylic Acid
!!!Carboxylic Acids: Structural Formula and Properties
Carboxylic acids are among us – they are used in manufacturing common items we have at home,
like soap, vinegar and aspirin. There are so many commercial products that we use that are
manufactured using carboxylic acids. So, what exactly are carboxylic acids? __Carboxylic acids__
are a classification of organic compounds. They are organic because they contain carbon (C) in their
chemical structure.
[{Image src= 'carboxylicacidspicture1.png ' caption= 'These Substances are Manufactured Using
Carboxylic Acids '}]
What makes an organic compound a carboxylic acid? An organic compound that is a __carboxylic
acid__ includes the __carboxyl group__, –COOH, in its chemical structure. In this case, we need to
take a closer look at the structural formula of a carboxylic acid. The __structural formula__ of a
carboxylic acid is RCOOH, as shown in the following illustration. Here, the R group is a side group
that can contain hydrogen and/or carbon and other atoms. The R group is bonded to the carboxyl
group (boxed in blue). In the carboxyl group, the carbon (C) atom is bonded to –OH and has a
double bond with oxygen (O).
[{Image src= 'carboxylicacidspicture2.png ' caption= 'Structural Formula of a Carboxylic Acid '}]
We can see that the structural formula of a carboxylic acid can be written two ways. On the left (1),
it shows all the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen bonds, while on the right (2), the carbon atom is
represented by a

Bioorthogonal Reaction Lab Report
5. Bioorthogonal Click reactions
Click chemistry has wide applications in biotechnology and chemical biology. For use of such
reactions in the above disciplines of science, such click reactions need to be bioorthogonal. A
bioorthogonal reaction is one which takes place without interfering with native biochemical
processes. These type of reactions take place without interfering with components of the living
system. The term bioorthogonal chemistry was coined by scientist Carolyn Bertozzi in 2003
(Wikipedia)
Bioorthogonal click chemistry can be used to visulaize protein expression, track protein localization,
measure protein activity and identify protein interactions within living systems.(Singh et al., 2016)
Types of reactions that fit this definition are as follows
5.1 Condensations of Ketones and Aldehydes with Heteroatom–bound Amines
Historically, the first bio–orthogonal ligations involved ketone–aldehyde condensation reactions.
While ketones and aldehydes can form reversible imine adducts with many amines found in
biological systems, this process is thermodynamically unfavourable in water.
This led to the use of hydrazides and aminooxy reagents, often called 'α–effect amines' because the
heteroatom–bound amine is much more nucleophilic than simple amines and thus shifts the
equilibrium dramatically to the hydrazone and oxime products, respectively. ( book)
Although ketones and aldehydes are absent from the cell surface and from macromolecules within

Chitosan Case Study
ABSTRACT: In this account, phosphorylated chitosan (PCS) were first deposited on the surface of
multi–walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) via chemical modification to obtain functionalized
MWNTs–based PCS (PCS–MWNTs). Then, a series of PET fibers with MWNTs or PCS–MWNTs
were prepared via melt spinning. The microstructure and molecular structure of MWNTs and PCS–
MWNTs were characterized by field–emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and
Fourier–transform infrared (FTIR spectroscopy. The morphological structures, mechanical, thermal,
and flame retardant properties of the PET fibers containing MWNTs or PCS–MWNTs were
analyzed by FESEM, therogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, cone and electronic tension
meter method. The ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In comparison with the traditional flame retardant material, environment friendly carbon
nanomaterials have opened a new area and attracted much attention. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
includes single–walled carbon nanotube (SWNTs) and multi–walled carbon nanotube (MWNTs).
CNTs as flame retardant addition have been studied by many researchers (Dittrich et al, 2013;
Bautista–Quijano et al, 2016; Dittrich et al, 2015), and low addition of CNTs (0.1%–5%) can
significantly decrease the heat release rate of polymer. However, the CNTs also acted as flame
retardant effective agent (Huang et al, 2014), and only adding the CNTs in polymer cannot satisfy
the flame retardant requirement of the polymer. Therefore, the functionalization of CNTs to enhance
the flame retardancy of MWNTs was important. According to the previous study, the poor
dispersion of CNTs also affected its flame retardancy (Kashiwagi, et al, 2005; Peeterbroeck, et al,
2007), because of the weak compatibility with the polymer and the intensive Van der Vaals
interaction between the CNTs. Therefore, to simultaneously improve the flame retardancy and
dispersion of MWNTs by chemical modification was significant.
Natural polymer chitosan (CS) has abundant hydroxide and amino radicals. CS could decompose at
approximately 300 °C and generate large amounts of gas. CNTs can obtain much radicals by the

Effect of Carbon Chain on Equilidruim and Rate Constants...
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Essay wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui Kinetics and equilibrium study of esterification
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vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui
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mqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwert yuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas Arun Kumar Arun
Kumar 002329–179 Abstract Esters are important industrial compounds. Different ... Show more
11 Variables .................................................................................................................................. 11
The materials required ............................................................................................................. 13
Measurement of initial rate ...................................................................................................... 14
Measurement of rate equation .................................................................................................. 14
Measurement of equilibrium constant ..................................................................................... 15
Reaction mechanism .............................................................................................................................
16 Discussion of results
............................................................................................................................. 18 Sample
calculations ................................................................................................................. 18 Reaction
between ethanol and ethanoic acid ........................................................................... 18 Kinetics
calculations ................................................................................................................ 23 Rate constant

Unknown Carboxylic Acid Synthesis Lab Report
The purpose of this experiment was to perform an esterification reaction with an unknown
carboxylic acid, resin, and 1–butanol. In this experiment, 114 mg of 1–butanol, 329 mg and 50.3 mg
resin were added to a conical vial. The vial was reflux for an hour on a hot plate and later cool to
room temperature. The product of this reaction is C_14 H_20 O_2, which was extracted by pipet
into a centrifuge tube. 6 mL of ether was used to rinse all the product into the centrifuge tube. This
step resulted in the formation two layers: aqueous and organic. The aqueous layer was on the bottom
due to the weight of diethyl ether. Several micro–extraction was performed to extract the organic
layer using sodium bicarbonate and brine. The product was transfer ... Show more content on
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Once this structure was predicted, it will represent the R group of the ester. The oxygen side chain
can be predicted as a butane by understanding the mechanism behind esterification. Using the
molecular formula of the unknown carboxylic acid, the degree of unsaturation was calculated to be
five. This number indicates that there is potentially an aromatic ring, alkene, or alkyne. However,
looking at the chemical shifts in the NMR, the lack of peaks within 7 ppm + can ruled out the
presence of an aromatic ring. Moreover, the lack of chemical shift around 5.3 indicates the lack of
double bonds. The NMR shows 7 peaks, which were labeled as a,b,c,d,e,f, and g respectively from
low ppm to high ppm. Peak a and b appears to be similar to a methyl group with shifts between .9–
1.4 ppm. Since peak b is more down field, it is assumed to be closer to the carbonyl. Since a
carbonyl ketone have a chemical shift around 2.1, peak c, d, e are probably connected on one of the
side chains. The other side chain on the carbonyl group is the alcohol group, representing peak f.
This is a reasonable assumption because there is only one hydrogen seen in the

Acetaldeunge Lab Report
For example the wave numbers of v (C=O) absorptions for the following compounds:
Formaldehyde (HCHO) 1750 cm–1.
Acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) 1745 cm–1.
Acetone (CH3COCH3) 1715 cm–1.
Introduction of an electronegative group causes –I effect which results in the bond order to increase.
Hence the force constant increases and the wave number of absorption rises. MESOMERIC
EFFECT It is responsible for lengthening or the weakening of a bond thus causing lowering of
absorption frequency. Since nitrogen atom is less electronegative than oxygen atom, the electron
pair on nitrogen atom in amide is more labile and hence it participates more in conjugation.
Due to this greater degree of conjugation, the C=O absorption frequency is much less in amides as
compared to that in esters.
FIELD EFFECT In ortho substituted compounds, the lone pair of electrons on two atoms influences
each other through space interactions and changes the vibrational frequencies of both the groups.
This effect is called field effect. Interpretation of spectra–
1. N–H stretching vibrations (secondary amine) Secondary amines show a single weak band in the
3350 – 3310 cm–1 region. These bands are shifted to longer wavelengths than primary amines due
to hydrogen bonding. The position, intensity and the breadth of the band indicates whether the group
is free, exhibit intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
2. C–H stretching vibrations (Aromatic/Aliphatic) Aromatic C–H stretching bands occur between
3100 and 3000 cm–1. Weak combination and overtone bands appear in the 2000–1650 cm–1 region.
The absorption due to C–H stretch from methyl or methylene groups occur in the region of 3000–
2840 cm–1
3. Ring stretching vibrations (C=C & C=N stretching vibrations) Ring stretching vibrations occur in
the general region between 1600 and 1300 cm–1. The relative intensities and the band pattern
depend on the substitution pattern and the nature of the substituent. 4 C–N stretching vibrations
(secondary amines) – Aromatic amines display strong C–N stretching absorption in the 1342–1266
cm–1 region.

Preparing and Observing the Properties of Esthers Essay
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to prepare and observe the properties of esters. The ester that will
be synthesized in this methyl Salicylate
Introduction
Almost everybody is familiar with the fruity scents at their local grocery store. Many of these scents
are esters. Most of the aromas we know represent a mixture of esters and other molecules like
alcohol. The process of making ester is known as esterification. Esters are formed carboxylic acid
and a carboxylic acid reacts with alcohol, water is also produced from this reaction. Carboxylic acid
contains the –COOH group (Jim Clark, 2003)
The general formula for esterification is O O || || ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
 The test tube was removed from the beaker after and was allowed to cool for 2–3 minutes.
 The content in the test tube was poured into an evaporating dish that was half filled with water in
order to identify the smell.
Observation
Table 1: Properties of Solutions and Substances Used
Catalyst Alcohol Description Carboxylic Acid Description Ester Description
Sulphuric acid Methanol Colourless liquidly solution with a sharp smell. Salicylic Acid White
powdery substance Methyl Salicylate Wintergreen scent with a waxy layer on top with the liquid
substance below
The result of the reaction mainly depends on how much time the mixture is on the boiling water.
When not given enough time the salicylic acid will no dissolve in the methanol which the reaction
will be incomplete which means the chances of producing an ester is low. The Methyl Salicylate had
a wintergreen fragrance. When the solution in the test tube was placed in water there was a wax–like
coating at the top of the solution. This is as a result of the carboxylic acid (salicylic acid) not being
soluble in water.
Discussion
The ester that was formed in this experiment was methyl Salicylate. Methyl Salicylate is an organic
ester with a wintergreen scent. When produced it has a wax–like layer on the top of the solution that
forms under few seconds. Methyl Salicylate can be used in chewing gum, candy for flavouring or

Chemical Reactions And Synthesis Of Organic Compounds
Organic chemistry is the complexity of natural compounds. It is applied to the production of
mundane objects that include: plastics, polymers, soaps, detergents and drugs. Such compounds of
organic chemistry involve the identification, modelling, chemical reactions and synthesis – it
initiates the concept of design implemented in organic compounds (Helmenstine A, 2014). An
example of an organic compound is the product of organic drugs in which are manipulated behind
the chemistry of its design. A particular category of drugs: NSAIDs (Non–steroidal anti–
inflammatory drugs) is one the most common types of medication utilised to treat a range of
conditions associated with the human body. Aspirin, paracetamol and ibuprofen are among the
category of NSAIDs (Deruiter, 2002, p.1). The product formed by the basis of organic chemistry
provides the insight that organic compounds can be morphed and designed in a way to produce a
particular product. Thus, organic chemistry is the application of organic molecules to form products;
it is the chemistry of design.
Organic compounds derive from elements within the second row of the periodic table, more
specifically carbon due to its periodic position. Carbon has the ability to donate and take four
valency electrons, thus it has the tendency to form various bonds in comparison to other elements
(UT Dallas, 2014). Organic compounds are produced by covalent and ionic bonding – an important
aspect of organic chemistry. In the aid of carbon,

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Esters
The chemicals used in the making of esters, food flavourants, contribute to health problems in
humans such as allergies, behavioral problems, tumors and many other health problems. The
carboxylic acids and alcohols used in ester formation are the reason for the health problems as these
chemicals are harmful to the human body. Esters are also used in the production of foods that have
edible oils and fats, n–amyl butyrate is an example of these types of esters and it causes health
issues such as cardiovascular diseases (Department of Health & Human Services, 2014). These
esters are those used as flavourants to give off the odor of apple (College, 2017). Esters are organic
molecules that have strong, pleasurable smells and can be found in an organic and inorganic ...
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Just like ethyl butyrate is an additive in orange juice to enhance the flavour of the fresh fruit in the
juice. Esters properties make them appropriate for the production of cosmetic products such as nail
polish, nail polish remover and other manicure products and perfumes. Perfumes are used in
everyday life by all humans to get rid unwanted body odors, boosts ones self–esteem as it makes
them feel good about themselves. Polyesters, a form of esters, are used to create plastics. Plastics are
useful in everyday life as they are used as containers to carry many things such as shopping items,
drinks and food products. They are also recyclable so therefore are good for the environment.
Synthetic flavourants are also very cheap so therefore cost effective. They are the preferred idea
over using naturally flavouring as that is more time orientated as the flavour has to be extracted
from all the fruits where as with synthetic flavouring, the flavour can be made in a lab on a lab scale
– cost and time

Fischer Esterification Reaction Between An Unknown...
The main purpose of this experiment was to synthesize an unknown ester using Fischer
esterification reaction between an unknown carboxylic acid and an unknown alcohol as reactants as
well as sulfuric acid as a catalyst. At the first step, the reaction mixture was created using the two
key reactants, then the product was isolated by removing the aqueous layer. Through the distillation
process, the crude product was purified to generate a clear liquid with a banana like odor as a final
product of the reaction. The final product was a clear liquid with a banana like odor that usually
comes from banana oil existed either in pure isoamyl acetate or pentyl acetate. The unknown ester
was identified by using three common techniques IR, 13C NMR, and

Separation of a Carboxylic Acid, a Phenol, and a Neutral...
Objective: The objective of this experiment is to use acid–base extraction techniques to separate a
mixture of organic compounds based on acidity and/or basicity. After the three compounds are
separated we will recover them into their salt forms and then purify them by recrystallization and
identify them by their melting points.
Procedure:
Extraction of Carboxylic Acid
A pre–weighed (0.315g) mixture of Carboxylic acid, a phenol, and neutral substance was placed into
a reaction tube (tube 1). tert–Butyl methyl ether (2ml) was added to the tube and the solid mixture
was dissolved. Next, 1 ml of saturated NaHCO3 solution was added to the tube and the contents
were mixed separating the contents into three layers. Once this was completed ... Show more
Next, add concentrated HCl drop wise until the litmus paper indicates that it is acidic. During this
procedure, I added to much HCl because many CO2 gas bubbles evolved. This error in the
experiment will cause the recovery % to be lower.
Recovery of Phenol by Acidification
To tube 3 a piece of litmus paper was placed into the tube. Then as is tube 2 concentrated HCl was
added drop wise until the litmus paper indicated that it is acidic. No CO2 gas will evolve.
Purification of neutral substance
Tube 4 now should only have crude solid in the tube and it is then weighed. The tube is placed into a
50℃ water bath and then approximately 0.5 –1 ml of methanol is added, as well as H2O until the
solution gets cloudy, once the solution is dissolved it is cooled to room temperature and then iced.
The crystals are then collected using a Hirsh funnel. Next a small amount (~ 0.1g) of the crystals are
placed into a melting point tube and placed into the melting point machine to record the unknown
neutral substances melting point.
Purification of Carboxylic Acid and Phenol
To tube 2 and tube 3 a boiling chip is added. The two tubes are boiled to remove any residual ether.
Next, the tubes are cooled to room temperature and placed into an ice bath to allow for
crystallization. The solution is then removed from the solid in each tube and discarded. To tube 2
and 3 ~0.5 ml of H2O is added for recrystallization, the tubes

The Fischer Esterification Of An Unknown Acid
Fischer Esterification
5. Introduction In this experiment, the Fischer Esterification of an unknown acid and an unknown
alcohol was used to prepare an unknown ester. Sulfuric acid was used as a catalyst in the reaction
which then was put under reflux. After cooling, the pH of the solution was raised to approximately 8
using sodium carbonate. Diethyl ether was added, then the aqueous layer was removed and the
organic layer was washed with sodium chloride. The aqueous layer was removed again and sodium
sulfate was added. The unknown product was then identified using gas chromatography (GC) to
obtain the retention time.
6. Data and Results The GC data for the product produced graph with a signal level out–of–range in
peak. This gave a retention time 2.952 minutes. This would not indicate any of the possible ester
products. However, after appropriate dilution, a retention time of 1.753 minutes was obtained. This
retention time indicates that the ester product was ethyl benzoate.
7. Discussion and Conclusion Hydrogens, alkyls, or aryls bonded to carboxyl groups–made up of a
carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group–are known as carboxylic acids. Derivatives of carboxylic
acids include acid chlorides, esters, anhydrides, amides, and generally nitriles. These derivatives are
formed by the replacement of the hydroxyl group with a different electronegative heteroatom
substituent, which can be a single atom, such as a chlorine atom, or a group of atoms, such as in the
formation of

Organic Chemistry Experiment 10 Formal Report
Organic Chemistry Laboratory – CH 200L (2012 – 2013) 2B–Ph Group 9 Experiment 10
Identifying Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives Through Classification Tests
Bianca Therese Rivera, Camille Aliana Rivera, Zarah Mae Roxas,
Ma. Rosario Teresa Saylo, Jean Darlene Semilla and Adrian Yu
Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy
University of Santo Tomas, Espana Street, Manila 1008
Date Submitted: September 13, 2012
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Abstract
Carboxylic acid derivatives namely, acyl halides, acid anhydrides, esters and amides were classified
through different reactivity tests. The samples used were acetyl chloride for acyl halide group, acetic
anhydride for acid anhydride group, ethyl acetate for ester group, ... Show more content on
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Methodology
A. Hydrolysis of Acid Derivatives
A.1. Acyl Halides and Acetic Anhydrides
One mL of water was placed in each two test tubes. The samples, acetyl chloride and acetic
anhydride, were added separately to the test tubes by placing ten drops of each sample. A warming
effect was noted from the reaction. The resulting mixtures were divided into two portions. To the
first portion, an amount of one mL of 2% silver nitrate (AgNO3) was added. The formation of
precipitate was observed. To the second portion, one mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3) and the evolution of gas was noted.
A. 2. Esters
To one mL of the sample, ethyl acetate, two mL of 25% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was added. The
mouth of the test tube was covered with a marble and was heated in a boiling water bath for five

minutes. The mixture was neutralized with 10% HCl solution. The odor was observed with a
wafting motion.
A. 3. Amides
One mL of benzamide was treated with five mL of 10% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and was heated
to boiling afterwards. The reaction of the gas evolved during heating was tested by placing a piece
of moist red litmus paper over the test tube. The observed reaction was noted.
B. Alcoholysis: Schotten–Baumann Reaction
A mixture of ten drops of acetic acid, one mL of ethanol and five drops of concentrated sulfuric acid

Fischer Esterification
Fischer Esterification of (1,3–Dimethylbutyl) Acetate from 4–Methyl–2–Pentanol Alison Evans
Anne Richards TA: Dylan Kahl Tuesday 11:30am – 2:20pm 81807 Abstract: An ester was
synthesized during an organic reaction and identified by IR spectroscopy and boiling point. Acetic
acid was added to 4–methyl–2–pentanol, which was catalyzed by sulfuric acid. This produced the
desired ester and water. After the ester was isolated a percent yield of 55.1% was calculated from the
0.872 g of ester recovered. This quantitative error was most likely due to product getting stuck in the
apparatus. The boiling point of the ester was 143° C, only one degree off from the theoretical boiling
point of the ester 1,3–dimethylbutyl, 144 ° C. The values of the ... Show more content on
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If necessary the centrifuge can also be used to further separate the two layers. A final means of
drying the ester product is the addition of granular sodium sulfate. The purity and identity of the
product can be determined through the use of smell, IR spectroscopy and melting point
determination. A general idea of what the ester is can be obtained by smell. Esters can have specific
smells and if the scent can be determined, one may have an idea of the ester was created. IR
spectroscopy will identify the bonds of the functional groups. The ester can be considered pure if
there are no additional peaks on the IR spectrum. For example, if a peak corresponding to an alcohol
group appeared on the IR spectrum it would mean the ester is not completely pure. Melting point
can also be used to confirm the identity and how pure the final product is. Comparison of the
experimental melting point and the literature value allows for determination of how close the
experimental value is to the literature value. If the experimental value is within the range of the
literature value, the product can be considered pure. Procedure: A 10 mL round–bottom flask was
weighed both before and after approximately 1.5 mL of the given alcohol, 4–methyl–2–pentanol,
was added. 3 mL of glacial acetic acid, one boiling chip, and 2–3 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid
were added to the flask in that order. The reflux apparatus was assembled, the

Iodoform Test Lab Report
The identification and characterization of the structures of unknown substances are an important
part of Organic Chemistry. In this experiment a sample of an unknown aldehyde or ketone was
obtained. From this sample two solid derivatives were prepared. Their melting points were obtained
and compared to those listed in the Table of Aldehyde & Ketone Derivatives. From this the
unknown sample was identified. As additional aid a Benedict's test and Iodoform test were used.
These are functional group tests used for distinguishing between aldehydes, ketones and methyl
ketones. A Benedict's test tests positive for aliphatic aldehydes and negative for aromatic aldehydes
and ketones. An Iodoform test tests positive for methyl ketones and acetaldehyde ... Show more
This was accomplished through functional group tests, preparation of two solid derivatives and
determining their melting points and making careful observations. The unknown sample was
determined to be cinnamaldehyde due to the odor it produced when the various tests were
performed. Even though the melting points obtained from the Dinitrophenylhydrazone and
Semicarbazone derivatives were not close to the melting points of cinnamaldehyde (255℃ and
215℃ respectively) the odor gave a clue to the unknown compound. The melting point differences
could have been due to human error handling the glassware and following the lab manual
instructions.
Synthesis/

Using An Esterification Reaction And Conduct A Purity Test...
Objective: Students will be able to synthesize aspirin using an esterification reaction and conduct a
purity test on the aspirin crystals and a commercial aspirin product.
Procedure:
Preparation of Aspirin–
Begin by weighing a 125–mL Erlenmeyer flask and recording the result. Next, add approximately 2
g of salicylic acid to the Erlenmeyer flask. Then, record the new mass of the Erlenmeyer and the
salicylic acid. Next, inside of the hood add 5 mL of acetic anhydride and 10 drops of 85%
phosphoric acid. Stir the mixture with a stirring rod. Next, place the flask in a boiling water bath and
stir until the solid dissolves. Next, remove the flask from the water bath and let it cool to room
temperature. Then, add 20 drops of water to the flask. Next, add 25–mL of cold water to the flask
and place it in an ice bath for 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, to collect the Aspirin crystals, add a
piece of filter paper to a Büchner filtration apparatus. Then, fit the funnel snuggly in the rubber
washer of the filter flask. Next, turn on the water aspirator and pour the aspirin product slowly onto
the center of the filter paper. Then, push down gently on the funnel to suction out the water from the
aspirin product. After the crystals have formed on the filter paper, obtain a weight boat. Record the
mass of the weight boat. Next, use a spatula to transfer the crystals onto the weigh boat. Then, after
the crystals have dried, record the mass of the weight boat and aspirin product.
Testing

Multistep Synthesis of Benzilic Acid
Multi–Step Synthesis of Benzilic Acid from Benzoin
Abstract:
The main purpose of this experiment was to convert a secondary alcohol to a ketone, utilizing a mild
and selective oxidizing agent. In addition, this converted alpha diketone was then subjected to
rearrangement to a carboxylate salt, then acidification, to produce an alpha–hydroxyacid. In this
experiment, benzoin was used and converted into benzil, which was then used to synthesize
benzillic acid.
The yields were not ideal: .081g of benzil– a 27.5% yield; .038g of benzilic acid– a 34.97% yield.
The matching melting points and IR readings, however, confirmed a high degree of purity for each
compound: 95.6°C for benzil, and 104.5°C for benzilic acid, meager .632% and .333% ... Show
Once the final solid product was obtained in both reactions the melting point procedure was used to
determine the level of remaining impurity of the final product, comparing the experimental and
expected values found in literature. In conjunction with the melting point procedure, infrared
spectroscopy was used to reveal the different functional groups of the products. In other words, the
IR machine indicates whether our final product matches up with the desired one, matching carbonyl
and alcohol absorption peaks (or the lack thereof) to their theoretical presence (either benzil or
benzillic acid).
Procedure:
1.5ml of nitric acid was added to .30g of benzoin in a conical vial with a stir vane. The mixture was
then heated in a 70 degree Celsius water bath, while stirred, for one hour. The mixture in the conical
vial was then cooled to room temperature and, using a pipette, the solution was transferred to a
beaker containing 4ml of ice water. The mixture slowly crystallized in the beaker and the
crystallized product was filtered on a hirsch funnel with vacuum. 5 ml of cold water was used to
wash the product and then the product was allowed to dry.
The solid product was then collected from the funnel and added to a hot 95% ethanol solution in an
Erlenmeyer flask and completely dissolved. Once the solid was dissolved completely, the solution
was allowed to cool to room temperature. Once yellow crystals formed, the solution was placed into

Formal Report Exp 9
University of Santo Tomas
Faculty of Pharmacy
Organic Chemistry Laboratory
APPLICATION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF TEST TO CLASSIFY HYROXY– AND
CARBONYL–CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
Jane Catherine SP. Villanueva, Edenn Claudine C. Villaraza, Lorenz Oliver C. Villegas and Cristel
Bernice T. Wee
Group 10 2G–Medical Technology Organic Chemistry Laboratory
ABSTRACT
Hydroxyl group refers to a functional group containing OH– when it is a substituent in an organic
compound. It is also known as the characteristic functional group of alcohols and phenols. On the
other hand, carbonyl group refers to a divalent chemical unit consisting of a carbon and an oxygen
atom connected by a double bond. It is known as the characteristic functional group of aldehydes ...
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Other organic compounds that contain –OH groups but are not alcohols are phenol (C6H5OH) and
acetic acid (CH3COOH). These compounds are not alcohols because they are acidic. The term
alcohol, then, is another representation of a type of electronic structure in the molecules of
substances. [3] [4]
Phenols are aromatic compounds in which a hydroxide group is directly bonded to an aromatic ring
system. They are very weak acids, and like alcohols, form ethers and esters. The main phenols are
phenol itself, cresol, resorcinol, pyrogallol, and picric acid.
Phenol itself (C6H5OH), also known as carbolic acid, is a white, hygroscopic crystalline solid,
isolable from coal tar, but made by acid hydrolysis of cumene hydroperoxide, or by fusion of
sodium benzenesulfonate with sodium hydroxide. Formerly used as an antiseptic, phenol has more
latterly been used to make bakelite and other resins, plastics, dyes, detergents, and drugs. [4] [15]
The hydroxyl– containing compounds used in the experiment were ethanol, n–butyl alcohol, sec–
butyl alcohol, tert–butyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, and benzyl alcohol.
Ethanol also known as ethyl alcohol is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic, agreeable odor.
In dilute aqueous solution, it has a somewhat sweet flavor, but in more concentrated solutions it has
a burning taste. Its low freezing point has made it useful as the fluid in thermometers for

Evaluation Of AAnalytical Experiment
Analytical reagent grade sodium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide, ethanol, AA, N,N′–
methylenebisacrylamide (MBA), AMPS, potassium Persulfate (KPS) were supplied by Tianjin
Fuchen Chemicals. Corn straws were purchased from Huimin County, Binzhou City, Shandong
Province.
1.1 Preparation of sulfonic cellulose by pretreating corn straws
Dry corn straws were ground and sieved using a 40–mesh sieve. Then, the resulting corn straw crash
was made alkaline with 15% NaOH solution at 55 °C in a water bath for 2.5 h. The resulting
solution was oxidized and bleached by H2O2, dried, and ground to get cellulose.
Cellulose was immersed in 17.5% NaOH solution and stirred for 1 h, followed by immersing for 3
h. Then, it was washed and neutralized with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the meantime, the control sample hydrogel was synthesized by AA without the sulfonated
cellulose. The formulation for the control sample is listed in Table 1. The resulting hydrogels were
dried at 80 °C in an oven for 24 h and then ground.
1.3 Measurements of hydrogels
1.3.1 Measurement of swelling ratio Q
After sieving the dried hydrogels using a 40–mesh sieve, a certain amount of sample was transferred
to a tea bag, which was further immersed in deionized water for 48 h at room temperature. After the
swelling equilibrium was achieved, the samples were weighed. The swelling ratio (Q) was
calculated by the following formula.
Q = (W1 – W0)/W0 where W0 and W1 are the mass of the dry and swollen hydrogels, respectively.
1.3.2 FTIR analysis of hydrogels
The corn straws, pretreated corn straws, and hydrogels were ground into fine powders, mixed with
KBr, and pressed into pellets for FTIR analysis. FTIR spectra were scanned in the wavelength range
400–4,000 cm–1.
1.3.3 Measuring the swelling dynamics of hydrogels
A certain amount of hydrogels was transferred to a tea bag. Then, the tea bag was immersed into
deionized water. The mass was measured at regular intervals until it become constant.
1.3.4 Salt resistance of hydrogels
NaCl, CaCl2, and AlCl3 solutions with different concentrations were prepared. The dry hydrogel

samples with the same mass were immersed in salt solutions. Salt resistance was determined by the
swelling ratio when the hydrogel

Caproic Acid Synthesis Essay
Introduction In this lab, caproic acid was synthesized in a multi–step process that involved the
synthesis of three intermediates – diethyl n–butylmalonate, potassium n–butylmalonate, and n–butyl
malonic acid respectively. An IR was used to characterize the starting material, n–bromobutane, and
the first intermediate, diethyl n–butylmalonate; while IR and NMR were used to characterize the
final product, caproic acid.
Reactions, Mechanism and Theory
Caproic acid a.k.a n–hexanoic acid is a carboxylic acid derived from hexane which has the general
formula C5H11COOH. It is a colorless oily liquid with a really pungent odor associated with goats.
Caproic acid was synthesized in a multi–step process which produced three intermediates – ... Show
20.34mL of diethyl malonate was added to the solution via the separatory funnel over a period of
about fifteen minutes. Next, 35mL of EtOH and 14.5mL of n–BuBr were added to the mixture
respectively. The solution was refluxed for 10 minutes using a heating mantle and then cooled on
ice. The above mixture was later poured into 200ml of water and then transferred to a 500mL
separatory funnel.

Fischer Esterification Of A Carboxylic Acid And...
NAME: _______Amy Hua____________________________
Experiment 6a: Fischer Esterification of a Carboxylic Acid and Identification of the Product By GC,
Micro–Boiling Point and IR Spectroscopy
Experiment 6b: Synthesis of Biodiesel
Summary of Points for Experiment 6:
Item Possible Points Actual Points
Pre–Lab 2 Notebook: N/A N/A
Purpose/Table of Reagents 2
Corrections 2
Blank Spaces 2
Signatures 2
TLC (1 in notebook) 2
Coherent 2
Conclusions (absent here) 1
Sub–Total = 15 multiply Sub–Total x 3 = 45 Report: N/A N/A
Introduction 2
Data and Calculations 7
Less Points–Missing Data 0
Unknown Identity 12
Data Analysis / Conclusions 5
Less Pts–Missing Attach 0 TOTAL 71 minus any page overage 0 minus for late reports 0 minus for
TA points 0
FINAL TOTAL POINTS 71
INTRODUCTION
In the first part of this experiment, an ester product will be isolated and purified from unknown
alcohol. Then the product ester will be identified through analysis of boiling point, gas
chromatography, and IR spectroscopy. In the second part of the experiment, Biodiesel will be
synthesized from vegetable oil by transesterification.
DATAAND CALCULATIONS

FISCHER ESTERIFICATION UNKNOWN ID:
UNKNOWN NUMBER: ___F________________________
UNKNOWN ID (name): ___Octyl Acetate__________________ (10 points)
UNKNOWN STRUCTURE: (2 points)
MASS OF PRODUCT ESTER: ____0.4599g_______________
% YIELD: ___97.44%_______________________
Yield Calculations:
Theoretical

What Happens When Glucose And Maltose Are Classified As...
1. If the pH of a solution is decreased from 7 to 6, it means the concentration of
a. H+ has decreased to 1/10 of what is was at pH 7
b. H+ has increased 10 times what it was at pH 7
c. OH– has increased 10 times what it was at pH 7
d. OH– has increased by 1/7 of what is was
2. The hydrogen bonds shown in this figure are each between
a. Two hydrogen atoms
b. Two oxygen atoms
c. An oxygen and a hydrogen atom of the same water molecule
d. An oxygen and a hydrogen atom of different water molecules
e. Between the atoms in each individual water molecule
3. How are amino acids attached together?
a. Between amino groups via dehydration synthesis
b. Between amino group and carboxylic acid group via dehydration synthesis
c. Between amino groups via ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Specific enzymes break down proteins into amino acids.
b. Specific hormones break down proteins into simple sugars.
c. Specific hormones break down proteins into complex sugars.
d. Specific enzymes break down proteins into simple sugars.
5. Which enzyme shows the greatest change in its rate of action with the least change in pH? 6.
Glucose and maltose are classified as organic compounds because they are both
a. Carbon– containing substances
b. Composed of simple elements
c. Waste products
d. Artificial sugars
7. The graph below shows the effect of temperature on relative rate of action of enzyme X on a
protein. Which change would not affect the relative rate of action of enzyme X?
a. An addition of cold water when the reaction is at 50 degrees Celsius
b. An increase in temperature from 70 to 80 degrees Celsius
c. The removal of the protein when the reaction is at 30 degrees Celsius
d. A decrease in temperature from 40 degrees Celsius to 10 degrees Celsius
8. The process represented by the equation show is known as a. Fermentation
b. Hydrolysis
c. Aerobic oxidation

d. Dehydration synthesis
9. The structural formula shown represents urea. This structural formula indicates that urea is: a. An
organic

Liliquid-Liquid Extraction Of An Unknown Mixture
Liquid/Liquid Extraction of an Unknown Mixture
Nhi "Titi" Tran
CHEM 213W Section 004
Purpose
Liquid–liquid extraction is an essential technique used in organic chemistry to separate products
from a reaction mixture by exploiting its various properties, such as its acidity. Overall, this then
allows organic chemists to obtain a purer product. For the purpose of this experiment, liquid–liquid
extraction was utilized to isolate a neutral, amine, and carboxylic acid component from an unknown
mixture in order to determine their identities by performing melting point and 1H NMR analyses on
each individual element.
Results, Discussion, and Conclusions Unknown sample 207 was analyzed in this experiment. Using
acid/base chemistry, certain components were moved to the aqueous layer at each step in order to
separate the amine, carboxylic acid, and neutral parts from each other. First, the basic amine was
protonated with 5% HCl, a strong acid. This protonation step led to the ionization of the amine
component, causing it to migrate into the aqueous layer where it was more soluble.1 This left only
the neutral and carboxylic acid components in the organic layer since both do not react with the
acid, and thus remained uncharged. Then, the addition of 1M NaOH, a strong base, resulted in the
carboxylic acid being deprotonated.1 This ionized form of the acid was then soluble in the aqueous
layer.1 Since the NaOH does not react with the neutral component, this part remained in the organic

Synthesis And Characterisation Processes Of Pharmaceutical...
INTRODUCTION: The pharmaceutical industry has long been trying to improve the effectiveness
of certain drugs it would like to introduce and mass–produce. The concept behind many of these
drugs is sound; however, they appear to fall short when it comes to some of their chemical
properties. These properties, including solubility, stability, intrinsic dissolution and bioavailability,
affect the extent to which the body can utilize the drug effectively, and it is thus vital that drugs are
developed to have a maximum effect on an individual after administration. This is where
pharmaceutical co–crystals are the potential key to advancing drastically the design of drugs by
enhancing their bioavailability and solubility. There has been a growing interest in the design of
pharmaceutical co–crystals over the past decade and this is only going to escalate as the focus is
shifted to designing, synthesising and characterising better and more improved crystalline structures.
This report aims to examine and compare several methods in the design, synthesis and
characterisation processes of pharmaceutical co–crystals in addition to providing examples of the
effectiveness of these co–crystals in pharmaceutics.
WHAT ARE PHARMACEUTICAL CO–CRYSTALS?
It is important first to define a co–crystal, although there has been a large debate on what actually
constitutes a co–crystal.1 A co–crystal is, in essence, a "mixed crystal" or a crystal that contains two
different molecules.2 It is a solid,

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