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A Holistic Definition of Cross-
Cultural Management
Performance
Dr. Peter Woods, Griffith Business School
9th IFSAM World Congress 2008, Shanghai
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 2
Co-Authors
• Prof. Michelle C. Barker
• Department of Management, Griffith University,
Brisbane, Australia
Email: m.barker@griffith.edu.au
• Dr. Ashlea Troth
• Department of Management, Griffith University, Brisbane,
Australia
Email: a.troth@griffith.edu.au
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 3
Outline
• Cross-cultural management performance
• The adaptation approach
• The skills and processes approach
• Cross-cultural management and groups
• Outcomes of cross-cultural management (organisational)
• Proposed holistic definition of cross-cultural management
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 4
Cross-Cultural Management
Performance Perspective
• Managerial performance is defined as “the cumulative
stakeholder perceptions of attainment level on specific
behaviours and actions that capture the full spectrum of job
activities” (Fraser, 2001, p.3).
• This definition reflects the reality of managers having to deal
with a variety of stakeholders successfully, in order to
achieve company objectives incorporating a broad and long-
term perspective.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 5
Cultural Adaptation Approach
• The social and psychological adjustment of individuals or cultural
groups to the new cultural environment in which they now reside
(Adelman, 1988).
• Six-factor definition encompassing acceptance of the foreign
culture, knowledge of the country and culture, lifestyle adjustment,
interaction with local people, intercultural communication, feelings
of well-being (and positive self-concept) and job performance
(Tucker, Bonial, & Lahti, 2004).
• The extent to which individuals are psychologically comfortable
living outside their home country (Black et al., 1991).
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 6
Cultural Intelligence (Earley, 2002, p.274)
Cultural Intelligence
Cognitive Motivational Behavioural
Declarative &
Procedural Knowledge
Meta- Strategies
Efficacy
Goals & Effort
Perseverance
Repertoire
Mimicry
Habits and Rituals
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 7
Problems with the Adaptation Approach
• Adaptation and adjustment are used interchangeably in the
expatriate literature
• Adaptation, however, is conceptually different as it implies a
mutual process of change between host and expatriate (Mio,
Trimble, Arrendondo, Cheatham, & Sue, 1999).
• In expatriate research, successful adaptation has usually been
measured by the feelings of the expatriate (Black, 1988)
revealing the ‘one-sided’ cultural adaptation approach
predominant in expatriate research (Bonache, Brewster, &
Suutari, 2001).
• The adaptation approach focuses on the individual outcomes
of cross-cultural management, rather than group and
organisational outcomes.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 8
Criticisms of the Adaptation Approach
• Co-cultural theory (Orbe & Spellers, 2005) - argues that
good communication enables under-represented groups to
define and present their own perspectives when they
perceive cultural differences as salient during any interaction.
• This theory recognises the power structure that limits
effective cultural feedback to the manager in the supervisor-
subordinate relationship.
• An effective cross-cultural manager, therefore, is actively
encouraging the incorporation of alternative cultural ‘voices’
rather than focussing on trying to adapt
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 9
Criticisms of the Adaptation Approach
• Post-colonial approach (Bhabha, 1994) assumes that power is
exercised in a hegemonic and dominant way, so that even the
identity of the cultural other is defined and fixated by the
dominant group.
• In applying this to critique the adaptation approach, the
interpretations by the home country culture of the host country
through pre-departure cross-cultural training or through the
influence of the expatriate community in the host country can
further reinforce the coloniser’s presentation of the host
culture.
• The effective cross-cultural manager, therefore, can utlilise an
open-minded and active learning approach to engage with the
other culture/s.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 10
Unique Attributes Approach
• MBI Model – Map, Bridge, Integrate (Lane,
Distefano and Maznevski, 2000)
• Global Competencies framework derived by the
International Organisations Network (ION), a
multinational network of scholars and
professionals (Lane, Mazneveski, Mendenhall, &
McNett, 2004)
• Personal skills, attributes and attitudes
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 11
MBI Model
From Lane, Distefano and Maznevski (2000), p.55
MAP
Understand
the
differences
- Cultural
Orientations
Framework
BRIDGE
Communicate
across the
differences
- Prepare
- Decenter
- Recenter
INTEGRATE
Manage the
differences
- Build
participation
- Resolve
conflicts
- Build on
ideas
Value and
utilise the
differences to
achieve high
performance
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 12
Global Competencies (Bird & Osland, 2004)
Make ethical
decisions
Span
boundaries
Build
community
through change
Mindful
communication
Creating and
building trust
Interpersonal skills
Attitudes and orientations
Global Mindset
Cognitive complexity Cosmopolitanism
Integrity Humility Inquisitiveness Hardiness
Threshold traits
System
skills
Foundation Global knowledge
Level 1:
Traits
Level 2:
Attitudes and
orientations
Level 3:
Interpersonal
skills
Level 4: Systems skills
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 13
Cross-Cultural Interpersonal Skills
(Sue & Sue, 1990)
They identified five key skills in helping
across cultures:
• articulating the problem
• mutual goal formation
• diminishing defensiveness
• recognising resistance
• developing recovery skills
Rarely considered in considerations of cross-
cultural management performance
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 14
Problems with Current Skills Frameworks
• ION framework does not incorporate culturally synergistic
outcomes of cross-cultural management
• ION framework focuses more on the traits, attitudes and
skills of cross-cultural management, whereas the MBI model
focuses on the processes of cross-cultural management.
• Both areas are relevant to cross-cultural management
performance, and so an integration of these concepts is
relevant to the definition of cross-cultural management
performance.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 15
Problems with Current Skills Frameworks
• ION framework focuses on the performance of the manager,
• The MBI model focuses on the processes of cross-cultural
management.
• A clearer definition of cross-cultural management
performance, would specifically incorporate the three
outcome areas of individual, group, and organisational,
rather than current definitions that focus more on the actions
of the manager.
• Empirical research has not established the validity of the ION
framework and the MBI model in assessing or measuring
cross-cultural management.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 16
Attitude and CCM
(Bennett, 2005, p.72)
Experience of Difference
Denial Defense Minimisation Acceptance Adaptation Integration
Ethnocentric Stages Ethnorelative Stages
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 17
Cross-Cultural Management and
Groups/ Teams
• Particularly relevant to collectivist cultures where
effective management of teams is a particularly
important aspect of management
• Three major theories of cross-cultural
management team processes - Adler (2002),
Schneider & Barsoux (2003), Earley & Gibson
(2002)
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 18
Cross-Cultural Management Team
Processes (Adler, 2002)
1. Describe the situation
2. Determine underlying cultural assumptions
3. Assess cultural overlaps
4. Create culturally synergistic alternatives
5. Select an alternative
6. Implement the culturally synergistic solution.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 19
Cross-Cultural Management Team
Processes (Schneider & Barsoux, 2003)
1. Creating a sense of purpose (task)
2. Structuring the task (task)
3. Assigning roles and responsibilities (task)
4. Reaching decisions (task)
5. Team building (process)
6. Choosing how to communicate (process)
7. Eliciting participation (process)
8. Resolving conflict (process)
9. Evaluation performance (process)
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 20
Cross-Cultural Management Team
Processes (Earley & Gibson, 2002)
1. Role taking, status/ hierarchy and identity
formation
2. Rituals/ habit formation and structuration
3. Enactment of social contracts and the
development of a shared history
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 21
Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes
- Cultural Synergy
• From the Greek word meaning 'working together‘
• Co-operative or combined action where the objective is to
increase effectiveness (Harris & Moran, 2000)
• The co-operative and combined action from two or more
relevant cultural sources, which produces mutually acceptable
and beneficial results for participants.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 22
Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes
- Dilemma Reconciliation
(Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 2002)
• Reduced trans-cultural competence to one skill: the ability to
reconcile value dilemmas.
• Based on the results of surveys of 3000 leaders and
managers worldwide, and case studies of 21 international
managers
• The skill includes the ability to recognise and respect cultural
differences, and to reconcile differences in order to produce
synergies that meet stakeholder objectives.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 23
Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes
- Productive Diversity (Cope and Kalantzis 1997)
• A company-wide approach to cross-cultural management that
includes the concept of managers achieving culturally
synergistic solutions.
• Defined as a ‘system of production that uses diversity as a
resource’ (p.289).
• Productive diversity includes creating organisational cohesion
through managing diversity and negotiating differences to find
common ground or create new ground (p.289).
• Introduces the idea of organisational outcomes as part of
effective cross-cultural management
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 24
CCM Definition
• ‘the achievement of productive diversity,
intercultural effectiveness and cultural synergy in
the performance of management across cultures,
through processes including successful cultural
adaptation and cross-cultural social engagement,
and skills including the leadership of cross-cultural
teams and the resolution of culturally related value
dilemmas’
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 25
Summary
• The different definitions/ models of CCM lead to
different expectations of the outcomes of CCM
• The outcomes and processes of CCM occur at an
organisational, group and interpersonal level
• Cross-cultural management is a complex process
that involves aspects of skills, personality and
attitudes
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 26
References
Adelman, M. B. (1988). "Cross-Cultural Adjustment: A Theoretical Perspective of Social Support." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 12: 183-
204.
Adler, N. (2002). International Dimensions of Organizational Behaviour 4th Edition. Cincinnati, South-Western.
Bennett, M. J. (2005). Intercultural Communication: A Current Perspective. Understanding and Managing Diversity: Readings, Cases and Exercises. C.
P. Harvey and M. J. Allard. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson: 52-80.
Bird, A. and J. S. Osland (2004). Global Competencies: An Introduction. The Blackwell Handbook of Global Management: A Guide to Managing
Complexity. H. W. Lane, M. L. Mazneveski, M. E. Mendenhall and J. McNett. Malden, MA, Blackwell: 57-80.
Black, J. S. and M. E. Mendenhall (1991). "The U-Curve Adjustment Hypothesis Revisted: A Review and Theoretical Framework." Journal of
International Business Studies 22(2): 225-247.
Cope, B. and M. Kalantzis (1997). Productive Diversity : A New Australian Model for Work and Management. Sydney, Pluto Press.
Earley, P. C. (2002). A Theory of Cultural Intelligence in Organisations. Research in Organizational Behavior. B. M. Staw and R. Kramer. Greenwich,
CT, JAI Press. 24: 271-299.
Earley, P. C. and C. B. Gibson (2002). Multinational Work Teams: A New Perspective. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 27
References
Harris, P. R. and R. T. Moran (2000). Managing Cultural Differences: Leadership Strategies for a New World of Business.
Houston, Gulf Publishing.
Lane, H. W., J. J. DiStefano, et al. (2000). International Management Behaviour 4th Ed. Oxford, Blackwell.
Schneider, S. C. and J. L. Barsoux (2003). Managing Across Cultures. Harlow, Prentice Hall.
Sue, D. W. and D. Sue (1990). Counseling the Culturally Different: Theory and Practice 2nd Edition. New York, Wiley.
Trompenaars, F. and C. Hampden-Turner (2002). 21 Leaders for the 21st Century. New York, McGraw Hill.
Tucker, M. F., R. Bonial, et al. (2004). "The Definition, Measurement and Prediction of Intercultural Adjustment and Job
Performance
Amongst Corporate Executives." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28: 221-251.
Van der Zee, K., Van Oudenhoven, J. (2001). "The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire: Reliability and Validity of Self- and
Other Ratings of Multicultural Effectiveness." Journal of Research in Personality 35: 278-288.
van Oudenhoven, J., K. van der Zee, et al. (2001). "Successful Adaptation Strategies According to Expatriates." International
Journal of Intercultural Relations 25(5): 467-482.

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Holistic Cross-Cultural Management

  • 1. A Holistic Definition of Cross- Cultural Management Performance Dr. Peter Woods, Griffith Business School 9th IFSAM World Congress 2008, Shanghai
  • 2. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 2 Co-Authors • Prof. Michelle C. Barker • Department of Management, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia Email: m.barker@griffith.edu.au • Dr. Ashlea Troth • Department of Management, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia Email: a.troth@griffith.edu.au
  • 3. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 3 Outline • Cross-cultural management performance • The adaptation approach • The skills and processes approach • Cross-cultural management and groups • Outcomes of cross-cultural management (organisational) • Proposed holistic definition of cross-cultural management
  • 4. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 4 Cross-Cultural Management Performance Perspective • Managerial performance is defined as “the cumulative stakeholder perceptions of attainment level on specific behaviours and actions that capture the full spectrum of job activities” (Fraser, 2001, p.3). • This definition reflects the reality of managers having to deal with a variety of stakeholders successfully, in order to achieve company objectives incorporating a broad and long- term perspective.
  • 5. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 5 Cultural Adaptation Approach • The social and psychological adjustment of individuals or cultural groups to the new cultural environment in which they now reside (Adelman, 1988). • Six-factor definition encompassing acceptance of the foreign culture, knowledge of the country and culture, lifestyle adjustment, interaction with local people, intercultural communication, feelings of well-being (and positive self-concept) and job performance (Tucker, Bonial, & Lahti, 2004). • The extent to which individuals are psychologically comfortable living outside their home country (Black et al., 1991).
  • 6. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 6 Cultural Intelligence (Earley, 2002, p.274) Cultural Intelligence Cognitive Motivational Behavioural Declarative & Procedural Knowledge Meta- Strategies Efficacy Goals & Effort Perseverance Repertoire Mimicry Habits and Rituals
  • 7. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 7 Problems with the Adaptation Approach • Adaptation and adjustment are used interchangeably in the expatriate literature • Adaptation, however, is conceptually different as it implies a mutual process of change between host and expatriate (Mio, Trimble, Arrendondo, Cheatham, & Sue, 1999). • In expatriate research, successful adaptation has usually been measured by the feelings of the expatriate (Black, 1988) revealing the ‘one-sided’ cultural adaptation approach predominant in expatriate research (Bonache, Brewster, & Suutari, 2001). • The adaptation approach focuses on the individual outcomes of cross-cultural management, rather than group and organisational outcomes.
  • 8. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 8 Criticisms of the Adaptation Approach • Co-cultural theory (Orbe & Spellers, 2005) - argues that good communication enables under-represented groups to define and present their own perspectives when they perceive cultural differences as salient during any interaction. • This theory recognises the power structure that limits effective cultural feedback to the manager in the supervisor- subordinate relationship. • An effective cross-cultural manager, therefore, is actively encouraging the incorporation of alternative cultural ‘voices’ rather than focussing on trying to adapt
  • 9. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 9 Criticisms of the Adaptation Approach • Post-colonial approach (Bhabha, 1994) assumes that power is exercised in a hegemonic and dominant way, so that even the identity of the cultural other is defined and fixated by the dominant group. • In applying this to critique the adaptation approach, the interpretations by the home country culture of the host country through pre-departure cross-cultural training or through the influence of the expatriate community in the host country can further reinforce the coloniser’s presentation of the host culture. • The effective cross-cultural manager, therefore, can utlilise an open-minded and active learning approach to engage with the other culture/s.
  • 10. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 10 Unique Attributes Approach • MBI Model – Map, Bridge, Integrate (Lane, Distefano and Maznevski, 2000) • Global Competencies framework derived by the International Organisations Network (ION), a multinational network of scholars and professionals (Lane, Mazneveski, Mendenhall, & McNett, 2004) • Personal skills, attributes and attitudes
  • 11. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 11 MBI Model From Lane, Distefano and Maznevski (2000), p.55 MAP Understand the differences - Cultural Orientations Framework BRIDGE Communicate across the differences - Prepare - Decenter - Recenter INTEGRATE Manage the differences - Build participation - Resolve conflicts - Build on ideas Value and utilise the differences to achieve high performance
  • 12. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 12 Global Competencies (Bird & Osland, 2004) Make ethical decisions Span boundaries Build community through change Mindful communication Creating and building trust Interpersonal skills Attitudes and orientations Global Mindset Cognitive complexity Cosmopolitanism Integrity Humility Inquisitiveness Hardiness Threshold traits System skills Foundation Global knowledge Level 1: Traits Level 2: Attitudes and orientations Level 3: Interpersonal skills Level 4: Systems skills
  • 13. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 13 Cross-Cultural Interpersonal Skills (Sue & Sue, 1990) They identified five key skills in helping across cultures: • articulating the problem • mutual goal formation • diminishing defensiveness • recognising resistance • developing recovery skills Rarely considered in considerations of cross- cultural management performance
  • 14. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 14 Problems with Current Skills Frameworks • ION framework does not incorporate culturally synergistic outcomes of cross-cultural management • ION framework focuses more on the traits, attitudes and skills of cross-cultural management, whereas the MBI model focuses on the processes of cross-cultural management. • Both areas are relevant to cross-cultural management performance, and so an integration of these concepts is relevant to the definition of cross-cultural management performance.
  • 15. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 15 Problems with Current Skills Frameworks • ION framework focuses on the performance of the manager, • The MBI model focuses on the processes of cross-cultural management. • A clearer definition of cross-cultural management performance, would specifically incorporate the three outcome areas of individual, group, and organisational, rather than current definitions that focus more on the actions of the manager. • Empirical research has not established the validity of the ION framework and the MBI model in assessing or measuring cross-cultural management.
  • 16. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 16 Attitude and CCM (Bennett, 2005, p.72) Experience of Difference Denial Defense Minimisation Acceptance Adaptation Integration Ethnocentric Stages Ethnorelative Stages
  • 17. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 17 Cross-Cultural Management and Groups/ Teams • Particularly relevant to collectivist cultures where effective management of teams is a particularly important aspect of management • Three major theories of cross-cultural management team processes - Adler (2002), Schneider & Barsoux (2003), Earley & Gibson (2002)
  • 18. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 18 Cross-Cultural Management Team Processes (Adler, 2002) 1. Describe the situation 2. Determine underlying cultural assumptions 3. Assess cultural overlaps 4. Create culturally synergistic alternatives 5. Select an alternative 6. Implement the culturally synergistic solution.
  • 19. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 19 Cross-Cultural Management Team Processes (Schneider & Barsoux, 2003) 1. Creating a sense of purpose (task) 2. Structuring the task (task) 3. Assigning roles and responsibilities (task) 4. Reaching decisions (task) 5. Team building (process) 6. Choosing how to communicate (process) 7. Eliciting participation (process) 8. Resolving conflict (process) 9. Evaluation performance (process)
  • 20. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 20 Cross-Cultural Management Team Processes (Earley & Gibson, 2002) 1. Role taking, status/ hierarchy and identity formation 2. Rituals/ habit formation and structuration 3. Enactment of social contracts and the development of a shared history
  • 21. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 21 Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes - Cultural Synergy • From the Greek word meaning 'working together‘ • Co-operative or combined action where the objective is to increase effectiveness (Harris & Moran, 2000) • The co-operative and combined action from two or more relevant cultural sources, which produces mutually acceptable and beneficial results for participants.
  • 22. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 22 Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes - Dilemma Reconciliation (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 2002) • Reduced trans-cultural competence to one skill: the ability to reconcile value dilemmas. • Based on the results of surveys of 3000 leaders and managers worldwide, and case studies of 21 international managers • The skill includes the ability to recognise and respect cultural differences, and to reconcile differences in order to produce synergies that meet stakeholder objectives.
  • 23. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 23 Cross-Cultural Management Outcomes - Productive Diversity (Cope and Kalantzis 1997) • A company-wide approach to cross-cultural management that includes the concept of managers achieving culturally synergistic solutions. • Defined as a ‘system of production that uses diversity as a resource’ (p.289). • Productive diversity includes creating organisational cohesion through managing diversity and negotiating differences to find common ground or create new ground (p.289). • Introduces the idea of organisational outcomes as part of effective cross-cultural management
  • 24. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 24 CCM Definition • ‘the achievement of productive diversity, intercultural effectiveness and cultural synergy in the performance of management across cultures, through processes including successful cultural adaptation and cross-cultural social engagement, and skills including the leadership of cross-cultural teams and the resolution of culturally related value dilemmas’
  • 25. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 25 Summary • The different definitions/ models of CCM lead to different expectations of the outcomes of CCM • The outcomes and processes of CCM occur at an organisational, group and interpersonal level • Cross-cultural management is a complex process that involves aspects of skills, personality and attitudes
  • 26. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 26 References Adelman, M. B. (1988). "Cross-Cultural Adjustment: A Theoretical Perspective of Social Support." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 12: 183- 204. Adler, N. (2002). International Dimensions of Organizational Behaviour 4th Edition. Cincinnati, South-Western. Bennett, M. J. (2005). Intercultural Communication: A Current Perspective. Understanding and Managing Diversity: Readings, Cases and Exercises. C. P. Harvey and M. J. Allard. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson: 52-80. Bird, A. and J. S. Osland (2004). Global Competencies: An Introduction. The Blackwell Handbook of Global Management: A Guide to Managing Complexity. H. W. Lane, M. L. Mazneveski, M. E. Mendenhall and J. McNett. Malden, MA, Blackwell: 57-80. Black, J. S. and M. E. Mendenhall (1991). "The U-Curve Adjustment Hypothesis Revisted: A Review and Theoretical Framework." Journal of International Business Studies 22(2): 225-247. Cope, B. and M. Kalantzis (1997). Productive Diversity : A New Australian Model for Work and Management. Sydney, Pluto Press. Earley, P. C. (2002). A Theory of Cultural Intelligence in Organisations. Research in Organizational Behavior. B. M. Staw and R. Kramer. Greenwich, CT, JAI Press. 24: 271-299. Earley, P. C. and C. B. Gibson (2002). Multinational Work Teams: A New Perspective. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • 27. 9th IFSAM Congress, 2008, Shanghai, PRC 27 References Harris, P. R. and R. T. Moran (2000). Managing Cultural Differences: Leadership Strategies for a New World of Business. Houston, Gulf Publishing. Lane, H. W., J. J. DiStefano, et al. (2000). International Management Behaviour 4th Ed. Oxford, Blackwell. Schneider, S. C. and J. L. Barsoux (2003). Managing Across Cultures. Harlow, Prentice Hall. Sue, D. W. and D. Sue (1990). Counseling the Culturally Different: Theory and Practice 2nd Edition. New York, Wiley. Trompenaars, F. and C. Hampden-Turner (2002). 21 Leaders for the 21st Century. New York, McGraw Hill. Tucker, M. F., R. Bonial, et al. (2004). "The Definition, Measurement and Prediction of Intercultural Adjustment and Job Performance Amongst Corporate Executives." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28: 221-251. Van der Zee, K., Van Oudenhoven, J. (2001). "The Multicultural Personality Questionnaire: Reliability and Validity of Self- and Other Ratings of Multicultural Effectiveness." Journal of Research in Personality 35: 278-288. van Oudenhoven, J., K. van der Zee, et al. (2001). "Successful Adaptation Strategies According to Expatriates." International Journal of Intercultural Relations 25(5): 467-482.