The Peripheral Nervous System

The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system made up of sensory and motor neurons that transmit messages to and
from the central nervous system. The main functions connect to the CNS as well. The PNS is not
protected by the bone of the spine and the skull. Which leaves it's open to the exposed of toxins and
mechanical injuries. The PNS is divided into two man parts, which are the somatic and autonomic
nervous system. The somatic nervous system is there to transmit messages through the body. It
transmits messages to the CNS like sight, sound, smell, temperature and body positions. When the
message is transmitted to the CNS, that's how a human is able to raise a hand, walk, wink or even
run. The somatic system is even able to make a human keep its
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Nervous System
The Nervous System
The nervous system is the most complex part of the body, as they govern our thoughts, feelings, and
bodily functions. It is an important factor in science because it can lead to new discoveries for cures
or diseases. The studies of the nervous system helped lower death rates from heart disease, stroke,
accidents, etc. The nervous system is a network of neurons (nerve cells) that that sends information
to the brain to be analyzed. Neurons live both in and outside the central nervous system.
Understanding how the neurons work is vital to understanding the nervous system. Neurons The
neuron has two important structures called the dendrite and axon, also called nerve fibers. The
dendrites are like tentacles that sprout from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Central Nervous System The brain and spinal cord forms the Central Nervous System. The spinal
cord gathers information from the neurons and sends it to the brain, but not all nerve impulses get
sent to the brain. Only a few impulses reach the brain, and an even smaller number reaches the part
of the brain where they cause awareness. The brain and spinal cord is made up of gray and white
matter, as well as the various nerve cells. The brain is divided into three parts: the forebrain,
midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain is called the cerebrum, the largest and most developed part
of the human brain. It is divided by the longitudinal sulcus, a deep crevice that separates the
forebrain into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Each hemispheres control the motor
(movement) and sensory (sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch) functions of the other side of the
body. The two hemispheres are divided into four lobes: the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
lobe. The frontal lobe is involved with muscle control from head to toe. The parietal lobe obtains
sensory information from the skin and muscles. The occipital lobe receives information from vision,
and the temporal lobe controls speech. Although the four lobes do different jobs, they communicate
with each other to allow the brain to coordinate a response. The cerebrum combines the mixtures of
sight, sound, smell, and

Nervous Systems And The Nervous System
Nervous System The human body is one of the most complex structures known to mankind. To this
day, we still do not have all the answers to how our body functions. One of the most complex
structures in the human body is the nervous system, which controls the voluntary and involuntary
actions, as well as send signals throughout the body. The nervous system is split up into two parts;
the peripheral (PNS) and central (CNS) nervous systems. The central nervous system consists of
two main parts; the brain and spinal cord. The brain receives and processes information as well as
deal with memories, thoughts, emotion, and much more. The spinal cord mainly deals with sending
out signals from the brain to the rest of the body, as well as control ... Show more content on
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During this time our muscles change and blood vessels dilate or constrict without us consciously
telling them to do so. This is an involuntary function from autonomic system. On the other hand,
while we rest, we have this system controlling our resting and digestion state. Again, these are
involuntary actions that go on all the time without us knowing or giving any thought to. Some of the
important muscles the autonomic system deals with are muscles in the stomach and intestine,
muscles in the eye, cardiac muscles, smooth muscle around the blood vessels, and more. Not only
does the ANS deal with muscles, but it also plays a key role in regulation of the glands. The ANS is
divided into three different parts; the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous
system, and the enteric nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is the part that is related to
the "fight or flight" as discussed earlier. The sympathetic nervous system operates through neurons
that originate in the spinal cord. Some of the main functions the sympathetic system deals with are;
increasing heart rate, pupil dilation, secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine, mucus and saliva
production, bronchial dilation, and much more. The parasympathetic system is the part that is related
to the "rest and digest" situations. This system deals with conserving energy as well as dealing with
digestion. In this system, there

Nervous System Analysis
As we do simple actions in our life we start to do them so often that we don't even realize how and
when we are doing them. For example when we get ready to ride a bike we just get on the bike and
go, because we have done it so many times that it just comes naturally to us. Another example is
watching a scary movie and putting popcorn in our mouth at the same time. Well it is our nervous
system that helps us to do these simple actions because it handles information. When our phone
rings there are a number of functions that go on in our brain. The first thing would be our neurons in
the auditory cortex which picks up the sound of the ringing phone, neuron functions are then going
to relay the information to higher areas to process what's going ... Show more content on
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They supply nourishment to neurons, help remove neurons' waste products, and provide insulation
around many axons. The primary role is to shield synapses from the chatter of surrounding neuronal
activity, enhancing the signal to noise ratio in the nervous system. The Neural Impulse uses energy
to send information. The resting potential of a neuron is its stable, negative charge when the cell is
inactive An action potential is a very brief shift in a neurons electrical charge that travels along the
axon. After firing the action potential the channels in the cell membrane that opened now close up.
Some time is needed before they are ready to open and fire again. The absolute refractory period is
the minimum length of time after an action potential, during which another action potential cannot
begin. Special junctions called synapses which depend on chemical messengers. A synaptic cleft is a
microscopic gap between the terminal button of 1 neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron.
The neuron that sends a signal across the gap is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron that
receives the signal is called the postsynaptic neuron. The arrival of an action potential at an axon's
terminal buttons triggers the release of neurotransmitters chemicals that transmit information from 1
neuron to another. Most of these chemicals are stored in small sacs called synaptic vesicles.
Receptor sites are tuned to recognize and respond to some neurotransmitters but not to others. When
a neurotransmitter and a receptor molecule combine, reactions in the cell membrane cause a
postsynaptic potential, a voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane. They are
graded which means that they vary in size and that they increase or decrease the probability of a
neural impulse in the receiving cell in proportion to the amount of voltage change. An excitatory
PSP is a

The Nervous System And Peripheral Nervous Systems
The nervous system has three general functions: a sensory function, an interpretative function and a
motor function. Sensory nerves gather information from inside the body and the outside
environment. The nerves then carry the information to central nervous system (CNS). Nervous
tissue consists of two main types of cells: neurons and neuroglia. Neurons also so known as nerve
cells ") transmit nerve impulses that move information around the body. Central Nervous System
and Peripheral Nervous System are Identified as the two major groups of nervous system organs
while CNS = brain & spinal cord and PNS nerves that extend from the brain (cranial nerves) and
spinal cord (spinal nerves). Sensory receptors respond to stimuli and transmit data about them to the
brain. In the skin, receptors detect touch, pressure, vibration, temperature, and pain. Elsewhere in
the body, more specialized receptors detect light (see How the eye works), sound (see The
mechanism of hearing), smell, and taste. The body nervous system detects the changes affecting the
body, make decisions, and stimulate muscles or glands to respond. The responses counteract the
effects of the changes, where the nervous system helps maintain homeostasis. Neurons vary in size
and shape and also differ in the lengths and sizes because of their axons and dendrites. A neuron has
4 basic parts: the dendrites, the cell body which is also called the soma, the axon and the axon
terminal. Dendrites – Extensions from the neuron

Central Nervous System
Our nervous system and brain interact as we cope with our immediate environment. Thus, it
transmits and receives our sensory inputs such as sounds, sight, smells and feelings. One end of each
neuron on the nerve endings are enclosed in a structure created to sense a specific stimulus. Sending
sensory information to the brain or spinal cord is performed by the nervous system. Nervous system
is divided into two main systems: Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system (Saladin,
2014). The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord and brain, the brain which is divided
into four lobes (parietal, frontal, temporal and occipital). Spinal cord and brain work together even
though there are some occasions when the spinal cord acts earlier before the brain gets the
information.
THE 3 BASIC FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sensory neurons or afferent: carry signals to the central nervous system from the outer parts of the
body. Receptors within and near body surface, Respond to stimuli .Send nerve impulses to CNS
neurons are nerve cells that transmit sensory ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is associated with our perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory skills, and speech.
The right side lesions result in recall of non verbal material such as music and drawing, while the
left side temporal lesion result in impaired memory for verbal material (Blumer and Benson, 1975)
The Temporal Lobe is basically all about our hearing and selective listening. It receives sensory
information from our ears such as sounds and speech, it is very important in comprehending any
meaningful sound or speech. Temporal lobe made it possible for us to understand when we are been
talked to, it basically transmit different sound and even pitches into our ears from the sensory
receptors. Any damage to the temporal lobe will cause language comprehension disturbance,
memory to be impaired and altered

The Positive Nervous System
Given
In his book, The Sensitive Nervous System, Butler1 describes the complexity and connectedness of
the nervous system. He describes how unique the nervous system is, in that a change in one part will
have effects on other parts, whether those changes be electrical, chemical, or mechanical.1 This
means, theoretically, producing an effect in the nervous system of the lower quadrant should
produce an effect in an upper quadrant nervous system.
In a study performed on 60 healthy university students with no musculoskeletal conditions, Hyong
and Kang2 found that passive hamstring stretching had a statistically significant increase in the
participant cervical flexion and extension range of motion (ROM). The participants had
measurements taken ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Butler, D. S. (2000). The sensitive nervous system. Noigroup publications.
2. Hyong, I. H., & Kang, J. H. (2013). The immediate effects of passive hamstring stretching
exercises on the cervical spine range of motion and balance. Journal of Physical Therapy Science,
25(1), 113–116.Lohkamp M, Small K. Normal response to upper limb neurodynamic test 1 and 2a.
Manual Therapy [serial online]. April 2011; 16(2): 125–130. Available from: CINAHL Complete,
Ipswich, MA. Accessed July 12, 2015.
3. Shacklock, M. O. (1996). Positive upper limb tension test in a case of surgically proven
neuropathy: analysis and validity. Manual Therapy, 1(3), 154–161.
4. Oliver, G. S., & Rushton, A. (2011). A study to explore the reliability and precision of intra and
inter–rater measures of ULNT1 on an asymptomatic population. Manual therapy, 16(2), 203–206.
5. Lai, W. H., Shih, Y. F., Lin, P. L., Chen, W. Y., & Ma, H. L. (2012). Normal neurodynamic
responses of the femoral slump test. Manual therapy, 17(2), 126–132.
6. Coppieters, M. W., & Butler, D. S. (2008). Do 'sliders' slide and 'tensioners' tension? An analysis
of neurodynamic techniques and considerations regarding their application. Manual therapy, 13(3),

Central Nervous And Peripheral Nervous System
My most interested system is the nervous system. The nervous system is made up of the brain, the
spinal cord, and nerves. One of the most important systems in your body, the nervous system is your
body's control system. It sends, receives, and processes nerve impulses throughout the body.
Together, these organs are responsible for the control of the body and communication among its
parts. The nervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
The central nervous system is the primary center of the body. It is composed of the brain, nerves,
and spinal cord. It processes, guide movement and send out sensations throughout the body. The
brain sits right in the skull and have four parts to it, the brain stem, cerebrum, cerebellum, and the
diencephalon. The spinal cord is a long tube that connects to the brain and down the back of the
body. It has 31 segments and there are pair of spinal nerves in each segment. Both motor and
sensory nerves are in the spinal cord. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Such as eyes, ears, skin, and other "sensory receptors". The peripheral nervous system is made up of
two parts, somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The somatic system picks up
sensory information and its carried to the central nervous system. They also consist of the motor
nerve fibers. It sends messages for movement and acts to the skeletal muscle. It sends messages to
the brain to give the muscle to give action. The autonomic nervous system is made up of three parts;
sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and enteric nervous system. System
controls organs in the body where humans cannot. Like, heartbeat, digestion, and

The central nervous system can be compared to the air traffic control tower of a large international
airport. Just as this main tower directs and controls all incoming and outgoing flights. The central
nervous system is the control center of our body, it sends information out and interprets things our
body senses. Regulating, controlling and coordinating incoming and outgoing impulses, thoughts,
and feelings via nerves. Functionally, the nervous system can be divided into the central nervous
system (controls in–bound and out–bound neural impulses), and peripheral nervous system
(connects the CNS with the peripheral parts of the body). The PNS can be divided into subdivisions
of the somatic nervous system (deals with the parts of the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The structure of the brain can be divided into three parts; cerebrum (the brain divided into two parts
called the "cerebral hemispheres", cerebellum (occupies the posterior fossa and separated by
fissures), and the brainstem (a vertical stalk that ends at the opening of the foramen magnum and
continues as the spinal cord). Brain functions or activity is how a doctor can determine clinically
one's death or ability to perform daily tasks based on sensory and reflex testing. (Saladin, K. p. 512–
514). Some diseases or disorders associated with the brain can range from infections, trauma, or
degenerative occurrences'. One of the most serious disease of infancy and childhood is Meningitis
that is caused by infection. Meningitis invades the CNS via the eyes, ears, nose, or throat causing
swelling of the brain, hemorrhage, and sometimes death. Symptoms include high fevers, stiff neck,
intense headaches, drowsiness, and vomiting. Depending on the severity of diagnosis of meningitis
by evaluation of CSF fluid is how treatment is determined. Mild viral meningitis can be resolved
with hydration, rest, and pain medications. More severe cases of viral or bacterial meningitis may
require hospitalization with antibiotics and oxygen treatments with close supervision of medical
staff. Traumatic injuries of the brain include vascular disorders. A stroke (CVA), transient ischemic
attack (TIA),

The Nervous And Endocrine Systems
Introduction The nervous and endocrine systems both function to maintain the stability of the
internal environment. While both systems may work together as a single Neuroendocrine system,
the systems may also work alone performing communications, integration and control within the
body. (Patton and Thibodeau, 2010) The endocrine system consists of eight major glands; the
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pineal body, reproductive organs and the pancreas. These
glands are widely separated from each other with no physical connections. Endocrine glands are
groups of secretory cells surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries that facilitate diffusion
of hormones from the secretory cells into the bloodstream. Hormones are then carried in the
bloodstream too target tissues and organs that may be quite distant, where they influence cellular
growth and metabolism. (Waugh, Grant and Ross, 2010) Hormones Hormones are important when
gradual changes in the body are needed, such as; puberty and growth hormones that are used during
this process. They are gradual because the messages are sent through the blood system. Hormones
are controlled by glands, they decide how much, if any, are secreted. Some key examples of
hormones in the body are as follows... Hormone Secreted from Function Adrenalin Adrenal medulla
Affects muscle and liver cells, adrenalin increases heart and metabolism rates. Released to prepare
the body for 'fight or flight' response. Insulin Beta cells

The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is composed of our spinal cord and brain which consistently controls our
mind and behavior. The complexity of our brain is not entirely deciphered, but with extensive
scientific research it can be concluded that each specific section has its own specialized function. In
reference to eating pizza, socializing, and playing a game of cards, it can be deduced that our central
nervous system is always critically analyzing data using our Broca's area for speech, hippocampus
for memories, hypothalamus controlling internal body, and occipital lobe organizing visual stimuli.
The Broca's area lies within the frontal lobe of our brain. With the assistance of motor neurons, we
are able to comprehend language and control our speech when information is present. The flow of
sensory stimuli is evaluated, allowing this multiplex network to create a plan for communication.
When conversing with friends over a game of cards, your Broca's area will interpret the situation. If
you are being strategic, your brain may withhold certain information that may expose your unique
gaming tactics leaving you prone to losing. When you're engaged in a conversation with your peers,
the Broca's area then deciphers the language, allowing you to comprehend it so you understand what
is being said. The motor neurons are used for facial movements specifically in the mouth to produce
the desired speech. Since the Broca's area works specifically with our mouth and face, when you eat
a

The Body System : The Nervous System
The body systems: The Nervous system
Samantha P. Little
MA111
Jacquelyn Barrett
02/22/2016
Miller–Motte College Online Programs
Page Break The Body Systems: The Nervous System The nervous system is divided into two major
sections: There is the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system work together to collect information from within the body
and from the environment outside it. The systems process all the collected information and send
instructions to the body; to obtain an appropriate response. Once the data arrives, the brain will sort
and file it before sending out any commands on what to do. The central system is the main
command center of the body that contains the brain as well as the spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system contains a network of nerves that connect the rest of the body to the central nervous
system. Even though the brain is the major control center if the body, its job would not be possible
without the spinal cord. The spinal cord is the major organ that helps information travel between the
body and the brain. Nerves branch in the peripheral system from, either the brain stem or spinal
cord, each nerve attaches to a specific area of the torso and limbs it 's responsible for communication
to and from those regions. There are three very important

Neuroscience Of The Nervous System
Vigen Karchyan
Neuroscience Neuroscience, commonly referred to as Neural Science, is the study of the way the
nervous system develops, how it is structured and the functions of it. Scientists put emphasis on the
brain and the impact it has on behavior and cognitive functions. These scientists approach a closer
look on the reactions the nervous system has when humans have neurological, psychiatric and
neurodevelopmental disorders. The entire concept of neuroscience is addressed as a subdivision of
biology. It is applied to chemistry, cognitive science, engineering, mathematics, linguistics and
more. Scientists say that neuroscience is identical as neurobiology but there is a difference between
the two conceptions. Neurobiology focuses mainly on the biology of the nervous system and
neuroscience emphasizes on any portion of the nervous system. Neuroscientists have various fields
of study that include cellular, functional, computational and medical aspects of the nervous system.
The history of neuroscience dates back and the Ancient Egyptians believed that intelligence rooted
from the heart. Throughout the process of mummification, they detached the brain but left the heart
inside of the body. Herodotus, a Greek historian that lived up until 425BC, claimed "the most
perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook
cannot reach is mixed with drugs." There were scripts focused on the brain that were first found in
1700BC in

Peripheral Nervous System
The nervous system comprise of the CNS and peripheral nervous system. The brain and spinal cord
make up the CNS, while the autonomic nervous system and somatic nervous system makes up the
peripheral nervous system illustrated in figure 1 below. Figure 1. structure of the nervous system
The bone shelters the structures in the CNS and the cerebrospinal fliud mitigates them from injury.
Shaped like a mushroom and lying within the skull, the brain weighs around 1.35kg and has two
types of matter. The impluses are recived and stoted in the grey while white matter trasmits impulses
to and from the grey matter. There are three main parts of the brain which are forebrain, midbrain
and hindbrain. The brain stem is one inch long and located ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
More so, the impulse passes to the motor area and then down the spinal cord with the voluntary
action, while on the other hand for the reflex action, impulse passes up the dendrite and axon of the
sensory neurone. The reflex action impulse passes on to relay neurone in the grey matter near to the
centre of the spinal cord. A voluntary action's impulse passes over to opposite side of the body,
while a reflex action controls the same side of the body. A voluntary action is controlled by the
forebrain while the reflex action is controlled by the hindbrain. During a voluntary action, the
cerebrum coordinates incoming information and initiate impulses sent to the effectors. A voluntary
action has a lot of cells and synapses and long pathway leading to the slower reaction, while reflex
only has 3 cells and 2 synapses leading to the quicker reaction. An example of a voluntary action is
that of when we want to answer a question we raise our hands while reflex is a knee jerk. A
voluntary action may result in various responses while the reflex always results in the same
response.
In conclusion, the nervous system tells the body when something occurs. A change in temperature or
light, pain, or pleasure, tension

The Nervous And Endocrine Systems
The nervous and endocrine systems are arguably two of the most important systems in any form of
complex organism. They are particularly complex and important in humans. Both systems,
especially in their cooperation, are essential for our bodies to function properly. Any simple fault or
damage to any aspects of these systems that goes untreated could mean at best chronic disease, or at
worst death. This is because both systems together maintain homeostasis in our bodies. Homeostasis
in the meticulous control of bodily processes to maintain a stable internal environment that allows
us to function adequately. This essay will describe and explain how these systems work both
separately and together to maintain homeostasis in the human body.
The nervous system is the first port of call in our body's reception and response to both internal and
external stimuli. Its many components enable us to see, hear, smell, taste and feel the many aspects
of touch, such as pressure and pain, along with many more physical senses such as heat, hunger,
thirst and balance. This system is also wholly responsible for our control of movement.
It is made up of many branches that coordinate different nervous activities in our bodies. The two
main parts are the central nervous system (CNS), which is composed of the brain and spinal chord
(Fig. 1), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which has several more extensions. The PNS
consists of the nerves that radiate from the CNS; this includes the 12

The Neuron The central nervous system is one of the most important systems in the human body,
and at its core is the neuron. Neurons are cells that facilitate the transmission of electrical signals
throughout the body. They allow the nervous system to act as a communication network that runs
throughout the entire body. Without neurons, the brain could not tell the rest of the body what to do.
Neurons come in various shapes and sizes; however, they all share the same basic structure.
Additionally, there are several different types of neurons that perform a variety of functions.
Structure of the Neuron As shown in Figure 1 (Barker 1991), the neuron is composed of three parts:
the dendrite, the cell body, and the axon. The dendrites are structures resembling tree branches that
receive signals from other neurons and send them to the cell body. The cell body determines which
signals among the many that it gets from the dendrites to send to the axon, which sends signals away
from the cell body to other neurons (Herlihy, 2000). The axons are sheathed by a layer of fat known
as myelin, which protects the axon and increases the speed at which impulses are carried out.
However, myelin is formed differently in the central nervous and peripheral systems. In the central
nervous system myelin is created by a type of cell known as oligodendrocytes, while in the
peripheral system they are formed by Schwann cells (Hall 1991). Figure 1 – Body of Neuron
Functions of Neurons

The Nervous System ( Cns )
Introduction
The nervous system coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions of animal bodies and is in charge
of transmitting signal from one part of the body to another part. It is divided into two main systems,
the Central Nervous System (CNS) that contains the brain and the spinal cord, and the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) that includes mostly all nerves connecting the CNS to every part of the body
(Martini et al., 2005). The entire nervous system relies on the good functioning of specialized cells:
the neurons that convey electrical signals; and the neuroglia that is composed of several types of
specialized cells with different functions either involved in the structure of the nervous system, the
enhancement of the signal transmission or even in the defense mechanism.
Although the nervous system is an extraordinary machine that allows living organisms to respond to
varying environmental conditions, physical shocks may damage the structure itself and external
chemical agents may compromise its good functioning by altering the basic mechanisms of the
electrical signal transmission or, in the worst case by initiating the death of neuronal cells. To
counter such random risks, the nervous system has developed multiple protections that can deal with
most of major issues. However, in some cases, acute or chronic exposures to high concentrations of
neurotoxic chemicals may break through these protective barriers and induce irreversible effects or
damages.
Anatomy and

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of neurons. This
system is responsible for sending, receiving, and interpreting information from all parts of the body.
The nervous system monitors and coordinates internal organ function and responds to changes in the
external environment. This system can be divided into two parts: the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system. Let 's take a look at the central nervous system.
The central nervous system (CNS) is the processing center for the nervous system. It receives
information from and sends information to the peripheral nervous system. The two main organs of
the CNS are the brain and spinal cord. The brain processes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The parietal lobes are located behind the frontal lobes and in front of theoccipital lobes. They
process sensory information such as temperature, pain,taste, and touch. In addition, the processing
includes information about numbers, attentiveness to the position of one 's body parts, the space
around one 's body, and one 's relationship to this space.
The temporal lobes are located on each side of the brain. They process memory and auditory
(hearing) information and speech and language functions.
The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. They receive and process visual information.
The cortex, also called gray matter, is the most external layer of the brain and predominantly
contains neuronal bodies (the part of the neurons where the DNA–containing cell nucleus is
located). The gray matter participates actively in the storage and processing of information. An
isolated clump of nerve cell bodies in the gray matter is termed a nucleus (to be differentiated from a
cell nucleus). The cells in the gray matter extend their projections, called axons, to other areas of the
brain.
Fibers that leave the cortex to conduct impulses toward other areas are termedefferent fibers, and
fibers that approach the cortex from other areas of the nervous system are termed afferent (nerves or
pathways). Fibers that go from the motor cortex to the brainstem (for example, the pons) or the
spinal

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Every behavior begins with biology. Our behaviors, as well as our thoughts and feelings, are
produced by the actions of our brains, nerves, muscles, and glands. In this chapter we will begin our
journey into the world of psychology by considering the biological makeup of the human being,
including the most remarkable of human organs–the brain. We'll consider the structure of the brain
and also the methods that psychologists use to study the brain and to understand how it works.
We will see that the body is controlled by an information highway known as the nervous system. A
collection of hundreds of billions of specialized cells that transmit information between different
parts of the body, a collection of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To improve the speed of their communication, and to keep their electrical charges from shorting out
with other neurons, axons are often surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheathmyelin
sheathA layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron that acts as an insulator and allows
faster transmission of the electrical signal. is a layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a neuron
that both acts as an insulator and allows faster transmission of the electrical signal. Axons branch
out toward their ends, and at the tip of each branch is a terminal button.
Neurons Communicate Using Electricity and Chemicals
The nervous system operates using an electrochemical process (see Video Clip: The Electrochemical
Action of the Neuron). An electrical charge moves through the neuron itself and chemicals are used
to transmit information between neurons. Within the neuron, when a signal is received by the
dendrites, is it transmitted to the soma in the form of an electrical signal, and, if the signal is strong
enough, it may then be passed on to the axon and then to the terminal buttons. If the signal reaches
the terminal buttons, they are signaled to emit chemicals known as neurotransmitters, which
communicate with other neurons across the spaces between the cells, known as synapses.
Video Clip: The Electrochemical Action of the Neuron
This video clip

Autonomic Nervous System
The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic
(PNS), function in a complementary and integrated manner to maintain homeostasis. The output of
the autonomic nervous system is quick in comparison to the endocrine system functions. In most
cases, these systems have opposite effects, where one initiates a physiological response and the
other inhibits. The nerves of this system regulate vital internal functions which are generally
performed without conscious control (Khan Academy, 2014).
The output of the ANS effects smooth, cardiac muscle and glandular tissue (Betts et al, 2013)
The sympathetic division is associated with the "fight or flight" response, dominating in stressful
situations ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The synapse at the axon terminal of the postganglionic neuron and the target effector cell (in the
form of muscle or gland) uses epinephrine/norepinephrine (adrenaline/noradrenaline) (AK Lectures,
2014)
The parasympathetic division however, is concerned with "rest and digest" responses and when
active, reverses the effects of the SNS. The PNS system increases blood flow to digestive organs and
excretory system and decreases the blood flow to skeletal tissue (an opposite effect to the SNS) (AK
Lectures, 2014) Salivary secretion is increased and gastric motility is stimulated to facilitate
digestion (McCorry, 2007). The PNS either originates at the start of the spinal cord or at the end
(Khan Academy, 2014). The preganglionic neuron is of long structure and uses acetylcholine to
transmit signals to the shorter postganglionic neuron. The postganglionic neuron continues to use
acetylcholine to transmit to the target effector cell (AK Lectures, 2014)
Question 2 (1.3)
Using Illustrations, and a short commentary, describe the sensory and motor neuron.
Figure 1– A Motor Neuron (Biologymad, n.d.)
Figure 2– A Sensory Neuron (Biologymad, n.d.)
(200)
Sensory neurons are unipolar (Betts et al, 2013) Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit impulses from
sensory receptors to the CNS and Motor (efferent) neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to
effector muscle and

The Nervous System
The nervous system is made up of 2 main parts – the spinal cord and the brain. These two parts
combine to make the central nervous system and the sensory and motor nerves which form the
peripheral nervous system. Neurons process information in the form of electrical signals, namely
nerve impulses, which travel along the axon. Charged ions are not able to enter plasma membranes
which make neurons have a difference in ion concentration between the inside and the outside of a
neuron. This prevents the passive diffusion of Potassium and Sodium ions from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration. Proteins which act as ion channels and ion pumps are
attached to plasma membranes. This allows the ions to be transported across ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Voltage–gated ion channels maintain the concentrations of different ions inside and outside of the
neuron cell.
An action potential takes place when a neuron sends information through an axon, away from the
cell body. The transmission of the information flows through a synapse. At the synaptic terminal, an
electrical impulse causes the movement of vesicles containing neurotransmitters towards the pre–
synaptic membrane. The vesicle membrane merges with the pre–synaptic membrane releasing the
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, a space which is between the pre–synaptic and post–
synaptic endings. When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, the post–synaptic cell 's likelihood of
firing an action potential can be increased or decreased.
When neurotransmitter molecules are stuck to receptors located on a neuron 's dendrites, the part of
a neuron which receives signals from other neurons, ion channels are opened. At an excitatory
synapse, the opening of ion channels enable positive ions to enter the neuron and results in the loss
of difference in the charge between the inside and the outside of the membrane, this is called
depolarization. Sodium channels open first and sodium ions rush into the neuron. When potassium
channels open, potassium ions rush out of the cell and the depolarization is reversed. Sodium ion
channels begin to close which results in the action potential to go past –70 mV because the

Nervous Systems And The Nervous System
The nervous system is made up of tissues, cells and organs which regulate the body's responses to
stimuli. The nervous system consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system. It also consists of brain, spinal chord, facial nerves, body nerves, sensory neurone and motor
neurones, somatic and autonomic nervous systems, parasympathetic and sympathetic.
Central nervous system– The CNS is made up of the brain and spinal chord.
Peripheral nervous system– The PNS is made up of many sense organs, sensory neurons and
ganglia. This allows communication between the body and the CNS.
Somatic nervous system– The somatic nervous system controls places in the body such as the bones,
skeletal muscles, skin and joints.
The somatic nervous system keeps the body and coordinated, both through reflexes and voluntary
action.
Autonomic nervous system– The autonomic nervous system in the body regulates involuntary
actions for example the beating of the heart, breathing, digestion and organ function. The autonomic
system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic.
.
Sympathetic– The sympathetic nervous system causes a fight or flight responses that speeds the
body up in stressful or sudden circumstances. This causes an increase in the heart rate, breathing rate
and causes pupils to dilate whilst preparing the body to run or for danger.
Parasympathetic– The parasympathetic nervous system causes a rest or digest responses to slow the
body down after stressful

Central Nervous And Peripheral Nervous System
Slide #1
The nervous system
The nervous system is a network of nerves and neurons that transmit signals from the brain to
different parts of the body. This system is broken into two main divisions the central nervous system
and the peripheral nervous system (Victoria, 2013).
–The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. Here information is stored and
necessary instructions or an output response is given.
–The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and clusters of ganglion (ganglia). This division
of the nervous system is split into two branches; the somatic and the autonomic nervous system. The
autonomic branch is known as the involuntary nervous system which controls the heart rate,
digestion, respiratory rate, swallowing and pupil dilation just to name a few. The somatic nervous
system however is generally associated with voluntary movement of the skeletal muscle allowing
control of some body movements. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Slide #2
Also known as the cardiovascular system, the circulatory system is responsible for the transportation
of oxygen, nutrients and hormones around the body, the regulation of blood flow and heart rate in
order for the body to maintain homeostasis and the body's response to injury (Taylor, 2014).
Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to supply all bodily tissue with oxygenated
blood. Stroke and myocardial infarction are generally caused by deterioration of the arterial division
of the circulatory system.
Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart in order to be oxygenated. There are two different
venous systems the systemic and the pulmonary.
–the circulatory system also works to maintain the body's optimal PH level which is vital in order
for the body to reach homeostasis.
Slide

Autonomic Nervous System
Organs of the body, such as the heart, intestines, and stomach, are regulated by the autonomic
nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is known as the involuntary division of the nervous
system which consists of autonomic neurons that innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, and
exocrine glands. The autonomic nervous system plays an essential role to keep the internal
environment of the body in proper balance, known as homeostasis. Regulation of blood pressure,
gastrointestinal responses to food, contraction of the urinary bladder, focusing of the eyes, and
thermoregulation are just a few homeostatic functions that are regulated by the autonomic nervous
system There are two divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous

The Parasympathetic Nervous System
The aim of the current study was to assess the ANS changes associated with RA from the clinical
and electrophysiological point of view.
In the present study, both components of the ANS were assessed including the sympathetic and the
parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system was assessed by using the BP
changes in response to postural changes and SSR. The parasympathetic nervous system was
assessed by HR changes in response to postural changes [18].
Orthostatic stress test assesses the BP and HR changes associated postural changes in the body
position from supine to standing. These changes are mediated by sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerve fibers. During standing from supine position (actively or passively), there

The Nervous Systems Essay
The processes of communication between distinct tissues and organs
Among various types of organ systems, the nervous system is one of the most important one in
human body. It is responsible for producing, controlling and guiding our thoughts and responses to
the world around us according to James W. Pennebaker (2012). During embryological development,
the cells that form nervous system are incredibly specialised and work complexly than the cells that
form skin or other body parts. Neurosecretory cells are one of the examples of specialised nervous
system cells that produce neurosecretions. Neurosecretions are hormones which carry information
from sensor cells to target cells and they can be released directly into the bloodstream ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Each individual nerve is made up of: afferent nerves and efferent nerves where afferent nerves
transmit impulses towards the nervous system from different parts of the body and efferent nerves
transmit impulses away from the nervous system to the different parts of the body. The autonomic
nervous system is another type of PNS responsible for involuntary actions like movement of heart,
lungs, etc.
The nervous system is made up of basic units called neurons. The main role of the neurons is to
receive, integrate and transmit information throughout the body. There are some neuroglial cells
found in nervous system aswell which provide support to the neurons by giving protection and
nourishment Neurons have nerve processes that looks like finger like projections extended from the
nerve cell body. They also contain axons and dendrites which enable them to transmit signals
throughout the body. Normally, axon carry signals away from the cell body and dendrites carry
signals toward the cell body according to Regina Bailey (2013). Neurons have three different
shapes: bipolar, unipolar and multipolar where bipolar has two neuronal processes coming out of the
cell body, unipolar has only one neuronal process coming out of the cell body and multipolar has
many neuronal processes coming out of the cell body.
Source: http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/nerve–cell–physiology–part–1/deck/1225587

The Nervous System Of The Brain
Introduction
The nervous system serves the purposes of communication inside of the body, coordination,
movement, and sensation. The primary components that make the nervous system carry out its
functions include the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia (Saladin 2011 p. 10). Each component
carries out its specific function through electrical and chemicals messages (Saladin 2011 p. 352).
The cerebral cortex of the brain is made up of neurons that make connections with other parts of the
brain. Different types of brain rhythms occur under different conditions. Alpha waves occur when an
individual is relaxed with their eyes closed. Relaxed means that the individual is not focused on
external stimuli or performing mental operations. Beta ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The PNS is made up of the nerves and the
ganglia (Saladin 2011 p. 352). Nerves are neural fibers that are traveling together (Widmaier et al.
2014 p. G–16). Ganglia are spots were nerve cell bodies are bundled together (Saladin 2011 p. G–6).
The PNS can also be divided up into afferent and efferent. The afferent division is the sensory
portion of the nervous system. Afferent is further broken down into somatic and visceral. The
somatic sensory portion receives signals from the muscles, skin, bones, and joints, and the visceral
sensory receives information from objects in the viscera, and they both carry the signals to the CNS
(Saladin 2011 pp. 352–353). The efferent division is the motor part of the nervous system, and
unlike the afferent division, the efferent is carrying signals away from the CNS to deliver responses
to muscles and glands (Widmaier et al. 2014 p.179). Responses are triggered through preganglionic
neurons that go from the CNS to the ganglia, and the postganglionic neurons that go from the
ganglia to what the neurons are targeting (Widmaier et al. 2014 p. 180). Just like the afferent
division, the efferent division can be divided into somatic and visceral. The somatic motor division
goes from the CNS to skeletal muscles and is

Generation of pattern and diversity in Central Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS) is
composed of brain and the spinal cord. Neurons constitute a major part of the developing CNS. An
axon is an extension of a neuron. The brain grows as a swelling at the front (rostal) end of the neural
tube and later leads to become a spinal cord (1,2). Development of the CNS involves many complex
mechanisms beginning at the onset of transformation of a single layer of ectodermal cells, the
neuroectoderm until the end of the differentiation process resulting into highly complex structure
involving variety of neural cell types (1,2). A large number of cell types need to be arranged
spatially and temporally to form a complex structure during an ... Show more content on
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A distinct subset of cells (roof–plate) can be identified on the dorsal midline along the entire
anterior– posterior axis of the CNS. Roof–plate acts as an organizing center that control mechanisms
of dorsal CNS development. With the closure of dorsal end (caudal) of neural tube, arise the
interneuron progenitors with non–overlapping expression of Basic helix–loop–helix (bHLH)
Transcription factors (TFs) including Math1, Ngn1/2 and Mash1 in the ventricular region of the
developing dorsal spinal cord. (6) Mediators of roof–plate patterning activity in a developing spinal
cord include secretory factors of BMP and Wnt signaling cascades. (6,7) It has been documented
that there is a mutual antagonistic effect between Wnt and BMP signaling pathways in regulation of
differentiation and proliferation of neuroepithelial cells in the dorsal spinal cord. (8). Several other
signaling pathways like the retinoic acid signaling and homeodomain TF– Lbx1expression in a
group of interneurons is found to be crucial for dorsal spinal cord development. However, there are
evidences that had shown roof plate dependent patterning in the rostral (anterior) CNS. It is also
hypothesized to influence the development of dorsal hindbrain and forebrain. (6) The vertebrate
CNS is a very

A Study Of The Nervous System
All feelings and emotions that people experience are produced through chemical changes in the
brain. A lack of certain chemicals or an abundance of chemicals can lead individuals to have
emotional imbalances often classifying them as more commonly and more seriously known as
mental disorders. Specific chemicals cause certain moods in individuals, often times substances
containing these chemicals influence the way a person may feel. Discussing what happens in the
brain as it reacts to different chemical build ups will help us as individuals better understand our
body and communicate and respond to these experiences in a healthier way. The study of the
nervous system is known as Neurochemistry. It 's the practice of observing ... Show more content on
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To get a sense of how activity takes place in an event of experience a feeling, any one neuron may
be receiving many chemical messages both positive and negative from surrounding neurons.
Neurotransmitters may be "competing" to get the neuron to respond in different ways or they may
work together to produce a certain effect, when a neurotransmitter fails to affect a neuron it ceases
to exist by returning back into separate chemicals. When succeeding, you begin to have an
emotional response. Every day we experience different combinations of emotions being exposed to
different events in our lives. If you were to search a list of feelings, you'd find lists that are longer
than you'd think. Chemical build up for these feelings are easier to classify. "Feel good" chemicals
are chemicals that activate responses of well, feeling good. These include Oxytocin
(C43H66N12O12S2), Serotonin (C10H12N2O), and Dopamine (C8H11NO2). Depression linked
chemicals are Norepinephrine (C8H11NO3), and lack of Dopamine and Serotonin. Noteworthy,
Dopamine controls arousal levels and motor control in many parts of the brain. Serotonin is the
neurotransmitter enhanced by many antidepressants and has a profound effect on mood, anxiety, and
aggression. These chemical formulas are compounds of simpler chemicals (example of Dopamine
Synthesis provided on page 6). When is it classified as having too much or too little of

The Nervous System
In the nervous system there are two main parts that it can be broken down into. The central nervous
system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS controls the brain and spinal cord.
The PNS's main job is to connect the CNS to the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body e.g. the
organs so that they can communicate/ relay information to each other. How does this work?
The nervous system is a complex network of cells called neurons. The average brain has around 100
billion neurons communicating and relaying information to around thousands of other neurons. Each
neuron had a cell body and multiple extensions.
Just to make it even more complicated the PNS and the CNS also have systems of their own. Which
are named the voluntary

Anatomy Of The Nervous System
Emma Fletcher 013729779
Brain Functions Assignment 1. Anatomical Position – Human
The main anatomical position of the human is where the human is standing straight, facing
forwards, with the arms down the sides of the body with the palms facing outwards and the feet
pointing outwards. The human is positioned this way so no bones crossover. 2. Central Nervous
System
The part of the nervous system encompasses the brain and spinal cord. There is both white and grey
matter in the central nervous system (CNS). Its main function is to send, receive and interpret motor,
sensory and cognitive information around the entire body. 3. Peripheral Nervous System
This part of the nervous system encompasses all of the ganglia and nerves ... Show more content on
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Its main function is to control vomiting in the body by being able to detect toxins in the blood. It
also participates in autonomic control in the body, due to it being located outside the blood brain
barrier. In autonomic control it helps control many systems in the body including both
cardiovascular, feeding and metabolism. 6. Cauda Equina
The cauda equina is a part of the external anatomy of the spinal cord consisting of a bunch of spinal
nerves and their roots. It encompasses some lumbar nerve pairs, sacral nerve pairs and the coccygeal
nerve. The nerves within the cauda equina excite both the pelvic organs and lower limbs. Its
function also includes innervating the perineum in men and the bladder in both sexes.
7. Choroid Plexus
There are 4 sections of the brain where the choroid plexus is present, one located in each brain
ventricle. They are all a plexus consisting of specialized ependymal cells, the epithelial layer of the
choroid plexus has very tight gap junctions which ensure substances are not crossing the layer of
cells into the cerebrospinal fluid. Its primary function is to manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, but it
also acts as a filter. It helps to remove metabolic waste, excess neurotransmitters and foreign
substances, helping the brain to perform its functions well.
8. Dorsal root ganglion
The ganglia of the dorsal root are nodules on a dorsal root located next to vertebral column which
run

Controversy Of The Nervous System
The Nervous System and Controversy in Research The nervous system is a network of nerves and
specialized cells that act as transmitters sending and receiving signals through the human body. As
science progresses research involving the nervous system stands in controversy. Just as the nature
verses nurture debate explaining the nervous system involves researcher investigate the areas of the
brain and spinal cord affected by disorders ,as well as the genetic factors, and environment factors
involved in order to synthesize an understanding of the nervous system 's function (Gilbert, 2002).
Construction of the Nervous System and Its Role in Shaping Behaviors There are two main
divisions that comprise the nervous system: the central nervous system consisting of the brain and
the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system consisting of somatic and autonomic nervous
systems (Kalat, 2013). The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system and is
responsible for the transmission of nervous impulses as well as receiving sensory information
(Siegal, 1999). The peripheral nervous system, consisting of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and
peripheral ganglia, is responsible for transmitting information to the central nervous system as well
as the rest of the body (Hubbard, 2013). The formation of attitudes and behaviors occur within the
central nervous system (Koch, Cipolletta, & Gebbaro, 2014). A person's reaction to the environment
in which they

The Human Nervous System
The Human Nervous system is the most complex of the body, it is our essential controller; this
system is independent and governs our cerebrations, emotions, and functions. It additionally avails
with sending, receiving, and transforming nerve impulses. The sensory system incorporates nerves,
tactile organs, the mind, and muscles. This system is furthermore classified as the visceral motor
system separating it from the somatic motor system. The most essential organs of the ANS are
named the viscera of the Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. With this association we are
incapable of determining or feeling its existence in our bodies as it works unwillingly. This system
explains our flight or battle reaction, watching our body amid rest and reclamation, and observing
our heart rate and body temperatures on a steady premise.
The ANS has two subsystems, known as the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic; these two systems
vary somehow, the sympathetic nervous system increments vigilantness, heart rate, blood glucose
focus, circulatory strain, and blood stream to cardiovascular and skeletal muscle, and additionally
lessening blood stream to skin and digestive tract. Then again, the Parasympathetic division has a
cooling, impact on a large portion of the body 's capacities. This is kenned as the resting, and
processing state. Both frameworks are constantly dynamic, and working. The thoughtful division
speeds up pulse and the parasympathetic division decelerates it. Each of these

The Importance Of The Nervous System
During development, neurons extend their axons and dendrites to establish proper connections in the
central and peripheral nervous system (CNS and PNS). This wiring process is largely controlled by
extracellular cues, which activate receptors on the responding neurons. In turn, these receptors
initiate signaling cascades that ultimately alter actin and microtubule dynamics, and these changes
are translated into diverse cellular responses (1,2). Multiple studies have demonstrated that guidance
cues are multi–functional, where the same pairs of cues and their neuronal receptors induce diverse,
and in many cases opposite, cellular responses in different neuronal subtypes (3–5). For instance,
Semaphorin3A (Sema3A) signaling through the same ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Therefore, here we aim to determine the underlying mechanisms of how the same guidance cue
complex (Semaphorin–Plexin) promotes diverse neuronal structure morphogenesis in different
neuronal populations. Findings from this study are expected to provide a model for understanding
how one ligand–receptor complex can exhibit multiple phenotypes through the recruitment of
distinct intracellular signaling pathways. We also anticipate that the results of this study will have a
significant impact on the field of developmental neurobiology, and bring us closer to our long–term
goal in elucidating the molecular mechanisms of neural circuit formation, organization and function.
Our central hypothesis is that Sema3A/PlexinA4, controls the distinct developmental neuronal
processes, axon guidance and dendrite morphogenesis in both the CNS and PNS through the
recruitment of distinct PlexinA4 signaling cytoplasmic domains and their downstream effectors. Our
initial findings showed that the H/RBD or C2 domain of PlexA4 is equally capable of restoring the
growth cone collapse process in PlexA4 knockout sensory DRG axons, while the combination of the
H/RBD and C1 domains are necessary for promoting dendritic elaboration in PlexA4 knockout
cortical neurons (9).
To address this further, we aim to achieve the following aims:
Aim 1: Investigate the structure–function

Postnatal Nervous System
Introduction:
The nervous system is a complex body system that takes years to fully develop and changes main
functions throughout one's life. (Enter Fetal Development Structure Here). Postnatal nervous system
development is a mix of fully developing parts of the brain, learning motor skills and natural
responses to outer stimuli. By puberty, all parts of the brain and spinal cord are almost fully growth,
and the pituitary gland starts releasing FSH and LH to begin the development of the body. After the
frontal lobe is at its full maturity level, the brain begins to lose grey matter and white matter, this
causes the nervous system to focus on maintaining homeostasis and make decisions based on what
is being lost and how do deal with it. Disorders are very prevalent with the nervous system, such as
Autism and Epilepsy, and they also occur due to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Fetal Development:
Changes Through the Lifespan:
After birth, the nervous system works to develop the rest of the system and for the child to have core
motor skills by the age of three. By the age of six, the brain will almost be to its full size, and the
system is functioning for the child to have their personality, emotional responses, and reflexes to
begin to finalize what they will be for a majority of the life span. Puberty begins around 11 for girls
and 12 for boys, thus the anterior pituitary gland begins to release the hormones needed to let the
body develop. The frontal lobe is still not fully developed at this age, which allows for poor
judgement and loss of control of emotions as a high amount of hormones are now pumping through
the body. The nervous system works to balance out any discrepancies in emotional balance, bodily
growth, and personality developments in this stage of life. Adulthood occurs when puberty is over
between age 17 and 22, and the brain reaches

The Nervous Systems ( Cns ) And The Peripheral Nervous System
The nervous system is the part of the human body in charge of coordinating the reception of external
stimuli and the response the body gives to them. It is equipped with sense organs called receptors,
which are in charge of transforming the stimuli's energy into nerve impulses [1]. To emit an external
response, the nervous system uses effectors that can be either muscles or glands.
We can divide the nervous system into two separate systems: the central nervous system (CNS) and
the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord and is
protected by the cranium and the vertebral column, respectively. The PNS is in charge of connecting
the CNS with the receptors and the effectors. To transfer the information from one part of the body
to another, a specialized type of cells called neurons is used.
Neurons are in charge of a communicative function. They perform two different types of activities.
The first one consists in helping the conduction of a signal from one part of the cell to another. The
second activity they perform is synaptic transmission, which means communication between
adjacent cells.
Figure 1.1 – Neuron structure. Source: http://webspace.ship.edu
Neurons are composed of a cell body called soma, dendrites and axon. There is a single axon while
there are multiple dendrites per each neuron. Dendrites are used to conduct the received signals to
cell body. The axon conducts nerve impulses to other neurons or muscle cells. It is

The Nervous System And Nervous Systems
Every move that our bodies make, thinking about a film you saw last night or an essay you need to
write for school, shaking off a little bug from the leg, deciding between two things or drinking tea
after it cools a bit, every action, reaction is driven by our nervous system. All the information taken
in is processed and executed by electrical and chemical signals to and from nervous cells. The
nervous system controls all our physiological and psychological reactions. All animals have nervous
system, except for very simple ones like sponges (The Nervous System, 2015). Human's nervous
system is probably the most complex one, all of our thoughts, emotions and actions are based on the
three principle functions: sensory input, integration, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Efferent divisions includes also the somatic nervous system that controls skeletal muscle
movements. And the autonomic nervous system that controls inner organs such as heart, lungs etc.
In the autonomic nervous system there are two divisions: sympathetic, that triggers an action and
parasympathetic that relaxes the body. The whole nervous system is made up by nervous cells–
neurons, which respond to stimuli and transmit signals along. There are many different types of
neurons and different sizes of neurons.
Human's moods, impulses that flash through the mind or ideas are spurred by the biological
condition. Which means that how you think, sense, feel and see the world around you is influenced
by chemicals in the brain (The chemical mind, 2014). Every neuron is made up of the cell body,
where the DNA information and the mitochondria are stored. Dendrites receive messages, they pick
up the electric impulses and activate the action potential that passes the impulses along to the cell
body and the axon, which transmits the electrical impulses from the cell body out to other neurons
or muscles and so on. The axon is sometimes protected by myelin sheath, which helps speed up the
transmission of messages. It shoots the electrical charge to its terminals and toward the neighbouring
neuron. The place where one neuron almost touches the other is called synapse, the little gap
between two neurons is called the synaptic gap. When the actual potential runs

Functions Of The Nervous System
Overtime, organisms have been able to adapt and develop in a range of diverse environments as a
result of their ability to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the tendency of anatomical,
behavioural and physiological systems to maintain internal stability, owing to the coordinated
response of its parts to any situation or stimulus that would tend to disturb its normal condition or
function. (1) A major physiological system that works in maintaining homeostasis in animals,
specifically humans, is the nervous system. The nervous system consists of a vast network of
interconnecting neurons which transmit electronic signals throughout the body. All neurons relay
information to each other through a complex electrochemical process, making ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
Neurons are the functional unit of the nervous system and thus are very complicated structures that
play dynamic roles in performing vital bodily functions. (4) As the information–processing units of
the nervous system, neurons acquire information from sensory receptors, pass the information on to
other neurons, and make muscles move to produce behaviours. They encode memories and produce
our thoughts and emotions. There are three general classifications of neurons; these are sensory
neurons, interneurons and motor neurons. They differ significantly in function and slightly in
structure, all having the same basic configuration. (6) Figure 1: Neuron shape and function (5)
In basic form, sensory neurons get information about what is happening in the body internally and
externally and is responsible for transporting it to the CNS to be processed. Motor neurons get
information from other neurons and send commands to ones muscles, organs and glands.
Interneurons are neurons that are connected to one another, and are responsible for receiving
information from other neurons and transmitting the information to other neural connections. The
basic structure of the neuron can be seen in the appendix below. (27) Figure 2: Neuron structure (3)
Figure 3: Axons and Node of Ranvier (3)
The junction between two neurons or a neuron and a muscle or gland is called the synapse. This is
where

The Development Of The Nervous System
Greetings class. I am Professor Valle and today we will discuss the development of the nervous
system. Before we begin with the subject, I would like to share a small clip. Please focus on the
signs and symptoms seen on the clip. (At this point I will show the clip on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b9R4cjdCGoY, it will last no more than 3 minutes). Did you see
anything wrong between the couple? If so who was it? What were some of the signs and symptoms
that you noticed throughout the clip? Yes, you are all correct. This was a day to day life of someone
living with Alzheimer's disease. Notice how the wife was not able to do basic survival task. She was
not able to put her shoes on, hygiene, eat, sleep, or exercise without assistance. She had also lost her
memory, she kept asking her husband who are you? Even though he was constantly taking care of
her on the daily basis. This type of mental illness affects 10% of people over the age of 65 (Turner,
2006). I did not show you guys the clip to be scared of what the future might hold, I showed you the
clip to demonstrate an example of a disorder caused by a disturbance in brain cell growth.
This class will focus on the importance of how the brain cells grow and how they degenerate. We
will also address the following questions:
What facilitates the growth process?
What happens when brain cells die?
What is the impact of brain cell growth and degeneration on the brain and on human functioning?
What are some disorders

The Peripheral Nervous System

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