SlideShare a Scribd company logo
1 of 11
Complementing Economic
                                Advances in India: A New
                                Approach to Financing
                                Infrastructure Projects




                                                                                                ly
                                                                                              On
                                ANDREW H. CHEN AND JENNIFER W. KUBIK




                                                                                  ew
ANDREW H. CHEN                            or India to continue its growth on a


                                F
                                                                                       amount (see Exhibit 1). One of the reasons has
is distinguished professor of             sustainable path, investment in infra-       been a government-imposed cap on FDI. Man-




                                                                                vi
finance at Cox School of
                                          structure is critical. Infrastructure bot-   ufacturers have cited power shortages, taxes, and
Business, Southern
Methodist University in                   tlenecks are seen as one of the leading      the “inspector raj” (bureaucracy), as key obsta-
Dallas, TX.
achen@mail.cox.smu.edu
                                                                        Re
                                obstacles for India in realizing its economic
                                growth potential. India’s information tech-
                                                                                       cles.1 Paradoxically, Stephen Roach of Morgan
                                                                                       Stanley has stated, “India’s consumption-led
                                nology (IT) industry, which positioned India           approach to growth may be better balanced than
JENNIFER W. KUBIK               as a global player with competitive advantages,        the resource-mobilization model of China.”2
                                                                or

is a consultant to Southern
Methodist University, and
                                grew with access to good telecommunications                   India needs to attract private capital to
principal at Concept            infrastructure, sparked by a liberalized telecom-      finance a significant program of infrastructure
                                munications market. But inadequate infra-              development, required to grow domestically
                                                         tF


Elemental in Dallas, TX.
jwarren@conceptelemental.com    structure—unreliable power supply, poor roads,         and position itself globally. Prime Minister
                                and constrained airports—retards the ability of        Manmohan Singh has appealed to foreign
                                companies to scale up and limits foreign invest-       investors for $150 billion in infrastructure
                                                   af




                                ment. According to Ahya and Sheth [2005], a            investment over the next 10 years—$75 billion
                                three-fold increase to $100 billion (8% of GDP)        for power and electricity over the next five
                                            Dr




                                by 2010 is needed for India to grow at a sus-          years; $55 billion for airports and railways over
                                tainable 8–9% rate; Prime Minister Manmohan            the next decade; and $25 billion for telecom-
                                Singh estimated that $320 billion was needed           munications over the next five years. Five
                                by 2012. Compared to China, which spent                mega-power projects of 4,000 megawatts were
                                    or




                                $150 billion in 2003 (10.6% of GDP), India             to be awarded by year-end 2006 as well (see
                                spent $21 billion (3.5% of GDP) in the same            Kochar and Kearney [2006]). India, with its
                                th




                                period, one-seventh of China’s expenditure (see        infrastructure challenges, could benefit from
                                Ahya and Sheth [2005]).                                a new approach that attracts needed financial
                                       The presence of infrastructure and foreign      resources through the invisible hand of the
                        Au




                                direct investment (FDI) are synergistically related.   global capital markets.
                                Foreign direct investment and other private cap-              The proposed global capital market
                                ital flows are strongly influenced by a country’s        approach, coupled with financial innovations,
                                investment climate. In China, manufacturing            could help smooth the frictions that lie at the
                                exports have been the foremost contributor to          root of India’s infrastructure development prob-
                                China’s economic growth and rapid develop-             lems. India holds great interest among capital-
                                ment. In 2005, China attracted $72 billion in          rich, developed-country financial markets
                                FDI, but India attracted one-tenth of this             seeking investment opportunities. Developing


    SUMMER 2007                                                                                   THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE   1
EXHIBIT 1
Foreign Direct Investment Inflows, 1995–2005: China and India (in millions of dollars)




                                                                                                    ly
                                                                                                  On
                                                                                   ew
                                                                                 vi
                                                                         Re
                                                                or
                                                        tF
                                                 af
                                          Dr
                                  or




Source: United Nations Centre for Trade and Development, Beyond 20/20 Database; http://stats.unctad.org/FDI/
                           th




countries that are positioning themselves in the global                     ago. Its first reforms began in the early 1980s, with
economy also find India full of opportunities. Infrastruc-                   pro-business domestic policies. India then reaped the
                   Au




ture spending in India is particularly politicized, and could               rewards when pro-market liberalizing policies were set in
gain efficiencies through the benefits of the global capital                  motion. India transformed itself from an over-regulated,
markets rather than at the hands of domestic politicians.                   closed economy to a more attractive trading partner,
                                                                            proving savvy in providing talent and innovation in the
BACKGROUND                                                                  global economy. Software exports and call centers were
                                                                            preceded by manufacturing gains from less burdensome
      India, the largest democracy in the world, unleashed                  regulation and policies that were in place a full decade
its chained economy more than two-and-a-half decades                        prior to the market liberalizations of 1991.


2    COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS                        SUMMER 2007
The information technology industry contributed          unless they are given incentives to reform governance,
5% to GDP in 2005, and is expected to contribute 17%            business climate, and infrastructure. Wilkinson [2006]
to the growth of GDP between 2004 and 2010.3 While              argues that “high levels of electoral volatility (the pro-
India has received acclaim in IT and business processing        portion of seats that turns over in each state election)
exports, its infrastructure troubles are slowing the poten-     combine to cause highly inefficient patterns of state
tial for economic growth, raising standards of living, and      spending on infrastructure.” Politicians in electorally com-
attracting private capital.                                     petitive states announce large numbers of infrastructure




                                                                                      ly
       To bring another base of the economy up to speed,        projects ahead of elections. Once elected, many projects
a cross-section of manufacturing capabilities are needed        promised by the newly elected are never completed or




                                                                                    On
to offer greater employment opportunities for Indians.          maintained, or, if constructed, are of very poor quality.
Importantly, a revival in manufacturing is occurring.           Some states, particularly in lagging regions, have proved
India boasts numerous industrial jewels—Tata Group,             wasteful and corrupt in infrastructure spending.
Reliance Group, Bharat Forge, Infosys Technologies,                    What are India’s prospects in attracting more direct




                                                                      ew
Wipro Technologies, Bharti (a mobile telephony com-             investment in infrastructure and economic development?
pany), and world-class pharmaceutical companies. Agri-          Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has appealed to the
culture offers a wide variety of opportunities as well.         private sector for a leading role in complementing public
India’s developed financial markets offer a natural segue        efforts in India’s infrastructure development. The partial




                                                                    vi
towards a global capital market approach. While labor is        antidote for both fast-growth states and lagging states is
abundant, infrastructure constraints limit expansion,           private investment in infrastructure. At the same time, the
growth, and opportunity.
       India’s regional disparities in terms of growth and
                                                                Re
                                                                nature and characteristics of infrastructure projects are
                                                                inherently risky. Large-scale projects require massive cap-
specialization tell a tale of a two-speed, divergent country,   ital investment with long completion times, and many
with implications for infrastructure development as a key       carry political and regulatory risk. In a study of large trans-
                                                        or

piece of the puzzle. At one extreme, the fast-growth states     port projects, numerous projects were poor performers
have skipped “directly to skill- and capital-intensive indus-   with significant cost overruns and revenue shortfalls.4 While
                                                                many other projects have been successfully completed, a
                                                 tF


tries (within manufacturing) or to services where they
appear to have a comparative advantage,” according to an        number of spectacular failures have occurred which, in
International Monetary Fund working paper on India’s            turn, sours the investment climate.
growth by Kochhar et al. [2006]. Under typical patterns                The following cases underscore some of the challenges
                                           af




of economic development, countries or areas tend to go          faced in India, and will be addressed later with market-based
through labor-intensive manufacturing cycles before they        solutions from the global capital market approach.
                                     Dr




specialize. That is, leading regions like Delhi, Karnataka
(Bangalore), and Maharashtra (Mumbai), all of which                   Case Studies of Infrastructure Projects
embraced the IT wave with their first-tier cities, have
seen faster growth and rising incomes, alongside better               Maharashtra State: Enron Dabhol Power Plant with
                             or




infrastructure offerings (see Appendix I). These high-          Large-Scale Problems In April 1992, former Houston-
growth regions behave like industrial countries in their        based company Enron was invited by the Indian govern-
                        th




ways of diversification. Kochhar et al. [2006] also suggest      ment to bid on the $2.9 billion Dabhol power plant
that the economic convergence witnessed in post-war             project, 180 kilometers south of Mumbai. A memo-
industrial countries, and East Asia, could repeat itself        randum of understanding was drawn up swiftly after a
                Au




within Indian regions and states.                               senior Indian delegation met with Enron officials May
       Kochhar et al. [2006] have identified Bihar, Madhya       and June 1992. In 1993, the World Bank declined to
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh as slow-growth or         finance the Enron project, calling it “unviable.” The Maha-
lagging regions in India. These areas suffer from growing,      rashtra State Electricity Board, the sole customer, was to
less-educated, populations, and will likely follow more         pay Dabhol Power Co. (DPC) $220 million in usage fees
traditional economic growth and development patterns,           whether or not it used that amount of power over the life
moving toward labor-intensive manufacturing. These areas        of the 20-year contract. It fell into arrears due to unusu-
will also be a political force for redistributing resources,    ally high power tariffs relative to other power projects in


SUMMER 2007                                                                             THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE    3
India. A high rate of return on capital investment was             years, MPC spent more than $20 million and fought sev-
assured to DPC.                                                    eral public interest litigations for two years, eventually
      Bad contracts, politics, and economic circumstances          prevailing in the legal cases. However, there was a pending
ultimately doomed the initiative. The project’s costs were         two-year-old suit alleging the payment of $13.8 million
never fully disclosed as required by Indian law, and there         in bribes to Indian officials. After a lower court ordered
were no other bidders on the project. The contract was             an investigation into the allegations of corruption, MPC
to be paid in dollars regardless of exchange rate changes,         appealed to the Supreme Court in April 1998, and the




                                                                                         ly
favorable or unfavorable; the rupee declined significantly          Justices reserved the case for judgment in January 1999.
over the course of the agreement. Construction halted              MPC waited for almost a year without a verdict; as a




                                                                                       On
on the final phase in 2001 and the plant closed. It had             result, Cogentrix quit the project on December 9, 1999,
been producing electricity and was to be tied to liquefied          citing delays in approvals (red tape) and in public interest
natural gas supplies at the end of Phase II, which was             litigation.7 On December 13, 1999, four days after Cogen-
four-fifths completed. The Dabhol power plant was to                trix announced its withdrawal from the power project,




                                                                         ew
be the largest independent LNG power plant in the world.           the Supreme Court of India gave a judgment in favor of
Allegations of corruption abound; contracts are under              MPC.8
severe question in spite of cases being closed. The rein-                 The lessons of Dabhol and other infrastructure pro-
carnation of Dabhol, now called the Ratnagiri Power and            jects are many, and they need not be repeated. But unless




                                                                       vi
Gas, Ltd., has yet to be realized, and the plant has not           new approaches are found that will ensure economic effi-
been restored to its full potential.                               ciency, transparency, better governance against corrup-
      Uttar Pradesh State: Corruption and Inefficiencies in
Ambedkar Villages Program In the 1990s, the Ambedkar
                                                                Re tion and bureaucracy measures, and proper enforceable
                                                                   contracts, many more billions of dollars may be wasted.
villages program6 was introduced to supply electrifica-            With India ready to embark further in public-private part-
tion, roads, irrigation, and other public goods to accel-          nerships for infrastructure projects, getting the formula
                                                        or

erate economic development in rural areas. According to            right is imperative. This can make the difference between
the Indian government’s audit report, only 44% of the              further regional divergences and politicization, which
electrification targets were met during the time period             deters reforms and development, and the opportunity for
                                                tF



between 1997 and 2001. Massive amounts of money                    more balanced growth for those who will need it most.
simply disappeared; about $50 million or one-third of the
total was “excess” expenditure, presumably directed                SHORTCOMINGS OF EXISTING FINANCING
                                           af




toward kickbacks and corruption payoffs. In some cases,            APPROACHES
electricity was provided where there were no consumers.
                                    Dr




Many of the beneficiary villages were selected directly by                Over the past two decades, the primary approaches
the energy minister and the chief minister of the state of         of Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) and Private-Public
Uttar Pradesh, rather than on the needs-based criteria set         Partnerships (PPP) have been widely applied for hun-
for the program.                                                   dreds of large-scale infrastructure projects worldwide. Of
                             or




      Karnataka State: Political Risk in Mangalore Power           the $786 billion invested globally in PPP infrastructure
Project An American firm, Cogentrix Energy Inc., was                projects between 1990 and 2003, India attracted only $33
                       th




invited by the Indian government to join with Hong                 billion—or 4%.9 These two existing approaches reveal
Kong’s China Light and Power Ltd. to partner in the                detrimental flaws and have led to substantial amounts of
much-needed 1,000 megawatt coal-fired project. In 1992,             wasted resources. Infrastructure projects with private par-
               Au




the two companies were to invest in, and develop, a $1.3           ticipation that were cancelled or distressed amounted to
billion Mangalore power project. The project was desig-            $79 billion between 1990 and 2004, with larger projects
nated as a “fast-track” project, which entitled it to fed-         more prone to distress or cancellation. In India, cancelled
eral financial guarantees. Mangalore Power Co. (MPC),               or distressed private participation projects comprised 7%
the company set up by Cogentrix and China Light to                 of the $51.4 billion spent on projects in the World Bank’s
develop the project, waited for over seven years to get            database.10
clearance for executing the project. In 1995, China Light                Under the existing approaches of BOT and PPP,
pulled out due to a dispute with the state. During those           infrastructure project financing is structured in a way that


4   COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS                  SUMMER 2007
creates the problem of “plums”, in contrast to the illus-       Enron case set the project on an unstable foundation from
trious “lemons” problem by Akerlof [1970]. The plums            the onset.
problem, coined by Chen [2006], arises when the buyer                  Inefficiencies in contract finance show up in nego-
(bidder or firm providing capital) knows more about the          tiations and bidding processes that require vast amounts
quality and economic value of the project than the seller       of time and effort for completion. The Mangalore Power
(government agency); while in the case of the lemons            Company set up by Cogentrix and China Light and Power
problem, buyers are disadvantaged because they have less        was held up seven years before it received clearance for




                                                                                      ly
information than the sellers about a project’s value, risks,    project execution.12 Direct investment by firms is subject
and costs. Under the existing approaches of BOT and             to the bureaucratic red tape and political risk of host coun-




                                                                                    On
PPP, a small number of project companies that provide           tries’ politicians. India has a reputation for bureaucratic
capital often have better knowledge than the various gov-       red tape; this is particularly true in more economically-
ernment parties about the project’s costs and value. Project    lagging regions which tend to have more entrenched local
companies have incentives to play political games, which        political and business interests. There are better ways to




                                                                      ew
gives rise to corruption and waste. Consequently, project       conduct large-scale infrastructure projects in the future.
sponsors and investors may then be deterred from future         Onerous red tape and overly political project approval
projects in the host country or even in the region, as hap-     processes will create obstructions for India in attracting for-
pened in India post-Enron.                                      eign firms and capital for infrastructure projects.




                                                                    vi
       When initiating an infrastructure project, a project            While governments have tried to increase efficiency
company is formed under the BOT and PPP approaches.             and lower project costs through “limited” public tenders,
The project company constructs and operates the project
for 25 to 35 years before transferring it back to the
                                                                Re
                                                                other problems have surfaced. Specifically, the bidding
                                                                process suffers the plums problem, wherein a small number
government. Under the PPP model, the government buys            of sponsoring companies with sufficient equity capital
services from the project company. Even the State-Build-        and know-how of infrastructure projects can offer and
                                                        or

Own-Operate (SBOO) approach has led many countries              receive low bids for projects. The many cases of cost over-
down the path of privatization—Mexico, the UK, China,           runs observed around the world are likely the result of
                                                 tF


Nigeria, and many more. The private sector’s ability to         low bids by sponsors to secure projects. Indonesia and the
attain efficiency in operations, management, and prof-           Philippines incurred some $10 billion and $6 billion in
itability, has been needed for numerous financial and eco-       bad debt, respectively, from BOT investments. The World
nomic reasons in the privatizing country.                       Bank pointed to bad negotiations in BOT investment
                                           af




       There are several major shortcomings of the BOT          projects as the source of billions of dollars lost during the
and PPP approaches, creating severe agency costs and fail-      Southeast Asian financial crisis.
                                     Dr




ures for large-scale projects. A few major ones are dis-               The Enron-Dabhol project serves as an example of
cussed below.                                                   plums problems par excellence—a lack of competitive bid-
       First, the bidding process is inefficient. The influ-      ding, unfair contracts, and limited knowledge by the seller
ence of domestic politicians, and possible bribery and          (the government) in terms of project scale, technologies,
                             or




corruption, may weigh heavily in the bidding process. In        and complexity. Unfair competition for contracts will not
India, corruption in infrastructure projects often has polit-   yield the longer-term goals of sustainable growth and
                        th




ical roots (see Wilkinson [2006]). The National Highway         development and better governance records. The Indian
Authority of India (NHAI) has a history of sabotaging           government should re-think the BOT roadways projects
the competitive bidding process by politics and special         in the light of how infrastructure’s role interacts with other
                Au




interests. To secure projects, major construction compa-        areas such as bureaucracy, corruption, and macroeco-
nies fund entire projects, instead of letting them be funded    nomic stability—all of which impact the decision of pri-
partly by the government, and they are also willing to          vate firms to invest. These areas beg the question of how
partially fund the NHAI through negative grants. For two        to reconcile existing infrastructure financing approaches
BOT concession agreements for roadways in Gujarat at            with a country’s desire for better governance and a more
a total cost of Rs. 7,100 crore—the NHAI will receive a         attractive business climate for private investment.
negative grant of Rs. 450 crore each from the two con-                 Second, these approaches are subject to unen-
cessionaires.11 The lack of competitive bidding in the          forceable project contracts that can be nullified, posing


SUMMER 2007                                                                             THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE    5
significant political risks to private firms. Such policy           with reform-minded politicians and a growing, educated
risk—the risk that a government will discriminatorily               middle class desiring that the Indian economy be
change the law, regulations, or contracts governing an              unshackled from its past.
investment—is a problem for investors, consumers, in
both developed and developing countries (Henisz [2006]).            INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO FINANCING
In India, water and power projects from Orissa to Thiru-            INFRASTRUCTURE
vananthapuram, Kerala, are meeting with public con-




                                                                                          ly
tention. Problems range from high tariffs without                         Infrastructure development is a way forward to attract
increased quality, poor service, and a lack of transparent          the capital needed for developing economies to grow. It




                                                                                        On
public information about processes and goals. These                 is too vital to be left in the hands of politicians and to the
reversals are not unique to India, however. In 2000,                devices of current “contract finance” approaches. The expe-
Turkey adopted the BOT approach in its electricity sector           riences with privatizations and securitizations suggest that
and, three years later, a new Turkish government moved              the “market finance” approach, which creates immediate




                                                                          ew
to cancel 30 BOT projects. The Enron project suffered               private ownership of public investment projects among
from contractual reversals when a more left-leaning gov-            diverse groups of investors, may lead to more efficient
ernment came into power.                                            and successful infrastructure development.
       Post-contract opportunism can cut both ways, how-                  The financing of projects should be guided by the




                                                                        vi
ever. Project companies can engage in managerial misdeeds           invisible hand of the global capital markets to determine
and self-serving behaviors (agency costs) before they turn          the economic value of an infrastructure project and pro-
the project back to a government. Over the life of a con-
tract, managers may have an incentive to transfer resources
                                                                 Re vide the necessary resources for construction, operations,
                                                                    and maintenance. Project securitizations (PS) or initial
to themselves before the handover occurs. With many                 public offerings (IPOs) of project securities can be
existing large-scale BOT and PPP infrastructure projects            designed with financial innovations for any new large-
                                                         or

launched less than two decades ago, it is too early to assess       scale infrastructure project. This would create diversifi-
any managerial incentive problems. While the Dabhol                 cation and liquidity, and eliminate the plums problems
                                                                    that accompany the existing BOT and PPP approaches in
                                                 tF


power plant was left unfinished, the ingredients of self-
serving behaviors played a significant role in placing the           financing infrastructure projects. It would also begin to
affected population literally and figuratively “in the dark.”        unravel the perverse incentives pervading infrastructure
       Third, the two approaches suffer from a lack of diver-       spending in India. This approach can also be applied to
                                            af




sification and liquidity in the project’s finances. Project           privatizations and securitizations for existing infrastruc-
sponsors with concentrated equity bear almost all the               ture assets undergoing modifications.
                                     Dr




risks—both financial and political—and also lack diver-                    The tools available in today’s global economy allow
sification in these risks. The number of participants in             developing countries to benefit, as have the advanced
project finance is usually small, giving rise to illiquidity         economies, from raising capital and promoting projects.
and concentration risk. The number of leading banks in              This approach would bring true private-sector participa-
                              or




a syndicated project-lending consortium is also usually             tion for economic development and legitimize further
quite small. Thus, sharing in project risk for equity holders       business activity. It would ensure ample funding, strong
                        th




and creditors is limited.                                           interest, and awareness of projects on a global scale. India’s
       Given the severe shortcomings of the infrastructure          domestic capital markets could participate as well, thus
project finance approaches of BOT and PPP, the time                 ensuring greater community interest and avoiding the
                Au




has come for a new approach that utilizes the best of the           “mood swings” of local public opinion. The market’s
private sector alongside its financial innovation. Given            oversight would foster efficiency and liquidity for future
the vast infrastructure needs in India, a progressive               claims on the project’s cash flow. Managerial incentives
approach is needed that levels the playing field, deters            would be more aligned with productivity, thus reducing
political and policy risk, and develops more efficient,             the widespread problems of cost overruns and inefficiency.
transparent market mechanisms. If there is to be real               Governments—central, state, and local—could be allo-
progress toward development goals and reduced poverty,              cated project securities to achieve true public-private
this evolution is vital. The forces are converging in India         ownership.


6    COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS                    SUMMER 2007
The process of infrastructure project globalization      protection. Risk-averse foreign investors in an environ-
begins with a sufficient number of project securities, such      ment of information asymmetries might find this more
as project stocks and bonds, being issued to establish rea-     attractive than simply puttable stocks. Additionally, offering
sonable unit prices, and encourage broad foreign and            redeemable and convertible project preferred stocks would
domestic participation. Making large PS or IPO issues in        attract certain types of preferred stock investors in domestic
different equity and bond markets around the world would        and global capital markets.
increase liquidity for project securities. Transparent eco-            In addition to project stocks, a large number of




                                                                                      ly
nomic information on an infrastructure project, and due         project bonds and preferred stocks should be issued
diligence analysis of the project’s future cash flows, would     through IPOs. Project bonds should include tax-free status




                                                                                    On
establish the market values of project securities with          to attract private domestic and foreign bond investors.
varying claims on future cash flows.                             Like corporate bonds, project bonds should contain event-
       Well-capitalized project companies would show great      risk provisions or covenants for unforeseen adversities
interest in investment opportunities brought by new             such as tsunamis, earthquakes, terrorist attacks, exchange




                                                                      ew
project securities. There has been mounting evidence in         rate volatility, oil price shocks, or other risks specific to
the news media, over the past year, that infrastructure         a particular country environment. Project bonds with
investing is generating greater interest and attracting large   bearish event-risk provisions can be viewed as puttable
sums of capital. This applies to both new infrastructure        bonds that protect bondholders from losses if certain des-




                                                                    vi
projects and existing infrastructure assets requiring           ignated events occur; some of the fallout from a decline
upgrades, new management, or aid to cash-strapped gov-          in the project’s value or a steep downgrade in the rating
ernments at local, state and national levels. Greater par-
ticipation in PS or IPOs would result in fair market values
                                                                Re
                                                                of project bonds can be attenuated in this manner. Alter-
                                                                natively, bonds may be issued with bullish event-risk pro-
of project securities. Other investors worldwide might          visions. A bullish event that increases the economic value
naturally be concerned about having inadequate knowl-           of an infrastructure project could trigger conversion of
                                                        or

edge or information associated with investing in project        bonds into project stock shares.
securities of specific infrastructure projects. They might              The variety of ways in which securities are designed
                                                 tF


demonstrate less interest in investing in project securities    can attract different classes of investors at the initial stage
due to the lemons problem discussed earlier. Therefore,         of a PS and an IPO, as well as in subsequent secondary
unlike traditional stock and bond offerings, new innova-        markets. Projects having the characteristics of a natural
tions in security design would be utilized to reduce invest-    monopoly may set up a public service commission to
                                           af




ment risk and allow for unanticipated gains. Conceptually,      determine the prices of services that allow a fair return
this is similar to the familiar protection of “lemon laws”      for stockholders. To improve incentives and productivity,
                                     Dr




or the warranty on a pre-owned car.                             construction workers and project operation employees
       The lack of information or the lemons problem            could be granted stock options. Wilkinson [2006, p. 28]
faced by investors can be redressed by using available finan-    finds that inefficiencies in public-sector units in India have
cial innovations. One such innovation involves issuing a        led to massive annual losses—about 1.4% of GDP. Power
                             or




puttable stock, a common stock that can be “put” back           sector losses and subsidies total 1.3% of GDP with unpaid
to the issuer. It is essentially a money-back guarantee that    electricity liabilities a further 1.1% of GDP.
                        th




mitigates downside risk. This would also resolve the                   Financial innovations in an IPO can serve as both
problem of underpricing the IPO and providing incom-            deterrent and incentive. For example, including event-
plete information to investors. Advances in pricing infra-      risk provisions in project bonds can deter politicians’
                Au




structure assets and IPOs are already being made by             attempts to make undesirable policy changes. This can
financial market players experienced in infrastructure funds.   ultimately foster a more investment-friendly environment,
       Conversely, investors can participate in upside poten-   which India greatly needs. Domestic and foreign bond
tial by way of security design innovations. For example,        investors will find the package of bonds and put/call
combining project stock with contingent value rights            options attractive. Managers and stockholders would be
(CVRs) would attract investors seeking to reap rewards          less likely to make decisions that enhance equity value at
on the upside. CVRs permit investors to reap the bene-          the expense of bondholders. Sound decisions and proper
fits of upside appreciation, while maintaining downside          management will bring its own reward through enhanced


SUMMER 2007                                                                             THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE    7
project value, and the value it brings to the community                    India’s capital markets have demonstrated that
and economy at large, which must be communicated to                 strength and resilience—even weathering terrorist inci-
stakeholders. In the end, the explicit costs of debt financing       dents—that other more developed markets have displayed
for infrastructure would be lower. Of great consequence,            during similar upheavals. Recently, large multinationals
the invisible hand may prove more capable in setting infra-         have been staking positions in India’s financial sector; one
structure project agendas that span varied administrations          investment bank intends to invest $1 billion in infra-
and political agendas.                                              structure and real estate in India. The largest Indian IPO




                                                                                          ly
      Newly developed financial instruments can be used              was completed in May 2006 to fund the largest oil refinery
to enable infrastructure financing in a way that reduces             complex in the world; $600 million was raised for the




                                                                                        On
agency costs arising from bureaucratic regulations, infor-          energy conglomerate Reliance in the Special Economic
mation gaps, and improper incentives. Globalizing the               Zone in Jamnagar in the state of Gujarat. In the summer
infrastructure project’s finances can help create an envi-           of 2006, Finance Minister P. Chidambaram announced the
ronment that will enable further private-sector develop-            appointment of a high-powered expert committee to lead




                                                                          ew
ment, and reduce the costs of doing business. Since                 Mumbai, already India’s financial center, into the role of
independence, the evolving political landscape has ham-             a regional (and perhaps international) financial center.
strung India’s economic potential, which can now be                 Developed financial markets are a prerequisite for the
redressed through the financial discipline of more trans-            global capital market approach to function optimally.




                                                                        vi
parent capital markets.                                                    The financial community must further gear itself to
                                                                    handle this type of arrangement by creating the financial
FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND CONCLUSION                                 Re architecture and processes to service projects’ financing
                                                                    needs. This approach can bring new choices in social
       This approach to financing infrastructure is a way            investment to individual and institutional investors. Greater
forward to realize economic and development goals. If               access to the global capital markets can further expand
                                                         or

infrastructure can be financed through global capital mar-           the mix and amount of resources available for develop-
kets, the foundation will be laid for incremental business          ment in India.
activity and greater access to the global economy. The
                                                 tF


                                                                           In addition to the physical infrastructure needed,
appearance of many diverse stakeholders—foreign                     India presents a solid foundation in “soft” infrastructure.
investors, governments, and domestic investors and con-             A reliable banking system, functional capital markets, a
sumers—can further catalyze the reforms needed to infuse            well-developed legal system, and respected higher edu-
                                            af




additional private sector activity. Prior methods of infra-         cational institutions, all underpin India’s political and eco-
structure project finance have worked, but at costs hidden           nomic life. India’s foundation in soft infrastructure assets
                                     Dr




to society.                                                         will create an attractive business environment, once phys-
       Private-sector financial innovation and methods can           ical infrastructure catches up and political and policy obsta-
be utilized to contribute needed financial resources and             cles are reduced. According to Wilkinson [2006], policy
expertise. Infrastructure funds have been developed by a            elites—“bankers and industrialists, academics, senior mem-
                              or




number of international investment banks. One Australian            bers of the Planning Commission, and even leaders of
investment bank’s infrastructure fund owns stakes in a              many of the national parties—believe that the current sys-
                        th




major Chinese port, a Japanese turnpike, a major English            tem’s large budget deficits and inefficiencies are simply
toll road, plus other U.S. and European infrastructure              unsustainable and that fiscal crisis will eventually lead to
assets. Thus, the private sector is developing an enhanced          some change in the present clientelist system.” The Bharat
                Au




capability in managing infrastructure assets and opera-             Nirman program to support rural infrastructure and devel-
tions on behalf of governments that are privatizing or              opment will utilize $3 billion of World Bank loans, hope-
leasing public infrastructure (see Appendix II on the state         fully with efficiencies in mind.
of private market developments). This knowledge is trans-                  New incentives to attract capital and projects may
ferable and complementary to the global capital market              emerge for economic and financial policymakers. Equally
approach for new large-scale infrastructure projects; it can        important in laying the groundwork for politically-
also be applied to groups or consortia of new smaller-              sensitive, important, or large-scale infrastructure pro-
scale projects related by sector or geography.                      jects is thorough communication among community


8    COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS                    SUMMER 2007
stakeholders, project companies, and financial architects.       APPENDIX I
A more positive outcome is possible under this global
                                                                 The following chart illustrates leading or lagging states in India (based
capital market approach in jump-starting projects,
                                                                 on Table 11, The State of India’s States, in Kochhar et al. [2006; p. 39]).
allowing the project’s introduction to stand on a more
solid and transparent foundation from proper due dili-
gence and communication to civil society. Public affairs
efforts must play a role in sufficiently communicating




                                                                                           ly
the benefits of a project to those who might be tempted
to overturn it for political reasons. The benefits of part-




                                                                                         On
nership among all stakeholders of a community’s assets
may help stabilize the polarization of lagging regions.
A lack of proper communication among the most-
affected constituents in new infrastructure projects has




                                                                        ew
led to many cancelled projects, particularly in India.
       Indian government officials and policymakers can
create conditions for projects to “go to market” with
accompanying good information that would attract this




                                                                      vi
type of project investment. The market will impound
information about value and risk and is already doing so
through the development of infrastructure funds. A more
virtuous cycle of growth will be enabled by exposing
                                                                 Re
infrastructure projects in India to a global capital market
approach. However, overly populist government agendas
                                                         or

can undo the great strides forward made by India, with
its growing legion of globally-minded firms. While
                                                 tF


momentum is on the side of entrepreneurialism, India’s
progressive reformers must keep steadfast.
       What would be the result for India regarding
Dabhol, the largest LNG power plant, if the contracts
                                            af




were structured differently, stakeholders brought on board,
and the project financed by global capital markets? The
                                     Dr




balance may tip in favor of India with its strong fabric of
institutions that can support greater private-sector activity,
both in infrastructure development and the incremental           Source: “How are the States Doing? Indicus analytics for the Confederation
economic activity it creates. With India’s human and intel-      of Indian Industry, 2002.
                              or




lectual resources, surely this timely approach to infra-
structure project finance can complement the significant
                                                                 APPENDIX II
                        th




advances already made.
                                                                 Case Study: State of Global Capital Markets and
                                                                 Infrastructure
                Au




                                                                         Note: The following information presents a snapshot of
                                                                 the activity in the capital markets as related to infrastructure.
                                                                         Over the last several years, the infrastructure industry appears
                                                                 to be one of the fastest growing asset classes. Current market value
                                                                 is calculated at over $1,600 billion. The Macquarie Bank Group of
                                                                 Australia is a leader in creating infrastructure funds including an
                                                                 infrastructure index (Macquarie Global Infrastructure Index or
                                                                 MGII), which has seen a 200% increase in market capitalization
                                                                 from July, 2000, to the end of January, 2006. The MGII 100


SUMMER 2007                                                                                   THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE           9
Index comprises the top infrastructure stocks of developed-               11
                                                                            Ema Vasdev. “Sold on BOT: Private Companies Pay
country companies (listed) and captures the growth of the market;   NHAI to Build Roads For It.” The Economic Times Online of India
its total return has been 9.9% per annum since 2000, according      Times, March 15, 2006.
to a Macquarie press release (September 2006). An unlisted ver-           12
                                                                             Pope [2004] cites another example of the $3.6 billion
sion exists as well. The global universe of listed infrastructure   financing of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline project, signed
issuers numbers more than 350. Macquarie is capitalizing on the     in February 2004, that took 10 years to negotiate; it required
worldwide growth in both infrastructure (particularly arising       208 finance documents and 17,000 signatures from 78 parties.




                                                                                          ly
from public private partnerships and privatizations of govern-
ment assets) and utilities—electric, gas, and water.                REFERENCES
        Trends in decreasing public investment in public works




                                                                                        On
projects and the increased role of private investment are com-      Allison, T. “Enron’s Eight-year Power Struggle in India.” Asia
bining to create an asset class that investment managers are keen   Times, January 18, 2001.
to explore. The chief investment officer of the largest U.S.
public pension fund, the California Public Employees’ Retire-       Ahya, C., and Miran Sheth. “Infrastructure Changing Gears.”




                                                                          ew
ment System (Calpers), is considering investing in infrastruc-      Global Economic Forum, Morgan Stanley, November 8, 2005.
ture and emerging markets; it specifically named China as a
country of interest.                                                Akerlof, G. “The Model for ‘Lemons’: Quality Uncertainty
        A new closed-end fund, the Macquarie Global Infra-          and the Market Mechanism.” Quarter Journal of Economics, Vol.




                                                                        vi
structure Total Return (NYSE:MGU), priced an IPO on August          89 (1970), pp. 488–500.
29, 2005. The fund issued 17 million shares at an initial price
                                                                    Barta, P., and M. Kissel. “From Australia, Money Chases Roads,
of $25, for gross proceeds of $425 million. As of December 6,
2006, an annualized distribution rate of 5.85% (market pricing)
has been achieved, alongside a recent quarterly dividend of $0.40
                                                                    Re
                                                                    Airports Around the Globe.” Wall Street Journal (section A1),
                                                                    December 6, 2006
per share. Other investment firms are following suit in the cre-
ation of infrastructure funds, which also includes a managed        Chen, A. “A New Perspective on Infrastructure Financing in
                                                            or

fund geared toward retail investors by Macquarie. In Europe,        Asia.” Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Vol. 10 (2002), pp. 157–165.
listed infrastructure has provided a 14.3% return to investors,
and unlisted infrastructure 12.5% (mature, as opposed to devel-     ——. “It’s Time to Correct the Shortcomings of BOT and
                                                    tF



opment stage infrastructure) (see Kilbinger [2006]).                PPP in Infrastructure Project Finance—and Here is How.”
                                                                    Working Paper, Southern Methodist University, 2006.
ENDNOTES
                                              af




                                                                    Das, G. “The India Model.” Foreign Affairs, September/
       The authors would like to thank Mark Chen and Amar           October, 2006.
Gande for their helpful comments.
                                       Dr




       1                                                            “Enron’s Dahbol Power Project is Now a Rusty Ghost Town.”
         “Democracy’s drawbacks.” The Economist, October 27,
2005.                                                               Alexander’s Oil and Gas Connection, August 8, 2002.
       2
         Foreign Affairs, September/October 2006.
       3                                                            Flyvbjerg, B., N. Bruzelius, and W. Rothengatter. Megaprojects
         “Virtual Champions.” The Economist, June 1, 2006.
                               or




       4                                                            and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition. Port Chester, NY: Cam-
         Flyvbjerg et al. [2003] found that cost overruns of
50–100% and revenue shortfalls of 20–70% were not uncommon.         bridge University Press, 2003.
                         th




       5
         A significant portion of the details related to Dabhol
come from Allison’s special report [2001]. Additional detail        Henisz, W., and B. Zelner. “Managing Policy Risk.” Research
came from a story on Enron in Alexander’s Gas & Oil Connec-         Paper Competition Bronze Award, International Finance Cor-
                 Au




tion [2002] and from www.Bloomberg.com.                             poration, September 2006.
       6
         Comptroller and Auditor General Report on Uttar
Pradesh, 2002.                                                      India Survey, The Economist, June 1, 2006.
       7
         Wall Street Journal, December 10, 1999; The Tribune,
December 17, 1999.                                                  Kilbinger, S. “Investors, Seeking Roads to Riches, Turn to
       8                                                            Infrastructure.” Wall Street Journal (section B6), May 3, 2006.
         BBC News, December 10, 1999.
       9
         The Hindu, June 4, 2006.
       10                                                           Kochhar, K., U. Kumar, R. Rajan, A. Subramanian, and I.
          World Bank’s Private Participation In Infrastructure
Database 1990–2004 and 1990–2005.                                   Tokatlidis. “India’s Pattern of Development: What Happened,


10    COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS                     SUMMER 2007
What Follows?” Working Paper, International Monetary Fund,       Vasdev, E. “Sold on BOT: Private Companies Pay NHAI to
June 22, 2006.                                                   Build Roads For It.” The Economic Times Online of India
                                                                 Times, March 15, 2006.
Kochar, R. and T. Kearney. “India’s Budget; Infrastructure and
Reforms Take a Back Seat to Social Spending.” Global             Wilkinson, S. “The Politics of Infrastructural Spending in India.”
Emerging Markets Watch, Bear Stearns, June 12, 2006.             Working Paper, University of Chicago, July 31, 2006.




                                                                                        ly
“Lack of Regulations in Infrastructure Hinder Investments.”      World Bank. “Infrastructure: Lessons from the Last Two Decades
The Hindu, June 4, 2006.                                         of World Bank Engagement.” Discussion Paper, Infrastructure
                                                                 Network, January 30, 2006.




                                                                                      On
Macquarie International Infrastructure Fund Limited, Annual
General Meeting, December 31, 2005.                              World Bank. “World Bank to Support Rural Infrastructure in
                                                                 India: Wolfowitz.” Press Release, August 20, 2005.
Pope, H. “Caspian Pipeline Financing Solidifies U.S. Policy.”




                                                                        ew
Wall Street Journal (section A13), February 3, 2004.
                                                                 To order reprints of this article, please contact Dewey Palmieri at
Raghavan, G. “Mumbai—A Regional Financial Centre.” Capco         dpalmieri@iijournals.com or 212-224-3675
Institute Bulletin, June 15, 2006.




                                                                      vi
                                                                 Re
                                                         or
                                                 tF
                                            af
                                     Dr
                              or
                        th
                Au




SUMMER 2007                                                                              THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE      11

More Related Content

What's hot

Real estate & Construction Industry Market Research in India
Real estate & Construction Industry Market Research in IndiaReal estate & Construction Industry Market Research in India
Real estate & Construction Industry Market Research in IndiaRumanshu Katiyar
 
Dennis Gada, Infosys, Asia Business Week Dublin 2014
Dennis Gada, Infosys,  Asia Business Week Dublin 2014Dennis Gada, Infosys,  Asia Business Week Dublin 2014
Dennis Gada, Infosys, Asia Business Week Dublin 2014Asia Matters
 
Indian real estate industry analysis
Indian real estate   industry analysisIndian real estate   industry analysis
Indian real estate industry analysisSivaprasad Gumparthi
 
VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World Part-1
VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World  Part-1VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World  Part-1
VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World Part-1VVR IAS Exam Preparation
 
Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship
Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship
Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship Karishma Kakkad
 
Economics xii case studies
Economics xii case studies Economics xii case studies
Economics xii case studies chiraggoswami18
 
POLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWER
POLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWERPOLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWER
POLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWERckajas
 
Brief changing face of india
Brief   changing face of indiaBrief   changing face of india
Brief changing face of indiabrandsynapse
 
Trends Of Real Estates In India
Trends Of Real Estates In IndiaTrends Of Real Estates In India
Trends Of Real Estates In Indiashrutika1991
 
India v china
India v chinaIndia v china
India v chinas0mnath
 

What's hot (20)

India vision 2020 ppt
India vision 2020 pptIndia vision 2020 ppt
India vision 2020 ppt
 
Real estate & Construction Industry Market Research in India
Real estate & Construction Industry Market Research in IndiaReal estate & Construction Industry Market Research in India
Real estate & Construction Industry Market Research in India
 
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011
INVESTMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SUDAN: AN EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION, 1999-2011
 
Dennis Gada, Infosys, Asia Business Week Dublin 2014
Dennis Gada, Infosys,  Asia Business Week Dublin 2014Dennis Gada, Infosys,  Asia Business Week Dublin 2014
Dennis Gada, Infosys, Asia Business Week Dublin 2014
 
Indian real estate industry analysis
Indian real estate   industry analysisIndian real estate   industry analysis
Indian real estate industry analysis
 
VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World Part-1
VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World  Part-1VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World  Part-1
VVR Indias Economic Interaction With The World Part-1
 
Indian Real Estate Sector
Indian Real Estate SectorIndian Real Estate Sector
Indian Real Estate Sector
 
Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship
Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship
Impact of FDI on Indian Entrepreneurship
 
FDI
FDIFDI
FDI
 
India and china ppt
India and china pptIndia and china ppt
India and china ppt
 
Economics xii case studies
Economics xii case studies Economics xii case studies
Economics xii case studies
 
India superpower
India superpowerIndia superpower
India superpower
 
POLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWER
POLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWERPOLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWER
POLITICAL ECONOMY : INDIA EMERGING AS A GLOBAL POWER
 
Brief changing face of india
Brief   changing face of indiaBrief   changing face of india
Brief changing face of india
 
Trends Of Real Estates In India
Trends Of Real Estates In IndiaTrends Of Real Estates In India
Trends Of Real Estates In India
 
Real Estate Sector Report - February 2017
Real Estate Sector Report - February 2017Real Estate Sector Report - February 2017
Real Estate Sector Report - February 2017
 
India1
India1India1
India1
 
Mis
MisMis
Mis
 
India v china
India v chinaIndia v china
India v china
 
Real estate in india past 5 years
Real estate in india past 5 yearsReal estate in india past 5 years
Real estate in india past 5 years
 

Similar to Complementing Economic Advances In India...

India FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy Recommendations
India FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy RecommendationsIndia FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy Recommendations
India FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy RecommendationsAnkur Pandey
 
Global Competitive Insights Infrastructure November 2011
Global Competitive Insights   Infrastructure   November 2011Global Competitive Insights   Infrastructure   November 2011
Global Competitive Insights Infrastructure November 2011Indalytics Advisors
 
Financial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure Development
Financial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure DevelopmentFinancial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure Development
Financial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure DevelopmentGaurav Verma
 
Investment environment in india
Investment environment in indiaInvestment environment in india
Investment environment in indiafirosfebinf
 
3. infrastructure in india
3. infrastructure in india3. infrastructure in india
3. infrastructure in indiaDr Rajeev Kumar
 
National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech building a New Ind...
National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech  building a New Ind...National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech  building a New Ind...
National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech building a New Ind...Manoj Benjamin
 
Infrastructure in india ,Indian Infrastructure
Infrastructure in india ,Indian InfrastructureInfrastructure in india ,Indian Infrastructure
Infrastructure in india ,Indian InfrastructureShubham Jain
 
Strengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-system
Strengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-systemStrengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-system
Strengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-systemsoumitrasharma
 
Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...
Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...
Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...Kyna Tsai
 
Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)
Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)
Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)Pratik Popat
 
Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...
Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...
Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...Saurabh Bhende
 
Evs indian economy_opportunities
Evs indian economy_opportunitiesEvs indian economy_opportunities
Evs indian economy_opportunitiesAjay Sachdev
 
Indias experience with fdi role of a game changer
Indias experience with fdi role of a game changerIndias experience with fdi role of a game changer
Indias experience with fdi role of a game changerDivyanshu Jha
 
Impact of fdi banana republic or miracle growth
Impact of fdi banana republic or miracle growthImpact of fdi banana republic or miracle growth
Impact of fdi banana republic or miracle growthIAEME Publication
 
Evs Indian Economy Opportunities
Evs Indian Economy OpportunitiesEvs Indian Economy Opportunities
Evs Indian Economy Opportunitiesitsrits_21
 
Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...
Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...
Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...Dharish David
 
Public and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in India
Public and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in IndiaPublic and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in India
Public and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in Indiainventionjournals
 
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_FinalChallenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_FinalAmit Kapur
 
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_FinalChallenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_FinalAmit Kapur
 

Similar to Complementing Economic Advances In India... (20)

India FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy Recommendations
India FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy RecommendationsIndia FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy Recommendations
India FDI-Current Status, Issues and Policy Recommendations
 
Global Competitive Insights Infrastructure November 2011
Global Competitive Insights   Infrastructure   November 2011Global Competitive Insights   Infrastructure   November 2011
Global Competitive Insights Infrastructure November 2011
 
Financial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure Development
Financial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure DevelopmentFinancial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure Development
Financial Emergency for India's Rapid Infrastructure Development
 
Investment environment in india
Investment environment in indiaInvestment environment in india
Investment environment in india
 
3. infrastructure in india
3. infrastructure in india3. infrastructure in india
3. infrastructure in india
 
Fdi roles
Fdi rolesFdi roles
Fdi roles
 
National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech building a New Ind...
National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech  building a New Ind...National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech  building a New Ind...
National Real Estate Development Council (NAREDCO) speech building a New Ind...
 
Infrastructure in india ,Indian Infrastructure
Infrastructure in india ,Indian InfrastructureInfrastructure in india ,Indian Infrastructure
Infrastructure in india ,Indian Infrastructure
 
Strengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-system
Strengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-systemStrengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-system
Strengthening Indian Risk Capital Eco-system
 
Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...
Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...
Stalling investments in infrastructure and the expanding infra debt burden in...
 
Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)
Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)
Fdiroles 121001063257-phpapp01 (1)
 
Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...
Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...
Fdiinindiaananalysisontheimpactoffdiinindiasretailsector 111031075256-phpapp0...
 
Evs indian economy_opportunities
Evs indian economy_opportunitiesEvs indian economy_opportunities
Evs indian economy_opportunities
 
Indias experience with fdi role of a game changer
Indias experience with fdi role of a game changerIndias experience with fdi role of a game changer
Indias experience with fdi role of a game changer
 
Impact of fdi banana republic or miracle growth
Impact of fdi banana republic or miracle growthImpact of fdi banana republic or miracle growth
Impact of fdi banana republic or miracle growth
 
Evs Indian Economy Opportunities
Evs Indian Economy OpportunitiesEvs Indian Economy Opportunities
Evs Indian Economy Opportunities
 
Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...
Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...
Stalling Investments in Infrastructure and the Expanding Infra Debt Burden in...
 
Public and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in India
Public and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in IndiaPublic and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in India
Public and Private Partnership in Infrastructure Development in India
 
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_FinalChallenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
 
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_FinalChallenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
Challenges of Infra Finance in India_Final
 

Recently uploaded

Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]
Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]
Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]Commonwealth
 
Stock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdfStock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdfMichael Silva
 
2024.03 Strategic Resources Presentation
2024.03 Strategic Resources Presentation2024.03 Strategic Resources Presentation
2024.03 Strategic Resources PresentationAdnet Communications
 
The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?
The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?
The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?Stephen Perrenod
 
Introduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
Introduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an EntrepreneurIntroduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
Introduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an Entrepreneurabcisahunter
 
LIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptx
LIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptxLIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptx
LIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptxsonamyadav7097
 
India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023
India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023
India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023SkillCircle
 
RWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGecko
RWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGeckoRWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGecko
RWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGeckoCoinGecko
 
20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal. .pptx
20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal.    .pptx20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal.    .pptx
20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal. .pptxFinTech Belgium
 
Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024
Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024
Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024Guillaume Ⓥ Sarlat
 
Hungarys economy made by Robert Miklos
Hungarys economy   made by Robert MiklosHungarys economy   made by Robert Miklos
Hungarys economy made by Robert Miklosbeduinpower135
 
The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...
The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...
The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...Antonis Zairis
 
Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707
Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707
Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707harshan90
 
What Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AI
What Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AIWhat Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AI
What Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AI360factors
 
Stock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdfStock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdfMichael Silva
 
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.KumarJayaraman3
 
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTES
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTESACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTES
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTESKumarJayaraman3
 

Recently uploaded (20)

Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]
Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]
Monthly Market Risk Update: March 2024 [SlideShare]
 
Stock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdfStock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for 3/22/2024.pdf
 
2024.03 Strategic Resources Presentation
2024.03 Strategic Resources Presentation2024.03 Strategic Resources Presentation
2024.03 Strategic Resources Presentation
 
The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?
The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?
The Power Laws of Bitcoin: How can an S-curve be a power law?
 
Introduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
Introduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an EntrepreneurIntroduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
Introduction to Entrepreneurship and Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
 
LIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptx
LIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptxLIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptx
LIC PRIVATISATION its a bane or boon.pptx
 
India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023
India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023
India Economic Survey Complete for the year of 2022 to 2023
 
RWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGecko
RWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGeckoRWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGecko
RWA Report 2024: Rise of Real-World Assets in Crypto | CoinGecko
 
20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal. .pptx
20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal.    .pptx20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal.    .pptx
20240315 _E-Invoicing Digiteal. .pptx
 
Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024
Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024
Sarlat Advisory - Corporate Brochure - 2024
 
Hungarys economy made by Robert Miklos
Hungarys economy   made by Robert MiklosHungarys economy   made by Robert Miklos
Hungarys economy made by Robert Miklos
 
The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...
The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...
The unequal battle of inflation and the appropriate sustainable solution | Eu...
 
Effects & Policies Of Bank Consolidation
Effects & Policies Of Bank ConsolidationEffects & Policies Of Bank Consolidation
Effects & Policies Of Bank Consolidation
 
Commercial Bank Economic Capsule - March 2024
Commercial Bank Economic Capsule - March 2024Commercial Bank Economic Capsule - March 2024
Commercial Bank Economic Capsule - March 2024
 
Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707
Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707
Mphasis - Schwab Newsletter PDF - Sample 8707
 
What Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AI
What Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AIWhat Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AI
What Key Factors Should Risk Officers Consider When Using Generative AI
 
Stock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdfStock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdf
Stock Market Brief Deck for March 26.pdf
 
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II DEPARTMENTAL ACCOUNTS.
 
Monthly Economic Monitoring of Ukraine No.230, March 2024
Monthly Economic Monitoring of Ukraine No.230, March 2024Monthly Economic Monitoring of Ukraine No.230, March 2024
Monthly Economic Monitoring of Ukraine No.230, March 2024
 
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTES
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTESACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTES
ACCOUNTING FOR BUSINESS.II BRANCH ACCOUNTS NOTES
 

Complementing Economic Advances In India...

  • 1. Complementing Economic Advances in India: A New Approach to Financing Infrastructure Projects ly On ANDREW H. CHEN AND JENNIFER W. KUBIK ew ANDREW H. CHEN or India to continue its growth on a F amount (see Exhibit 1). One of the reasons has is distinguished professor of sustainable path, investment in infra- been a government-imposed cap on FDI. Man- vi finance at Cox School of structure is critical. Infrastructure bot- ufacturers have cited power shortages, taxes, and Business, Southern Methodist University in tlenecks are seen as one of the leading the “inspector raj” (bureaucracy), as key obsta- Dallas, TX. achen@mail.cox.smu.edu Re obstacles for India in realizing its economic growth potential. India’s information tech- cles.1 Paradoxically, Stephen Roach of Morgan Stanley has stated, “India’s consumption-led nology (IT) industry, which positioned India approach to growth may be better balanced than JENNIFER W. KUBIK as a global player with competitive advantages, the resource-mobilization model of China.”2 or is a consultant to Southern Methodist University, and grew with access to good telecommunications India needs to attract private capital to principal at Concept infrastructure, sparked by a liberalized telecom- finance a significant program of infrastructure munications market. But inadequate infra- development, required to grow domestically tF Elemental in Dallas, TX. jwarren@conceptelemental.com structure—unreliable power supply, poor roads, and position itself globally. Prime Minister and constrained airports—retards the ability of Manmohan Singh has appealed to foreign companies to scale up and limits foreign invest- investors for $150 billion in infrastructure af ment. According to Ahya and Sheth [2005], a investment over the next 10 years—$75 billion three-fold increase to $100 billion (8% of GDP) for power and electricity over the next five Dr by 2010 is needed for India to grow at a sus- years; $55 billion for airports and railways over tainable 8–9% rate; Prime Minister Manmohan the next decade; and $25 billion for telecom- Singh estimated that $320 billion was needed munications over the next five years. Five by 2012. Compared to China, which spent mega-power projects of 4,000 megawatts were or $150 billion in 2003 (10.6% of GDP), India to be awarded by year-end 2006 as well (see spent $21 billion (3.5% of GDP) in the same Kochar and Kearney [2006]). India, with its th period, one-seventh of China’s expenditure (see infrastructure challenges, could benefit from Ahya and Sheth [2005]). a new approach that attracts needed financial The presence of infrastructure and foreign resources through the invisible hand of the Au direct investment (FDI) are synergistically related. global capital markets. Foreign direct investment and other private cap- The proposed global capital market ital flows are strongly influenced by a country’s approach, coupled with financial innovations, investment climate. In China, manufacturing could help smooth the frictions that lie at the exports have been the foremost contributor to root of India’s infrastructure development prob- China’s economic growth and rapid develop- lems. India holds great interest among capital- ment. In 2005, China attracted $72 billion in rich, developed-country financial markets FDI, but India attracted one-tenth of this seeking investment opportunities. Developing SUMMER 2007 THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE 1
  • 2. EXHIBIT 1 Foreign Direct Investment Inflows, 1995–2005: China and India (in millions of dollars) ly On ew vi Re or tF af Dr or Source: United Nations Centre for Trade and Development, Beyond 20/20 Database; http://stats.unctad.org/FDI/ th countries that are positioning themselves in the global ago. Its first reforms began in the early 1980s, with economy also find India full of opportunities. Infrastruc- pro-business domestic policies. India then reaped the Au ture spending in India is particularly politicized, and could rewards when pro-market liberalizing policies were set in gain efficiencies through the benefits of the global capital motion. India transformed itself from an over-regulated, markets rather than at the hands of domestic politicians. closed economy to a more attractive trading partner, proving savvy in providing talent and innovation in the BACKGROUND global economy. Software exports and call centers were preceded by manufacturing gains from less burdensome India, the largest democracy in the world, unleashed regulation and policies that were in place a full decade its chained economy more than two-and-a-half decades prior to the market liberalizations of 1991. 2 COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS SUMMER 2007
  • 3. The information technology industry contributed unless they are given incentives to reform governance, 5% to GDP in 2005, and is expected to contribute 17% business climate, and infrastructure. Wilkinson [2006] to the growth of GDP between 2004 and 2010.3 While argues that “high levels of electoral volatility (the pro- India has received acclaim in IT and business processing portion of seats that turns over in each state election) exports, its infrastructure troubles are slowing the poten- combine to cause highly inefficient patterns of state tial for economic growth, raising standards of living, and spending on infrastructure.” Politicians in electorally com- attracting private capital. petitive states announce large numbers of infrastructure ly To bring another base of the economy up to speed, projects ahead of elections. Once elected, many projects a cross-section of manufacturing capabilities are needed promised by the newly elected are never completed or On to offer greater employment opportunities for Indians. maintained, or, if constructed, are of very poor quality. Importantly, a revival in manufacturing is occurring. Some states, particularly in lagging regions, have proved India boasts numerous industrial jewels—Tata Group, wasteful and corrupt in infrastructure spending. Reliance Group, Bharat Forge, Infosys Technologies, What are India’s prospects in attracting more direct ew Wipro Technologies, Bharti (a mobile telephony com- investment in infrastructure and economic development? pany), and world-class pharmaceutical companies. Agri- Prime Minister Manmohan Singh has appealed to the culture offers a wide variety of opportunities as well. private sector for a leading role in complementing public India’s developed financial markets offer a natural segue efforts in India’s infrastructure development. The partial vi towards a global capital market approach. While labor is antidote for both fast-growth states and lagging states is abundant, infrastructure constraints limit expansion, private investment in infrastructure. At the same time, the growth, and opportunity. India’s regional disparities in terms of growth and Re nature and characteristics of infrastructure projects are inherently risky. Large-scale projects require massive cap- specialization tell a tale of a two-speed, divergent country, ital investment with long completion times, and many with implications for infrastructure development as a key carry political and regulatory risk. In a study of large trans- or piece of the puzzle. At one extreme, the fast-growth states port projects, numerous projects were poor performers have skipped “directly to skill- and capital-intensive indus- with significant cost overruns and revenue shortfalls.4 While many other projects have been successfully completed, a tF tries (within manufacturing) or to services where they appear to have a comparative advantage,” according to an number of spectacular failures have occurred which, in International Monetary Fund working paper on India’s turn, sours the investment climate. growth by Kochhar et al. [2006]. Under typical patterns The following cases underscore some of the challenges af of economic development, countries or areas tend to go faced in India, and will be addressed later with market-based through labor-intensive manufacturing cycles before they solutions from the global capital market approach. Dr specialize. That is, leading regions like Delhi, Karnataka (Bangalore), and Maharashtra (Mumbai), all of which Case Studies of Infrastructure Projects embraced the IT wave with their first-tier cities, have seen faster growth and rising incomes, alongside better Maharashtra State: Enron Dabhol Power Plant with or infrastructure offerings (see Appendix I). These high- Large-Scale Problems In April 1992, former Houston- growth regions behave like industrial countries in their based company Enron was invited by the Indian govern- th ways of diversification. Kochhar et al. [2006] also suggest ment to bid on the $2.9 billion Dabhol power plant that the economic convergence witnessed in post-war project, 180 kilometers south of Mumbai. A memo- industrial countries, and East Asia, could repeat itself randum of understanding was drawn up swiftly after a Au within Indian regions and states. senior Indian delegation met with Enron officials May Kochhar et al. [2006] have identified Bihar, Madhya and June 1992. In 1993, the World Bank declined to Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh as slow-growth or finance the Enron project, calling it “unviable.” The Maha- lagging regions in India. These areas suffer from growing, rashtra State Electricity Board, the sole customer, was to less-educated, populations, and will likely follow more pay Dabhol Power Co. (DPC) $220 million in usage fees traditional economic growth and development patterns, whether or not it used that amount of power over the life moving toward labor-intensive manufacturing. These areas of the 20-year contract. It fell into arrears due to unusu- will also be a political force for redistributing resources, ally high power tariffs relative to other power projects in SUMMER 2007 THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE 3
  • 4. India. A high rate of return on capital investment was years, MPC spent more than $20 million and fought sev- assured to DPC. eral public interest litigations for two years, eventually Bad contracts, politics, and economic circumstances prevailing in the legal cases. However, there was a pending ultimately doomed the initiative. The project’s costs were two-year-old suit alleging the payment of $13.8 million never fully disclosed as required by Indian law, and there in bribes to Indian officials. After a lower court ordered were no other bidders on the project. The contract was an investigation into the allegations of corruption, MPC to be paid in dollars regardless of exchange rate changes, appealed to the Supreme Court in April 1998, and the ly favorable or unfavorable; the rupee declined significantly Justices reserved the case for judgment in January 1999. over the course of the agreement. Construction halted MPC waited for almost a year without a verdict; as a On on the final phase in 2001 and the plant closed. It had result, Cogentrix quit the project on December 9, 1999, been producing electricity and was to be tied to liquefied citing delays in approvals (red tape) and in public interest natural gas supplies at the end of Phase II, which was litigation.7 On December 13, 1999, four days after Cogen- four-fifths completed. The Dabhol power plant was to trix announced its withdrawal from the power project, ew be the largest independent LNG power plant in the world. the Supreme Court of India gave a judgment in favor of Allegations of corruption abound; contracts are under MPC.8 severe question in spite of cases being closed. The rein- The lessons of Dabhol and other infrastructure pro- carnation of Dabhol, now called the Ratnagiri Power and jects are many, and they need not be repeated. But unless vi Gas, Ltd., has yet to be realized, and the plant has not new approaches are found that will ensure economic effi- been restored to its full potential. ciency, transparency, better governance against corrup- Uttar Pradesh State: Corruption and Inefficiencies in Ambedkar Villages Program In the 1990s, the Ambedkar Re tion and bureaucracy measures, and proper enforceable contracts, many more billions of dollars may be wasted. villages program6 was introduced to supply electrifica- With India ready to embark further in public-private part- tion, roads, irrigation, and other public goods to accel- nerships for infrastructure projects, getting the formula or erate economic development in rural areas. According to right is imperative. This can make the difference between the Indian government’s audit report, only 44% of the further regional divergences and politicization, which electrification targets were met during the time period deters reforms and development, and the opportunity for tF between 1997 and 2001. Massive amounts of money more balanced growth for those who will need it most. simply disappeared; about $50 million or one-third of the total was “excess” expenditure, presumably directed SHORTCOMINGS OF EXISTING FINANCING af toward kickbacks and corruption payoffs. In some cases, APPROACHES electricity was provided where there were no consumers. Dr Many of the beneficiary villages were selected directly by Over the past two decades, the primary approaches the energy minister and the chief minister of the state of of Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) and Private-Public Uttar Pradesh, rather than on the needs-based criteria set Partnerships (PPP) have been widely applied for hun- for the program. dreds of large-scale infrastructure projects worldwide. Of or Karnataka State: Political Risk in Mangalore Power the $786 billion invested globally in PPP infrastructure Project An American firm, Cogentrix Energy Inc., was projects between 1990 and 2003, India attracted only $33 th invited by the Indian government to join with Hong billion—or 4%.9 These two existing approaches reveal Kong’s China Light and Power Ltd. to partner in the detrimental flaws and have led to substantial amounts of much-needed 1,000 megawatt coal-fired project. In 1992, wasted resources. Infrastructure projects with private par- Au the two companies were to invest in, and develop, a $1.3 ticipation that were cancelled or distressed amounted to billion Mangalore power project. The project was desig- $79 billion between 1990 and 2004, with larger projects nated as a “fast-track” project, which entitled it to fed- more prone to distress or cancellation. In India, cancelled eral financial guarantees. Mangalore Power Co. (MPC), or distressed private participation projects comprised 7% the company set up by Cogentrix and China Light to of the $51.4 billion spent on projects in the World Bank’s develop the project, waited for over seven years to get database.10 clearance for executing the project. In 1995, China Light Under the existing approaches of BOT and PPP, pulled out due to a dispute with the state. During those infrastructure project financing is structured in a way that 4 COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS SUMMER 2007
  • 5. creates the problem of “plums”, in contrast to the illus- Enron case set the project on an unstable foundation from trious “lemons” problem by Akerlof [1970]. The plums the onset. problem, coined by Chen [2006], arises when the buyer Inefficiencies in contract finance show up in nego- (bidder or firm providing capital) knows more about the tiations and bidding processes that require vast amounts quality and economic value of the project than the seller of time and effort for completion. The Mangalore Power (government agency); while in the case of the lemons Company set up by Cogentrix and China Light and Power problem, buyers are disadvantaged because they have less was held up seven years before it received clearance for ly information than the sellers about a project’s value, risks, project execution.12 Direct investment by firms is subject and costs. Under the existing approaches of BOT and to the bureaucratic red tape and political risk of host coun- On PPP, a small number of project companies that provide tries’ politicians. India has a reputation for bureaucratic capital often have better knowledge than the various gov- red tape; this is particularly true in more economically- ernment parties about the project’s costs and value. Project lagging regions which tend to have more entrenched local companies have incentives to play political games, which political and business interests. There are better ways to ew gives rise to corruption and waste. Consequently, project conduct large-scale infrastructure projects in the future. sponsors and investors may then be deterred from future Onerous red tape and overly political project approval projects in the host country or even in the region, as hap- processes will create obstructions for India in attracting for- pened in India post-Enron. eign firms and capital for infrastructure projects. vi When initiating an infrastructure project, a project While governments have tried to increase efficiency company is formed under the BOT and PPP approaches. and lower project costs through “limited” public tenders, The project company constructs and operates the project for 25 to 35 years before transferring it back to the Re other problems have surfaced. Specifically, the bidding process suffers the plums problem, wherein a small number government. Under the PPP model, the government buys of sponsoring companies with sufficient equity capital services from the project company. Even the State-Build- and know-how of infrastructure projects can offer and or Own-Operate (SBOO) approach has led many countries receive low bids for projects. The many cases of cost over- down the path of privatization—Mexico, the UK, China, runs observed around the world are likely the result of tF Nigeria, and many more. The private sector’s ability to low bids by sponsors to secure projects. Indonesia and the attain efficiency in operations, management, and prof- Philippines incurred some $10 billion and $6 billion in itability, has been needed for numerous financial and eco- bad debt, respectively, from BOT investments. The World nomic reasons in the privatizing country. Bank pointed to bad negotiations in BOT investment af There are several major shortcomings of the BOT projects as the source of billions of dollars lost during the and PPP approaches, creating severe agency costs and fail- Southeast Asian financial crisis. Dr ures for large-scale projects. A few major ones are dis- The Enron-Dabhol project serves as an example of cussed below. plums problems par excellence—a lack of competitive bid- First, the bidding process is inefficient. The influ- ding, unfair contracts, and limited knowledge by the seller ence of domestic politicians, and possible bribery and (the government) in terms of project scale, technologies, or corruption, may weigh heavily in the bidding process. In and complexity. Unfair competition for contracts will not India, corruption in infrastructure projects often has polit- yield the longer-term goals of sustainable growth and th ical roots (see Wilkinson [2006]). The National Highway development and better governance records. The Indian Authority of India (NHAI) has a history of sabotaging government should re-think the BOT roadways projects the competitive bidding process by politics and special in the light of how infrastructure’s role interacts with other Au interests. To secure projects, major construction compa- areas such as bureaucracy, corruption, and macroeco- nies fund entire projects, instead of letting them be funded nomic stability—all of which impact the decision of pri- partly by the government, and they are also willing to vate firms to invest. These areas beg the question of how partially fund the NHAI through negative grants. For two to reconcile existing infrastructure financing approaches BOT concession agreements for roadways in Gujarat at with a country’s desire for better governance and a more a total cost of Rs. 7,100 crore—the NHAI will receive a attractive business climate for private investment. negative grant of Rs. 450 crore each from the two con- Second, these approaches are subject to unen- cessionaires.11 The lack of competitive bidding in the forceable project contracts that can be nullified, posing SUMMER 2007 THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE 5
  • 6. significant political risks to private firms. Such policy with reform-minded politicians and a growing, educated risk—the risk that a government will discriminatorily middle class desiring that the Indian economy be change the law, regulations, or contracts governing an unshackled from its past. investment—is a problem for investors, consumers, in both developed and developing countries (Henisz [2006]). INNOVATIVE APPROACHES TO FINANCING In India, water and power projects from Orissa to Thiru- INFRASTRUCTURE vananthapuram, Kerala, are meeting with public con- ly tention. Problems range from high tariffs without Infrastructure development is a way forward to attract increased quality, poor service, and a lack of transparent the capital needed for developing economies to grow. It On public information about processes and goals. These is too vital to be left in the hands of politicians and to the reversals are not unique to India, however. In 2000, devices of current “contract finance” approaches. The expe- Turkey adopted the BOT approach in its electricity sector riences with privatizations and securitizations suggest that and, three years later, a new Turkish government moved the “market finance” approach, which creates immediate ew to cancel 30 BOT projects. The Enron project suffered private ownership of public investment projects among from contractual reversals when a more left-leaning gov- diverse groups of investors, may lead to more efficient ernment came into power. and successful infrastructure development. Post-contract opportunism can cut both ways, how- The financing of projects should be guided by the vi ever. Project companies can engage in managerial misdeeds invisible hand of the global capital markets to determine and self-serving behaviors (agency costs) before they turn the economic value of an infrastructure project and pro- the project back to a government. Over the life of a con- tract, managers may have an incentive to transfer resources Re vide the necessary resources for construction, operations, and maintenance. Project securitizations (PS) or initial to themselves before the handover occurs. With many public offerings (IPOs) of project securities can be existing large-scale BOT and PPP infrastructure projects designed with financial innovations for any new large- or launched less than two decades ago, it is too early to assess scale infrastructure project. This would create diversifi- any managerial incentive problems. While the Dabhol cation and liquidity, and eliminate the plums problems that accompany the existing BOT and PPP approaches in tF power plant was left unfinished, the ingredients of self- serving behaviors played a significant role in placing the financing infrastructure projects. It would also begin to affected population literally and figuratively “in the dark.” unravel the perverse incentives pervading infrastructure Third, the two approaches suffer from a lack of diver- spending in India. This approach can also be applied to af sification and liquidity in the project’s finances. Project privatizations and securitizations for existing infrastruc- sponsors with concentrated equity bear almost all the ture assets undergoing modifications. Dr risks—both financial and political—and also lack diver- The tools available in today’s global economy allow sification in these risks. The number of participants in developing countries to benefit, as have the advanced project finance is usually small, giving rise to illiquidity economies, from raising capital and promoting projects. and concentration risk. The number of leading banks in This approach would bring true private-sector participa- or a syndicated project-lending consortium is also usually tion for economic development and legitimize further quite small. Thus, sharing in project risk for equity holders business activity. It would ensure ample funding, strong th and creditors is limited. interest, and awareness of projects on a global scale. India’s Given the severe shortcomings of the infrastructure domestic capital markets could participate as well, thus project finance approaches of BOT and PPP, the time ensuring greater community interest and avoiding the Au has come for a new approach that utilizes the best of the “mood swings” of local public opinion. The market’s private sector alongside its financial innovation. Given oversight would foster efficiency and liquidity for future the vast infrastructure needs in India, a progressive claims on the project’s cash flow. Managerial incentives approach is needed that levels the playing field, deters would be more aligned with productivity, thus reducing political and policy risk, and develops more efficient, the widespread problems of cost overruns and inefficiency. transparent market mechanisms. If there is to be real Governments—central, state, and local—could be allo- progress toward development goals and reduced poverty, cated project securities to achieve true public-private this evolution is vital. The forces are converging in India ownership. 6 COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS SUMMER 2007
  • 7. The process of infrastructure project globalization protection. Risk-averse foreign investors in an environ- begins with a sufficient number of project securities, such ment of information asymmetries might find this more as project stocks and bonds, being issued to establish rea- attractive than simply puttable stocks. Additionally, offering sonable unit prices, and encourage broad foreign and redeemable and convertible project preferred stocks would domestic participation. Making large PS or IPO issues in attract certain types of preferred stock investors in domestic different equity and bond markets around the world would and global capital markets. increase liquidity for project securities. Transparent eco- In addition to project stocks, a large number of ly nomic information on an infrastructure project, and due project bonds and preferred stocks should be issued diligence analysis of the project’s future cash flows, would through IPOs. Project bonds should include tax-free status On establish the market values of project securities with to attract private domestic and foreign bond investors. varying claims on future cash flows. Like corporate bonds, project bonds should contain event- Well-capitalized project companies would show great risk provisions or covenants for unforeseen adversities interest in investment opportunities brought by new such as tsunamis, earthquakes, terrorist attacks, exchange ew project securities. There has been mounting evidence in rate volatility, oil price shocks, or other risks specific to the news media, over the past year, that infrastructure a particular country environment. Project bonds with investing is generating greater interest and attracting large bearish event-risk provisions can be viewed as puttable sums of capital. This applies to both new infrastructure bonds that protect bondholders from losses if certain des- vi projects and existing infrastructure assets requiring ignated events occur; some of the fallout from a decline upgrades, new management, or aid to cash-strapped gov- in the project’s value or a steep downgrade in the rating ernments at local, state and national levels. Greater par- ticipation in PS or IPOs would result in fair market values Re of project bonds can be attenuated in this manner. Alter- natively, bonds may be issued with bullish event-risk pro- of project securities. Other investors worldwide might visions. A bullish event that increases the economic value naturally be concerned about having inadequate knowl- of an infrastructure project could trigger conversion of or edge or information associated with investing in project bonds into project stock shares. securities of specific infrastructure projects. They might The variety of ways in which securities are designed tF demonstrate less interest in investing in project securities can attract different classes of investors at the initial stage due to the lemons problem discussed earlier. Therefore, of a PS and an IPO, as well as in subsequent secondary unlike traditional stock and bond offerings, new innova- markets. Projects having the characteristics of a natural tions in security design would be utilized to reduce invest- monopoly may set up a public service commission to af ment risk and allow for unanticipated gains. Conceptually, determine the prices of services that allow a fair return this is similar to the familiar protection of “lemon laws” for stockholders. To improve incentives and productivity, Dr or the warranty on a pre-owned car. construction workers and project operation employees The lack of information or the lemons problem could be granted stock options. Wilkinson [2006, p. 28] faced by investors can be redressed by using available finan- finds that inefficiencies in public-sector units in India have cial innovations. One such innovation involves issuing a led to massive annual losses—about 1.4% of GDP. Power or puttable stock, a common stock that can be “put” back sector losses and subsidies total 1.3% of GDP with unpaid to the issuer. It is essentially a money-back guarantee that electricity liabilities a further 1.1% of GDP. th mitigates downside risk. This would also resolve the Financial innovations in an IPO can serve as both problem of underpricing the IPO and providing incom- deterrent and incentive. For example, including event- plete information to investors. Advances in pricing infra- risk provisions in project bonds can deter politicians’ Au structure assets and IPOs are already being made by attempts to make undesirable policy changes. This can financial market players experienced in infrastructure funds. ultimately foster a more investment-friendly environment, Conversely, investors can participate in upside poten- which India greatly needs. Domestic and foreign bond tial by way of security design innovations. For example, investors will find the package of bonds and put/call combining project stock with contingent value rights options attractive. Managers and stockholders would be (CVRs) would attract investors seeking to reap rewards less likely to make decisions that enhance equity value at on the upside. CVRs permit investors to reap the bene- the expense of bondholders. Sound decisions and proper fits of upside appreciation, while maintaining downside management will bring its own reward through enhanced SUMMER 2007 THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE 7
  • 8. project value, and the value it brings to the community India’s capital markets have demonstrated that and economy at large, which must be communicated to strength and resilience—even weathering terrorist inci- stakeholders. In the end, the explicit costs of debt financing dents—that other more developed markets have displayed for infrastructure would be lower. Of great consequence, during similar upheavals. Recently, large multinationals the invisible hand may prove more capable in setting infra- have been staking positions in India’s financial sector; one structure project agendas that span varied administrations investment bank intends to invest $1 billion in infra- and political agendas. structure and real estate in India. The largest Indian IPO ly Newly developed financial instruments can be used was completed in May 2006 to fund the largest oil refinery to enable infrastructure financing in a way that reduces complex in the world; $600 million was raised for the On agency costs arising from bureaucratic regulations, infor- energy conglomerate Reliance in the Special Economic mation gaps, and improper incentives. Globalizing the Zone in Jamnagar in the state of Gujarat. In the summer infrastructure project’s finances can help create an envi- of 2006, Finance Minister P. Chidambaram announced the ronment that will enable further private-sector develop- appointment of a high-powered expert committee to lead ew ment, and reduce the costs of doing business. Since Mumbai, already India’s financial center, into the role of independence, the evolving political landscape has ham- a regional (and perhaps international) financial center. strung India’s economic potential, which can now be Developed financial markets are a prerequisite for the redressed through the financial discipline of more trans- global capital market approach to function optimally. vi parent capital markets. The financial community must further gear itself to handle this type of arrangement by creating the financial FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND CONCLUSION Re architecture and processes to service projects’ financing needs. This approach can bring new choices in social This approach to financing infrastructure is a way investment to individual and institutional investors. Greater forward to realize economic and development goals. If access to the global capital markets can further expand or infrastructure can be financed through global capital mar- the mix and amount of resources available for develop- kets, the foundation will be laid for incremental business ment in India. activity and greater access to the global economy. The tF In addition to the physical infrastructure needed, appearance of many diverse stakeholders—foreign India presents a solid foundation in “soft” infrastructure. investors, governments, and domestic investors and con- A reliable banking system, functional capital markets, a sumers—can further catalyze the reforms needed to infuse well-developed legal system, and respected higher edu- af additional private sector activity. Prior methods of infra- cational institutions, all underpin India’s political and eco- structure project finance have worked, but at costs hidden nomic life. India’s foundation in soft infrastructure assets Dr to society. will create an attractive business environment, once phys- Private-sector financial innovation and methods can ical infrastructure catches up and political and policy obsta- be utilized to contribute needed financial resources and cles are reduced. According to Wilkinson [2006], policy expertise. Infrastructure funds have been developed by a elites—“bankers and industrialists, academics, senior mem- or number of international investment banks. One Australian bers of the Planning Commission, and even leaders of investment bank’s infrastructure fund owns stakes in a many of the national parties—believe that the current sys- th major Chinese port, a Japanese turnpike, a major English tem’s large budget deficits and inefficiencies are simply toll road, plus other U.S. and European infrastructure unsustainable and that fiscal crisis will eventually lead to assets. Thus, the private sector is developing an enhanced some change in the present clientelist system.” The Bharat Au capability in managing infrastructure assets and opera- Nirman program to support rural infrastructure and devel- tions on behalf of governments that are privatizing or opment will utilize $3 billion of World Bank loans, hope- leasing public infrastructure (see Appendix II on the state fully with efficiencies in mind. of private market developments). This knowledge is trans- New incentives to attract capital and projects may ferable and complementary to the global capital market emerge for economic and financial policymakers. Equally approach for new large-scale infrastructure projects; it can important in laying the groundwork for politically- also be applied to groups or consortia of new smaller- sensitive, important, or large-scale infrastructure pro- scale projects related by sector or geography. jects is thorough communication among community 8 COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS SUMMER 2007
  • 9. stakeholders, project companies, and financial architects. APPENDIX I A more positive outcome is possible under this global The following chart illustrates leading or lagging states in India (based capital market approach in jump-starting projects, on Table 11, The State of India’s States, in Kochhar et al. [2006; p. 39]). allowing the project’s introduction to stand on a more solid and transparent foundation from proper due dili- gence and communication to civil society. Public affairs efforts must play a role in sufficiently communicating ly the benefits of a project to those who might be tempted to overturn it for political reasons. The benefits of part- On nership among all stakeholders of a community’s assets may help stabilize the polarization of lagging regions. A lack of proper communication among the most- affected constituents in new infrastructure projects has ew led to many cancelled projects, particularly in India. Indian government officials and policymakers can create conditions for projects to “go to market” with accompanying good information that would attract this vi type of project investment. The market will impound information about value and risk and is already doing so through the development of infrastructure funds. A more virtuous cycle of growth will be enabled by exposing Re infrastructure projects in India to a global capital market approach. However, overly populist government agendas or can undo the great strides forward made by India, with its growing legion of globally-minded firms. While tF momentum is on the side of entrepreneurialism, India’s progressive reformers must keep steadfast. What would be the result for India regarding Dabhol, the largest LNG power plant, if the contracts af were structured differently, stakeholders brought on board, and the project financed by global capital markets? The Dr balance may tip in favor of India with its strong fabric of institutions that can support greater private-sector activity, both in infrastructure development and the incremental Source: “How are the States Doing? Indicus analytics for the Confederation economic activity it creates. With India’s human and intel- of Indian Industry, 2002. or lectual resources, surely this timely approach to infra- structure project finance can complement the significant APPENDIX II th advances already made. Case Study: State of Global Capital Markets and Infrastructure Au Note: The following information presents a snapshot of the activity in the capital markets as related to infrastructure. Over the last several years, the infrastructure industry appears to be one of the fastest growing asset classes. Current market value is calculated at over $1,600 billion. The Macquarie Bank Group of Australia is a leader in creating infrastructure funds including an infrastructure index (Macquarie Global Infrastructure Index or MGII), which has seen a 200% increase in market capitalization from July, 2000, to the end of January, 2006. The MGII 100 SUMMER 2007 THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE 9
  • 10. Index comprises the top infrastructure stocks of developed- 11 Ema Vasdev. “Sold on BOT: Private Companies Pay country companies (listed) and captures the growth of the market; NHAI to Build Roads For It.” The Economic Times Online of India its total return has been 9.9% per annum since 2000, according Times, March 15, 2006. to a Macquarie press release (September 2006). An unlisted ver- 12 Pope [2004] cites another example of the $3.6 billion sion exists as well. The global universe of listed infrastructure financing of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline project, signed issuers numbers more than 350. Macquarie is capitalizing on the in February 2004, that took 10 years to negotiate; it required worldwide growth in both infrastructure (particularly arising 208 finance documents and 17,000 signatures from 78 parties. ly from public private partnerships and privatizations of govern- ment assets) and utilities—electric, gas, and water. REFERENCES Trends in decreasing public investment in public works On projects and the increased role of private investment are com- Allison, T. “Enron’s Eight-year Power Struggle in India.” Asia bining to create an asset class that investment managers are keen Times, January 18, 2001. to explore. The chief investment officer of the largest U.S. public pension fund, the California Public Employees’ Retire- Ahya, C., and Miran Sheth. “Infrastructure Changing Gears.” ew ment System (Calpers), is considering investing in infrastruc- Global Economic Forum, Morgan Stanley, November 8, 2005. ture and emerging markets; it specifically named China as a country of interest. Akerlof, G. “The Model for ‘Lemons’: Quality Uncertainty A new closed-end fund, the Macquarie Global Infra- and the Market Mechanism.” Quarter Journal of Economics, Vol. vi structure Total Return (NYSE:MGU), priced an IPO on August 89 (1970), pp. 488–500. 29, 2005. The fund issued 17 million shares at an initial price Barta, P., and M. Kissel. “From Australia, Money Chases Roads, of $25, for gross proceeds of $425 million. As of December 6, 2006, an annualized distribution rate of 5.85% (market pricing) has been achieved, alongside a recent quarterly dividend of $0.40 Re Airports Around the Globe.” Wall Street Journal (section A1), December 6, 2006 per share. Other investment firms are following suit in the cre- ation of infrastructure funds, which also includes a managed Chen, A. “A New Perspective on Infrastructure Financing in or fund geared toward retail investors by Macquarie. In Europe, Asia.” Pacific-Basin Finance Journal, Vol. 10 (2002), pp. 157–165. listed infrastructure has provided a 14.3% return to investors, and unlisted infrastructure 12.5% (mature, as opposed to devel- ——. “It’s Time to Correct the Shortcomings of BOT and tF opment stage infrastructure) (see Kilbinger [2006]). PPP in Infrastructure Project Finance—and Here is How.” Working Paper, Southern Methodist University, 2006. ENDNOTES af Das, G. “The India Model.” Foreign Affairs, September/ The authors would like to thank Mark Chen and Amar October, 2006. Gande for their helpful comments. Dr 1 “Enron’s Dahbol Power Project is Now a Rusty Ghost Town.” “Democracy’s drawbacks.” The Economist, October 27, 2005. Alexander’s Oil and Gas Connection, August 8, 2002. 2 Foreign Affairs, September/October 2006. 3 Flyvbjerg, B., N. Bruzelius, and W. Rothengatter. Megaprojects “Virtual Champions.” The Economist, June 1, 2006. or 4 and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition. Port Chester, NY: Cam- Flyvbjerg et al. [2003] found that cost overruns of 50–100% and revenue shortfalls of 20–70% were not uncommon. bridge University Press, 2003. th 5 A significant portion of the details related to Dabhol come from Allison’s special report [2001]. Additional detail Henisz, W., and B. Zelner. “Managing Policy Risk.” Research came from a story on Enron in Alexander’s Gas & Oil Connec- Paper Competition Bronze Award, International Finance Cor- Au tion [2002] and from www.Bloomberg.com. poration, September 2006. 6 Comptroller and Auditor General Report on Uttar Pradesh, 2002. India Survey, The Economist, June 1, 2006. 7 Wall Street Journal, December 10, 1999; The Tribune, December 17, 1999. Kilbinger, S. “Investors, Seeking Roads to Riches, Turn to 8 Infrastructure.” Wall Street Journal (section B6), May 3, 2006. BBC News, December 10, 1999. 9 The Hindu, June 4, 2006. 10 Kochhar, K., U. Kumar, R. Rajan, A. Subramanian, and I. World Bank’s Private Participation In Infrastructure Database 1990–2004 and 1990–2005. Tokatlidis. “India’s Pattern of Development: What Happened, 10 COMPLEMENTING ECONOMIC ADVANCES IN INDIA: A NEW APPROACH TO FINANCING INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS SUMMER 2007
  • 11. What Follows?” Working Paper, International Monetary Fund, Vasdev, E. “Sold on BOT: Private Companies Pay NHAI to June 22, 2006. Build Roads For It.” The Economic Times Online of India Times, March 15, 2006. Kochar, R. and T. Kearney. “India’s Budget; Infrastructure and Reforms Take a Back Seat to Social Spending.” Global Wilkinson, S. “The Politics of Infrastructural Spending in India.” Emerging Markets Watch, Bear Stearns, June 12, 2006. Working Paper, University of Chicago, July 31, 2006. ly “Lack of Regulations in Infrastructure Hinder Investments.” World Bank. “Infrastructure: Lessons from the Last Two Decades The Hindu, June 4, 2006. of World Bank Engagement.” Discussion Paper, Infrastructure Network, January 30, 2006. On Macquarie International Infrastructure Fund Limited, Annual General Meeting, December 31, 2005. World Bank. “World Bank to Support Rural Infrastructure in India: Wolfowitz.” Press Release, August 20, 2005. Pope, H. “Caspian Pipeline Financing Solidifies U.S. Policy.” ew Wall Street Journal (section A13), February 3, 2004. To order reprints of this article, please contact Dewey Palmieri at Raghavan, G. “Mumbai—A Regional Financial Centre.” Capco dpalmieri@iijournals.com or 212-224-3675 Institute Bulletin, June 15, 2006. vi Re or tF af Dr or th Au SUMMER 2007 THE JOURNAL OF STRUCTURED FINANCE 11