Insoluble Concentration

Insoluble Concentration
Silver sulfadiazine may displace the hydrogen bonds within the bacterial DNA. Once these bonds
that serve to connect the 2 strands of the DNA double helix are displaced, bacterial replication and
cell viability are effectively reduced. Mammalian cells have approximately 100 times more DNA
than bacterial cells. Thus, the ratio of inhibitory concentrations of silver sulfadiazine to bacterial
DNA is high enough to prevent bacterial division. However, the resulting ratio of silver sulfadiazine
to epithelial DNA is sufficiently low that epithelial cell regeneration is not impaired. As silver
sulfadiazine (AgSd) is relatively insoluble it reacts very slowly with the chloride components of
tissue exudates to form silver chloride (AgCl) and sodium sulfadiazine (NaSd). Sodium sulfadiazine
thus formed being a structural analog and competitive antagonists of para–aminobenzoic acid
(PABA), prevent normal bacterial utilization of PABA for the synthesis of folic acid
(pteroylglutamic acid) which is required for the synthesis of various precursors of DNA and RNA
like thymidine ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Soothing effect experienced when a silver sulfadiazine–containing ointment is applied to a raw
wound or on open burn may be due to the fact that the silver sulfadiazine is insoluble and is in
suspension and not in solution form and does not appear to dissolve in the body fluids except only
gradually. In contrast, normally soluble substances when applied to a raw wound are irritating,
probably due to the hyper tonicity due to the high concentration of the substance which occurs when
a soluble substance is dissolved immediately in a body fluid. The insolubility of silver sulfadiazine
which might appear first to be a disadvantage thus appears to be an advantage when topically
applied to a burned
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

The Differences Of Sulphur ( Sulfur ) Allergy?
What is Sulphur (Sulfur) Allergy? The Difference Between Sulfa, Sulfite, Sulfate, and Sulfur!
What is Sulphur (sulfur) allergy? Are you allergic to Sulfa, Sulfite, Sulfate, or Sulfur? Which one
causes an allergy? There's quite a bit of confusion about the difference between these compounds
because their names are similar. Many people think if they are allergic to sulfa drugs or have had
reactions to sulfites in foods and thus think it is necessary for them to avoid dietary supplements
containing sulfates or sulfur such as glucosamine sulfate, chondroitin sulfate, and organic sulfur.
In this article, I am going to explain the difference between these four substances and hopefully it
will clear up some of the confusion.
Sulfa Drugs (Sulfonamides)
Sulfa drug is any member of a group of synthetic antibiotics containing the sulfanilamide molecular
structure. Sulfa drugs were the first antibiotics to treat and prevent bacterial infections in humans.
Sulfa drugs contain a chemical group called sulfonamide, they are not usually allergenic by
themselves, but when a sulfonamide molecule is metabolized in the body, it is capable of attaching
to proteins and thus forming a larger molecule that can serve as an allergen.
Sulfa (sulfonamide) drugs do contain sulfur, but the allergic reaction is not because of sulfur itself.
It's due to the actions of the sulfonamide molecule that could potentially trigger an allergic response
in some individuals.
Symptoms of sulfa allergy include:
Headache
Hives
Rash
Swelling of the face, mouth, tongue, and throat
Wheezing or difficulty breathing
Drop in blood pressure
Asthma attack in people with asthma
Anaphylaxis (a severe, life–threatening reaction that requires immediate medical attention)
If you have signs of an allergic reaction to sulfa drugs, get emergency help immediately.
Sulfites (Sulfur Dioxide)

Sulfites refer to a group of chemicals that include sulfur dioxide and sulfite salts. Sulfites are
naturally occurring sulfur containing molecules that occur in the fermentation process, such as red
wines.
Sulfites are also chemicals used as preservatives to prevent browning and discoloration in foods and
beverages during preparation, storage, and distribution. They aren't used

Symptoms And Treatment Of Bacterial Resistance Essay
As a surgical Technologist in the Operating room, I have witnessed first hand the destruction and
suffering that bacteria can have on the body. Some infections only cause minor discomfort and
inflammation. Other bacteria such as streptococcus can cause horribly debilitating diseases such as
Necrotizing Fasciitis1. I have also seen that bacterial resistance can play a central role in the
outcome of a patient and their future life. Resistance can even determine if a person lives or dies
from a bacterial infection. This is in no way more present to me than in the life of my grandmother
who, through years of diabetic complications and treatment, is now left with less than a handful of
antibiotics that will work to treat her conditions. Dr. Keiji Fukuda of the World Health Organization
said it best, "Without urgent, coordinated action by many stakeholders, the world is headed for a
post–antibiotic era, in which common infections and minor injuries which have been treatable for
decades can once again kill."2 With how many people that have infections today, the topic of
antibiotics is of utmost importance. The aim of this paper is to look at the history of antibiotics, how
they work and why they are not working now, and the possibility of better antibiotics in our future.
History Antibiotics themselves are relatively new in the history of health and medicine. In order to
better understand antibiotics we must first understand how we developed them. The germ theory of
antibiotics

Case 3.2.4 Justification Of Antimicrobial Use
3.2.4Justification of antimicrobial use
Before initiating antimicrobial therapy, even in the case of a correct diagnosis, the practitioner
should ascertain that whether such therapy is justified and will confer the benefit to the animal. The
therapy should help to contain and limit further extension of the infection, shorten its duration and
reduce the risk of systemic complications. Ideally, only diseased animals should be treated, and the
treatment should be as individual as possible. However, in the case of poultry this is not practical,
and mass–treatment is accepted following a relevant diagnosis. Metaphylaxis should be avoided and
prophylaxis should be kept to a minimum. Routine prophylactic use of antimicrobials as a substitute
for health management should be discouraged. In routine surgical procedures in animals,
administration of antimicrobials may not be always necessary since aseptic techniques and hygienic
measures can replace the need for antimicrobials in most of the cases. Off–label use of
antimicrobials should be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Antimicrobial activity may be reduced significantly in pus, which contains phagocytes, cellular
debris, and proteins that can bind or create conditions unfavorable to drug action. Low pH,
characteristic of the fluid in abscesses and in other confined infected sites (pleural space, CSF, and
urine), and anaerobic conditions can reduce the antimicrobial activity of some agents markedly,
particularly the aminoglycosides. In addition, penetration of antimicrobial agents into infected areas
such as abscess cavities can be impaired because the vascular supply is reduced. Incision and
drainage is thus the preferred method for successful therapy of abscesses. The presence of a foreign
body in an infected site markedly reduces the likelihood of successful antimicrobial therapy and it is
virtually impossible to treat such infections without removing the foreign

The Suppression Of Pain And Inflammation
Introduction
1.1. Inflammation
The suppression of pain and inflammation has been a major goal of medical treatment throughout
the ages. Inflammation is an essential response to any noxious stimulus which threatens the host and
may vary from a localized response to a more generalized one. [1, 2, 3]
The inflammation sequence can be summarized as follows:
Initial injury causing release of inflammatory mediators (e.g. histamine, serotonin, leukotriene,
SAS–A, lysosomes enzymes and prostaglandins).
Vasodilation.
Increased vascular permeability.
Leukocyte migration, chemo taxis and phagocytosis.
Proliferation of connective tissue cells.
1.1.1. Cause of Inflammation
The agents causing inflammation may be as under:
Physical agents like heat, cold, radiation, mechanical trauma.
Chemical agents like organic and inorganic poisons.
Infective agents like bacteria, viruses and their toxins.
Immunological agents like cell mediated and antigen–antibody reactions.
1.1.2. Signs of Inflammation Following are the cardinal signs of inflammation:
Redness
Swelling
Heat
Pain
Loss of function
1.1.3. Sources of Chemical Mediators
The most common sources of chemical mediators are as follows [4]:
Cell/Tissue Mediators
Basophils  Histamine, Serotonin, SRS–A
Mast cell  Histamine, Serotonin, SRS–A, Lysosomes enzyme
Platelets  Histamine, Serotonin, lysosomes enzyme

Polymorph nuclear leukocytes (PMNs)  lysosome enzyme, leukotriene
Macrophages 

Crohn's Disease Essay
Crohn's Disease Crohn' s disease is a bowel disease characterized by inflammation of the different
layers of the gastrointestinal tract. It can be distinguished from ulcerative colitis (a similar disease)
in that Crohn' s affects any part of the gut, whereas ulcerative colitis only affects the innermost layer
of the colon and rectum. About 15% of Crohn' s patients have severe fistulating disease. In this
form, ulcer–like channels develop from the bowel wall and burrow all the way to the skin surface.
Eventually, 75% of these patients require surgery. It is estimated that approximately one million
Americans suffer from Crohn's and ulcerative colitis. The total cost for Crohn's disease was $43.1
million in 1994. While drug therapy accounted ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
s symptoms, supported by x–rays and biopsies of the small and large intestine. Tumor necrosis
factor alpha, TNFa, a protein released when the immune system is activated, is a major catalyst in
the inflammatory process and is believed to play a major role in the pathogenesis of the disease.
Intestinal obstruction secondary to active inflammation is the most common complication. Patients
with colonic involvement are at risk for developing colon cancer. Subsets of patients develop
fistulas that are usually managed by medication or parental nutrition, but may require surgery.
Nutritional and vitamin deficiencies are common, resulting from inadequate diet, intestinal loss of
protein, or malabsorption. Systemic complications may include arthritis, skin lesions, anemia, liver
and biliary disease, inflammation of the eyes or mouth, and bleeding disorders. Some of these
problems resolve during treatment of the disease, but some may be treated separately. Consultations
with dietitians, wound care specialists, or pain management clinicians and physiological support
clinicians are not uncommon.
There is no cure for Crohn's disease. The goals of therapy aim to control inflammation, correct
nutritional deficiencies, and relieve symptoms. This involves medications, nutritional supplements,
surgery, or any combination of these factors. Medications used in treating Crohn's disease include
salicylates (sulfasalazine, Asacol®, Dipentum®, and Pentasa®),

The Manufacturing of Neoprontosil and Other Products
The manufacturing of Neoprontosil and other products took place at the Winthrop Chemical
Company Inc.. The company was a 50/50 joint venture of Sterling–Winthrop, also known as
Sterling Drug, and I.G. Farben, a conglomerate formed in 1926 through the merging of eight leading
German chemical manufacturers including Bayer, a German chemical and pharmaceutical company.
[6, 13] I.G. Farben was notorious for its role in the Holocaust as it was involved in many war
crimes. The company produced large quantities of Zyklon B, a cyanide–based pesticide, necessary
for the gas chambers at various concentration camps during the Holocaust. [14] Sterling–Winthrop
was an American pharmaceutical company founded in 1901 by William E. Weiss and Albert H.
Deibold to manufacture and sell a pain–relieving preparation called "Neuralgine". [15]
During the 1930s, Winthrop Chemical Company Inc. became a leader in the pharmaceutical industry
with the introduction of renowned products including Salvarsan and Neo–Salvarsan (the first
effective drugs in the treatment of syphilis), Prontosil and Neoprontosil (the first of the sulfa drugs),
and Atabrine (the synthetic antimalarial that replaced quinine during WWII). [15] The company
eventually expanded overseas in 1938 and operated seventy plants in forty countries. [13, 15]
Deconstructing the Object
The object will be examined critically and deconstructed through multiple perspectives including the
makers, the watchers, the users, and the pushers of

Chemical Synthesis Lab Report
. Ecologically safe methods for the synthesis of five–membered and six–membered cyclic
carbonates by the reaction of transesterification of dialkyl carbonates with dihydric alcohols will be
developed. 2. Methods will be developed for the preparation of 2–hydroxyethyl, 2– and 3–
hydroxypropyl, 3–hydroxybutyl derivatives of a number of alcohols, thiosparts, carboxylic acids,
amides, sulfonamides, amines, heterocyclic compounds. 3. New coordination compounds Zn (II),
Cu (II), Ni (II), Co (II), Fe (III), Mn (II), Cd (II), Pd (II), La (III ), Sn (II), Sn (IV), Zr (IV), Y (III),
Hf (IV) on the basis of synthesized 2–hydroxyethyl, 2– and 3–hydroxypropyl, 3–hydroxybutyl
derivatives, their structure by X–ray diffraction analysis ; The catalytic activity ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The catalytic activity of Zn (II), Cu (II), Ni (II), Co (II), Fe (III), Mn (II), Cd (II), Pd (II), La ( III),
Sn (II), Sn (IV), Zr (IV), Y (III), Hf (IV) on the basis of synthesized 2–hydroxyethyl, 2– and 3–
hydroxypropyl, 3–hydroxybutyl derivatives in cyclic complex polymerization reactions Ethers
(lactide, ε–caprolactone, trimethylene carbonate), as well as curing epoxy resins. The
polymerization kinetics, monomer conversion, molecular weight and molecular weight distribution
of polymers obtained in the presence of synthesized complexes and in the presence of well–known
polymerization initiators (tin (II), (IV) crystal hydrates, stannous octanoate) have been compared.
The patterns of the influence of the structure and composition of the coordination environment, as
well as the nature of the metal center on the activity of complex compounds as initiators of
polymerization, are revealed. 2019 1. Methods will be developed for the polymerization of the
resulting lactones, thio and aminolactones in solution and monomer weight, the conversion of
monomers during the polymerization reaction, the average and weight average molecular weights of
the polymers, and the molecular weight distribution are determined. 2. Tensile strength, elongation
at break, Young's modulus, in–vitro and in–vivo destruction rate (linear mice), changes in
physicomechanical characteristics, degree of crystallinity, molecular weight in the course of
destruction, and Also the dynamics of the tissue reaction for samples of polymer products (films,
veins, fibers) based on synthesized

Urinary Tract Infection And Its Effect On The Body System
Urinary Tract Infection and its Effect on the Body System Urinary tract infection also referred to as
UTI is the second most common infection in the body. The urinary tract system in your body which
includes the bladder and kidneys makes urine and carries it out of your body. When germs get into
the urinary tract system an infection is typically formed. UTI's are usually caused when unwanted
bacteria enters through the urethra and begins to multiply (www.mayoclinic.org). The bacteria that
are normally found in the large intestine and feces are the most common source of a UTI. Sexual
intercourse is one of the common causes of urinary tract infections for women, causing bacteria to
move up into the urinary tract. Sometimes in a hospital setting a patient who is on a catheter can also
get a urinary tract infection. The two types of urinary tract infections are infection of the bladder
(Cystitis) and infection of the urethra (urethritis). Cystitis is a type of UTI which is caused by
Escherichia coli, a type of bacteria that is normally found in the gastrointestinal tract
(www.webmd.com). Although sexual intercourse can cause this type of urinary tract infection, it
doesn't necessarily mean that you have to be sexually active to develop it. Every female is at risk for
this type of UTI due to the shortness of distance from the urethral opening to the bladder and the
urethra to the anus. Urethritis is a type of UTI which typically occurs when bacteria from the GI
tract is

Essay On BACE1 Inhibitors
Introduction: Figure 1: Formation of Aβ due to cleavage of APP by β–secretase. The first generation
inhibitors for BACE1 were peptidomimetics, compounds in which the scissile amide bond has been
replaced with a tetrahedral intermediate isostere, typically a secondary alcohol. However, the earlier
peptidomimetics have proved to be too large, polar and had no CNS availability.10 The second
generation inhibitors were substrates of P–glycoprotein which effluxes compound out of the cell and
leads to poor CNS distribution. While first generations inhibitors such as BI 1181181, failed in
Phase I trials because of low oral bioavailability and low blood–brain barrier penetration, second ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
204 analogs of this hit was screened to find compound 2 which had improved binding affinity
compared to 1 (Kd=15M). BACE1 is an aspartyl protease which has an acid–base catalysis
mechanism. It uses two aspartates to deprotonate a water molecule in the active site, which then
adds to the substrate. The isothiourea functionality of 2 engaged in hydrogen bond donor−acceptor
interactions with the catalytic dyad of BACE1 (Asp32/Asp228). It also interacts with Ile118 and
Gly230 in the S1 region and Gly34 in the S1′ region. For further optimization, the isothiourea was
replaced by an iminoheterocyclic core to get 3. Compound 3 was developed into the highly ligand
efficient diphenyl iminohydantoin lead compound 4. Figure 3: Lead optimization of the hit 1.
Compound 4 was then further modified to gain drug like properties by core ring expansion and
maximizing structural diversity by incorporating a iminopyrimidinone core with a thiopene and a
pyridine to get compound 5. The iminothiadiazine analog of compound 5 was explored to find
compound 7 with better ligand efficiency. Further SAR studies on compound 6 showed that a
fluorophenyl attached to the iminothiadiazine connected a picolinamide with a fluorophenyl
substituents showed improved biochemical activity and ligand

Antimicrobial Chemotherapy : A Highly Respected Medical...
Introduction
Antimicrobial chemotherapy is a highly respected medical science which has shaped modern
humanity in many ways including the furthering the understanding of medicine. A wide variety of
antimicrobial substance have been discovered, designed and synthesized. Modern medicine is highly
dependent on chemotherapeutic agents that are used to treat diseases. Antimicrobials are combined
of chemotherapeutic agents and antibiotics. It can be defined as any substance of natural, synthetic,
or semisynthetic origin which at low concentrations kill or inhibits growth of microorganisms and
causes little or no damage. Antimicrobial Chemotherapy is a chemical compound that selectively
inhibits or kills bacteria without suggestively harming the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Bacitracin inhibits cell wall synthesis by interfering with action of the lipid carrier that transports
wall precursors across the plasma membrane. Vancomycin Binds directly to the D–Ala–D–Ala
terminus and inhibits transpeptidation.
Certain drugs that are engaged in protein synthesis, differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
ribosomes. (Streptomycin, Gentamicin, Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline, Erythromycin, Clindamycin,
and Fusidic) Their therapeutic index is fairly high, but not as favorable as that of cell wall synthesis
inhibitors. Streptomycin Binds with the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome to inhibit protein
synthesis and causes misreading of mRNA. Chloramphenicol binds to the 50S ribosomal subunit
and blocks peptide bond formation through inhibition of peptidyl transferase. Tetracycline bind to
the 30S ribosomal subunit and interfere with aminoacyl–tRNA binding. Erythromycin and
Clindamycin bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit and inhibit peptide chain elongation. Fusidic acid
binds to EF–G and blocks translocation.
The antibacterial drugs that inhibit nucleic acid synthesis or damage cell membranes are not as
selectively toxic as other antibiotics. (Ciprofloxacin, Quinolones, and Rifampin) This is because
prokaryotes and eukaryotes do not vary in order to maintain the nucleic acid synthetic mechanisms
or cell membrane structure. Ciprofloxacin and Quinolones inhibit bacterial DNA Gyrase and
therefore interfering with DNA

Antimicrobial Infection Paper
Effective treatment of infections depends on selecting the source, site, complete medical history,
also, conduct a physical assessment to identify the signs and symptoms consistent with the current
infection. Other factors include patient's age, weight, present health condition and the severity of the
infection should be put into consideration (Arcangelo & Peterson, 2013). The purpose of this paper
is to describe the categories of antimicrobial agents, also, description of the differences between
viral and bacterial infections will be reviewed. In addition, explain why proper identification of viral
and bacterial infections is the key to selecting the proper antimicrobial agent. Categories of
Antimicrobial agents Treating infections with the right antimicrobial agents helps to cure and
prevent reoccurrence of the infection unless reinfected. The antimicrobial agents works differently
and some considerations are taken when giving these medications. Some of ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
They are classified as short, intermediate, and long–acting agents. Doxycycline is a long acting and
most commonly used among the group. It can be administered orally or parenterally and its side
effects include; nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and epigastric pain, although hepatotoxicity might occur
from a high dosage but rarely (Arcangelo & Peterson, 2013). Sulfonamides are used to treat
streptococcal infections, it can be administer orally and excreted by the kidneys (glomerular
filtration) and the liver. Some of the medications in this group are sulfadiazine, sulfisoxazole, and
trimethoprim to mention but a few. Sulfonamides are used in combination with other antimicrobial
agents because of its increase resistance and limited spectrum property. The common side effects
includes; rash, fever, GI symptoms, and hemolytic anemia in individuals with glucose 6–phosphate
dehydrogenase deficiency (Arcangelo & Peterson,

Mycoplasma Pneumoniae Lab Report
Introduction: Mycoplasma pneumoniae is an atypical bacterium that may result in lung infection by
causing damage in the lining of the respiratory tract. Researches revealed that 20% of cases of
community–acquired pneumonia (CAP) are caused by M.pneumoniae. 10% of these cases develop
M.pneumoniae infections (URT diseases) and about 10% of infections remain asymptomatic.
Patients that are immunocompromised, recovering from a respiratory sickness, or have asthma are
more likely to develop M.pneumoniae. Epidemics occur every 4–7 years. Pathophysiology:
Tracheobronchitis, pharyngitis, myalgias, dry cough, joint pain, nervous and cardiac involvement.
Complications in severe cases: brain enlargement, kidney impairment, skin necrolysis. Diagnosis: ...
Specificity may reach 100% when a positive result is obtained. Example: 50 μl of sputum specimen
is plated on SP4 agar, enhanced with amphotericin B (5 μg/ml) and colistin (500 μg /ml). 250 μl is
cultured in 2 ml of SP4–AC broth; incubated at 37°C in 5% CO2. The identity M. pneumoniae
colonies is confirmed by IFA of unfixed colonies. Lab Analysis: 25% of patients develop
leukocytosis. 30% have high ESR. 75% have a cold agglutinin titer at least 1:32 during the second
week of infection, disappears by 5–7 weeks. Although it's a non–specific test for M pneumoniae; but
the higher the cold agglutinin titer is >1:64, the more likely the cold agglutinins are due to M
pneumoniae. Treatment: Antimicrobial therapy, oral erythromycin, macrolides (clarithromycin),
fluoroquinolones, cough suppressants. *beta–lactams, sulfonamides are not effective against
M.pneumonia. Prevention: – Covering nose and mouth when coughing or sneezing. – Discard used
tissues regularly. – If tissue isn't available, sneeze in sleeve or

What Isoxazoles?
It is commonly accepted that a majority of the published work in organic chemistry involved at least
one heterocyclic ring. Heterocycles can play a pivotal rile not only as goals in synthesis, but as
mediators of synthetic transformations. Isoxazoles are unique in their chemical behavior not only
among heterocyclic compounds in general but also among related azoles. This is because isoxazoles
possess the typical properties of aromatic systems, which are in fact rather pronounced in these
derivatives, together with high labiality of the ring under certain conditions, particularly route to
liberate the latent functionality. From a purely formal point of view isoxazole can be considered an
analog of pyridine just as furan is an analog of benzene. Such formal analogy is to some extent
valid; for isoxazole resembles pyridine more than other heterocyclic compounds as far as chemical
properties are concerned. It differs from pyridine in undergoing more readily electrophilic
substitutions reactions and possessing a more labile ring this relationship thus resembles that
between furan and benzene. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The literature on crystallography has continued to expand at an accelerating pace in recent years,
and it seemed that a summary of the observed interactions of the isoxazole moiety with biological
targets could be useful to those involved in design and discovery. Especially intriguing in light of the
fact that most medicinal chemists use some form of molecular modelling, is that a collection of the
observed interactions could prove useful in critical assessment of hypothesis

Bee Bread Research Paper
According to recent testing conducted by Food Safety News, 76 percent of honey offered on the
American market isn't real honey but rather a fake product packed with sugars and toxic syrups. In
addition to this, these fake products also contain heavy metals and antibiotics!
BEES ARE FED WITH CORN SYRUP AND FRUCTOSE
The actual nutrition of the bee has a critical role in developing and keeping healthy colonies.
Carbohydrates are of utmost importance since they supply energy for all the activities within the
hive. Bees naturally get carbohydrates by collecting nectar and honeydew, but unfortunately natural
sources are limited due to the fact that harvesting honey by humans has removed the colony`s
supply of carbohydrates. Consequently, beekeepers ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
But, the U.S uses this pesticide on nearly 143 million acres, which is a third of its crops.
Imidacloprid and thiamethoxam are also extensively used in the U.S, despite the fact that they have
been linked to bee death.
MOST HONEY IS FAKE
Not only all the honey in stores is fake, but it also has no bee pollen. Manufacturers use special
machines to extract it out and then mix in honey imported from China and India. Therefore, nobody
is familiar with the origin of the honey itself.
4 WAYS TO SPOT ARTIFICIAL HONEY
1. Light a Fire: Dip the tip of the matchstick in the honey and light a fire. If the match lights easily
and the flame burns off the honey, it means that it is natural. On the other hand, fake honey doesn't
make like due to the moisture it contains.
2. The Shelf Life Test: Real like crystallizes over time while the fake one remains looking like
syrup, regardless of how long it is stored.
3. The Water Test: Add a tablespoon of honey into a glass of water. If it settles at the bottom of the
glass, your honey is real. If it dissolves in the water, it`s a fake!
4. The Thumb Test: Put some honey on the thumb. If it stays intact, it`s pure. If it spreads around,
it`s

General Characteristics Of Antimicrobials And Therapeutic...
General Characteristics of Antimicrobials
The usefulness of antimicrobials can be measured using the therapeutic index. The therapeutic index
is the ratio of the highest dose of the drug that is not toxic to the patient to the amount of drug
required to produce the desired effect. A high therapeutic index indicates a drug will be well–
tolerated by most people, but a low therapeutic index means a patient being treated with the drug
should be carefully monitored for adverse effects. Antimicrobials are designed to have as large a
therapeutic index as possible, often by exploiting differences between human and bacterial cells,
such as the presence of a cell wall in some bacteria but in no human cells. This concept can also be
described as selective toxicity meaning the drug kills or inhibits the microbes while damaging host
cells as little as possible.
Antimicrobials can most broadly be described as either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. Bactericidal
agents cause disruption and death of microbial cells. The drugs generally act on the bacterial cell
wall, cell membrane, or DNA. Bacteriostatic substances only stop the bacterium from replicating
without killing it and typically affect the microbe's ability to synthesize proteins.
Finally, antimicrobials are often labeled as either narrow–spectrum or broad–spectrum. Broad–
spectrum drugs are effective against a wide range of pathogens and can sometimes be used to treat
infections that have not been definitely diagnosed.

Immigrants And Diseases: A Case Study
Alongside religion, diseases is also a vital component in the opposition towards immigration. In this
case, it occurred in the 16th century in South America. There had been "approximately 75 million
American Indians whom the Spaniards encountered had no resistance to European diseases such as
smallpox and measles. Within half a century the population of Mexico had been decimated—cut
from more than 30 million to less than 3 million— as a result of diseases that had been introduced by
the Europeans" (2017). While every race lives in a similar environment that's similar, every race has
major factors that make a race different from another race. Because of those components that make
them so diverse, when a group of immigrant arrives to land that their ancestors ... Show more
So, the immigrants would not be able to help the residents, leading many of them to die because
they could not make a recovery. When a large group of immigrants arrived, there had been much
death that had occurred throughout their stay. Henceforth, the remaining citizens reach a conclusion
that it was the immigrants' fault for the millions that died. Ultimately, it leads the residents resenting
the immigrants, becoming more opposing towards their stay in fear that the immigrants will spread
more diseases to the community. Although it is a conceivable idea for there to be no possibility for
epidemics to occur in the future, as people are making more progress in the medical field. Since
epidemics and plagues have decreased dramatically as the countries have "improved sanitation and
treatment with streptomycin, tetracycline, or sulfonamides" which dramatically reduces the death
rates (2017). As a result, fewer people wouldn't be opposing towards immigrants if their stay didn't
negatively affect the country. However, it is not possible for everyone to receive every treatment
required to be

Thiazide Case Study
Is there a better medication than a thiazide, and if so what dose should you initiate this medication?
As Eliot's blood pressure was high, pseudoephedrine was discontinued as well as cimetidine due to
the interaction with warfarin. However, Eliot's blood pressure remaining still high after a month of
discontinuing pseudoephedrine. At this point, Eliot need a new prescription to control is
hypertension. Therefore, hydrochlorothiazide has started to treat his hypertension.
Thiazide diuretics are recommended as a first line of therapy for hypertensive patients. In 2011,
more than 48 million prescriptions were made for hydrochlorothiazide in the United States. Many
clinical trials have demonstrated that thiazide diuretics reduce morbidity and ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The efficacy of the treatment can be monitored by observing the blood pressure reading. However,
electrolyte disturbance is a common adverse effect of thiazide diuretics as it causes potassium
wasting. The frequency of hypokalemia depends on the frequency of administration, dose, diet, and
other pharmacologic agents used. During the first two weeks of therapy, electrolytes monitoring is
significant. Once a stable state is established, patients are not usually at risk of hypokalemia, unless
the dose is increased, extra renal losses of potassium increase, or dietary potassium is reduced.
Thiazide diuretics also can cause certain metabolic and endocrine abnormalities such as
hypochloremic alkalosis, hypercalcemia and hyponatremia. They can cause photosensitivity and
precipitate gout. Hence, it is important to monitor laboratory values periodically in patients on
diuretic therapy. The most common drug interactions are pharmacodynamic interactions resulting
from potassium depletion caused by the diuretics. Hypokalemia is a risk factor for arrhythmias, and
the risk is increased with concomitant therapy with antiarrhythmic agents that prolong the QT
interval independently of serum potassium concentration. Therefore, combinations of drugs that can
cause hypokalemia such as diuretics, and antiarrhythmic agents require vigilant monitoring of
potassium and appropriate replenishment.

DRESS Syndrome Research Paper
DİSCUSSİON Dress syndrome was diagnosed because after Trimebutin maleate use was seen fever,
skin rash, high transaminase values and eosinophilia detected in the peripheral blood smear. DRESS
syndrome is an acute, severe and life–threatening disease with a mortality rate of about 10%, which
is frequently associated with systemic organ involvement involving liver dysfunction, renal
impairment and interstitial pneumonitis. It is not clear incidence of DRESS syndrome known as
hypersensitivity reactions. More than 50 drugs that caused the notification is made DRESS
syndrome. DRESS syndrome is more common in adults and rarely seen in children. Aromatic
anticonvulsants, allopurinol, and sulfonamides are the main drugs that cause the most common.
Anticonvulsants and sulfonamides for the drug that causes frequent 1000–10000 drug exposure is
estimated that developed DRESS syndrome (1.13). Fever, rash, lymphadenopathy and internal organ
involvement with progresses and accompanied by eosinophilia. Liver, lymph nodes and internal
organs, the kidneys are the most common involvement, respectively. Heart and lung involvement,
but it may also occur to a lesser ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The use of antihistamines is recommended almost for the treatment Dressler's syndrome. Patients
with internal organ involvement are recommended use of systemic corticosteroids and intravenous
immunoglobulin (IVIG), but are still insufficient number of studies on this issue(10). Trimebutin
Maleate treatment was stopped firstly in our patient. Antihistamines began and methylprednisolone
added to treatment for liver involvement. Clinical and laboratory findings regressed without IVIG
therapy. In some publications, hyperbaric oxygen, N–acetylcysteine, pentoxifylline, levamisole,
plasmapheresis treatment has been reported. However, the benefits of these agents are not
conclusive

Antibiotic Resistance: A Modern Day Plague
Antibiotic Resistance
A modern day plague
Also known as superbugs, these bugs are resistant to our modern day antibiotics. People around the
world are trying to figure out alternatives to this plague. These bugs have evolved over years and
years becoming stronger and passing down genes from generation to generation, To slowly become
the super bugs that they are known as today. Often these resistant genes are caused by overuse of
antibiotics by humans and farm animals, but this is not always true. Recently the ARS (the American
Recorder Society) found antibiotic resistance in prairie soils that had no human contact. Antibiotic
resistance is commonly viewed as a result of antibiotic overuse in humans and animals, Recently
found antibiotic–resistant ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sadly most recently there was a strain of Antibiotic resistant genes was transferred from human to
animal, In this case it was a cow and about 7 people and a resistant strain of salmonella luckily no
one died in this case. Although this is a step in the right direction we must keep the Industries and
the FDA's feet to the fire because without proper enforcement the producers could use similar
amounts of antibiotics to "treat illness" in the livestock. These are changes we need to make to
prevent the epidemic of Antibiotic

The Use Of Animals For Research Developments Have Been A...
The use of animals for research developments have been a part of scientific history from the days of
Aristotle and Erasistratus who experimented with animals. (Scutti, 2013) These earlier researchers
conducted experiments to better understand the anatomy of living things and was not until the
twelfth century when an Arab physician reinvented the idea of animal research when suggesting
using animals as a way to test surgical procedures before using on humans. (Scutti, 2013) Animals
have had a long running relationship with mankind either in the wild, on pastures, or medical
research labs. If this relationship has been used for centuries now then why does there seem to be a
debate on the 'ethics' of this practice. Within the past years, researchers have received an extreme
amount of pressure from animal protection and rights groups about the ethics behind this type of
experimentation. Countries' legislation has become a part of the fight for animal rights and passed
law to make experimentation less aggressive. (Scutti, 2013) With the advancements in medicine
from animal testing, we begin to question does an animal's life outweigh that of a human's and is
one lab animal worth more than saving the life of thousands.
On such controversial topics, a spectrum of opinions is created: one side feels animal research is
necessary and helpful towards the advancement of medicine and the other this type of
experimentation is inconclusive and wasteful. Presented in this essay will be

Chlamydia Trachomatis Essay example
Chlamydia Trachomatis
Introduction: Chlamydia Trachomatis is the organism responsible for diseases such as trachoma and
the STD Chlamydia. Chlamydia is the most common STD in the United States, with about 4 million
new cases diagnosed every year.
The Organism & it's Life Cycle: Chlamydia are obligate intracellular parasites, and are among the
smallest living organisms. There are two stages in the life of Chlamydia: elementary bodies and
reticulate bodies. Another feature of Chlamydia is that they are unable to synthesize their own
energy (ATP) and are completely dependent on their host for energy. The organism is in the
elementary stage of its life when it encounters its host and is taken up by phagocytosis. It prevents
the fusion of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Encounter, Diseases and Epidemiological Data: The most common way to get Chlamydia is through
sexual intercourse with an affected individual. Newborns may get infected by affected mothers
during childbirth. Typically, it causes pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women, which is a result
of the host's inflammatory response. Other diseases include ocular infections such as conjunctivitis
and blindness. Neonates are especially vulnerable to conjunctivitis and pneumonia if the mother is
infected. Trachoma is a disease that is caused by inflammation in the conjunctiva and subsequent
scarring of the cornea, which could lead to blindness.
A more serious disease called lymphogranuloma venereum (when Chlamydia cause lesions in the
genital mucosa and enter it) is also caused by Chlamydia, but it is not endemic in the developed
world. People with Gonorrhoea are susceptible to a chlamydial infection. Females aged 15–24
(USA) are most susceptible to Chlamydia. Incidence rate and prevalence are highest among blacks.
Treatment: The most important form of treatment is prevention, which can be done by discouraging
multiple sexual partners, and possibly abstinence from sex for those who are known to be infected.
Other forms of prevention would include setting up information programs, especially in inner–city
communities, where prevalence of Chlamydia is very high. Chlamydia is difficult to eradicate

Organic Sulfur Importance
What is Organic Sulfur and Why it is Important?
Organic Sulfur is also known as methylsulfonylmethane (MSM), has a long history as a therapeutic
mineral for a wide variety of ailments. It is the third most abundant mineral in the human body and
is absolutely essential for health.
It is found in the cells of all living organisms and plays a critical role in the oxygenation and
detoxification of all cells.
Unfortunately, we don't hear sulfur being mentioned very often, is all but forgotten as a critical
nutrient in recent decades.
I found it very shocking that a Minimum Daily Requirement to avoid sulfur deficiency does not
even exist despite the fact it is the third most abundant mineral in the body and plays important roles
in hundreds of physiological processes.
Sulfur vs. Organic Sulfur
I think many of us are familiar with sulfur in high school chemistry or maybe not. Before I began
my organic sulfur journey, I was not familiar with it at all. I thought to myself why anyone would
add something that has unpleasant smell of rotten eggs in their dietary regime. I didn't really
understand why sulfur was important for my body.
Upon further research, I began to understand that sulfur actually exists in two forms in nature. The
form that is absolutely essential for our health turns out it is neither drug nor vitamin, but rather a
nutrient or food that our body needs to function properly.
However, organic sulfur, also called Methylsulphonylmethane (MSM) sulfur, and sulfur are

Pearl Harbor Air Raid Analysis
Because of the sudden attacks, the air raid on Pearl Harbor had three very unusual features regarding
the injuries for the medical personnel to deal with. First, there was a great number of casuaIties
received at the hospitals in a short period of time; second, many patients had been overboard at
some point and were covered with fuel oil; third, there was a very high percentage of burn cases
(Hayden). How did the hospitals handle all of these tragedies at once and remain successful?
Just 36 hours before the air raid, a lecture was given to all the medical personnel in the area about
how to handle the quantities of wounded in an attack setting. After, they had a scenario were stress
was placed on the personnel to quickly and adequately clean wounds by soap and water, followed by
the surgical removal of lacerated or contaminated tissue. Three criteria were to be fulfilled: (1)
obtaining normal color, (2) bleeding, and (3) muscle contraction. When this was completed, the next
step was to place in the wound an adequate amount of a sulfonamide drug, either sulfanilamide and
sulfathiazole. No wounds were to be sutured, but instead left wide open or to have nonabsorbable
interrupted sutures placed, but not tied until the third ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Several plastic surgery clinics were set up in the United States for these purposes. After the
servicemen were properly treated and were free of infection, their deformities could go under the
knife. Because the plastic surgeons of the time specifically worked with war wounds, they knew
exactly what the best solution for each case was with the medicine of the time. Plastic surgery
continues to be a leading fixator for war–torn bodies and creates peace within the individual.
Understanding the techniques of the first plastic surgeons can be beneficial in order to make modern
medicine the best it can

Renal Impairment Research Paper
CathyAnn, great post. You have made a great point about renal impairment and being precautious
when prescribing medication to elderly with CKD. Renal impairment can happen for numerous
different reasons, a few of the reasons that renal impairment can happen are diabetic nephropathy,
lupus, and aging (Burchum & Rosenthal, 2016 & Rull, 2016). With aging it is normal to have a
decline in renal function. For this patient particularly, it would be important to make sure that if
there is any medication that the nurse practitioner would be prescribing that would need to have
renal dose adjustment it would be important to do testing to see what kind of adjustments needed to
be made.
Problems that are commonly seen with when prescribing medications

Levemir Essay
Medication #1: Insulin detemir [rDNA Origin] injection
Insulin detemir [rDNA Origin] injection is the generic name for this medication. The associated
brand name is Levemir and Levemir Flexpen.
Levemir is prescribed for hyperglycemia in the management of diabetes mellitus.
Precise adult and pediatric dosing is dependent on body weight, type of diabetes, consideration of
controlled verses uncontrolled diabetes, and adjustments based on measurements of blood glucose.
Additionally Levemir is intended to supply about one third of the patient's insulin requirements each
day. o For diabetes mellitus type 1 an initial dose is calculated at 0.5–1 unit of insulin per kilogram.
The resulting amount of insulin is divided into two daily doses, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Levemir can be dosed once a day or given in two doses spaced 12 hours apart.
There have been no studies on the efficacy of Levemir on children under the age of two years. With
regard to pediatric specific dosing it is recommended 0.1–0.2 units per kilogram of body weight
initially, with close monitoring for adjustments.
The route of administration for Levemir is by subcutaneous injection.
Levemir is prescribed as a clear liquid in a 10 ml vial, 3ml cartridge, or insulin pen (Levemir
Flexpen) prefilled with 300 units. The patient fits a needle on the pen and adjusts the pen to deliver
1 to 80 units of insulin per injection.
The contraindications for using Levemir are as follows: Levemir should not be used by anyone with
an allergy to insulin detemir or any of the inactive ingredients. Levemir is not intended for patients
experiencing diabetic ketoacidosis.
The side effects of Levemir are hypoglycemia, skin changes/irritations where it is injected, edema of
the extremities, and weight gain.
An overdose of Levemir will result in hypoglycemia. Signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia include
XXXX
Resources: Rxlist.com, reference.medscape.com,

Molecule 2-Formylphenyl Configuration
In our molecule 2–formylphenyl, tosyl group and 4–methylbenzene fluorophenyl prop–2–enoate are
attached at N1 atom. The atoms around the sulfonamide S1 atom in the MFMSF are arranged in a
slightly distorted tetrahedral arrangement configuration. The largest deviation is in the angle O3–
S1–O2 of 119.60(1) o, but it conforms to the non tetrahedral arrangement commonly observed in
sulfonamides [24, 25]. The bond angles N1–S1–C8 of 107.8(1)o is correspondingly smaller than the
tetrahedral values of 109o [26]. The significant difference in length of the C24–O5 = 1.329(2) Å and
C25–O5 = 1.439(2) Å bonds is characterized to a partial contribution from the O– – C = O+ – C
resonance structure of the O4=C24–O5–C25 group [27]. This future is, in general, ... Show more
The sulfonyl bound benzene (C8–C13) ring forms dihedral angles of 35.5(1)o and 65.6(1)o
respectively, with the 2–formylpheneyl (C1–C6) and fluorophenyl (C18–C23) rings. The dihedral
angle between fluorophenyl(C18–C23) and 2–formylphenyl(C1–C6) ring is 44.0(1)o. The structural
parameter of MFMSF conforms to those reported for similar structure [31]. Fluorine atom F1 is
deviated by –0.003(2) Å from the attached benzene ring. The hydrogen bond geometry for MFMSF
is listed in Table.2. The molecular structure is stabilized by intramolecular C–H...π interaction
between a sulfonyl–bound phenyl H9 atom and a fluorophenyl(C18–C23) ring with a C9–H9...Cg
separation of 2.66Å, where Cg is the centroid of the C18–C23 fluorophenyl ring. Also, the
molecular conformation is stabilized by weak intramolecular C9–H9...O3, C7–H7...N1 and C17–
H17...O5 hydrogen bonds, each generates S(5) ring motifs [32]. In the crystal, four molecules are
related by two intermolecular C10–H10...O1i and C25–H25A...O2ii hydrogen bonds, generating
ring motifs [32] to form a two dimensional supramolecular network along [110] direction (Fig. 2;
Symmetry codes as given in

Medical advancements in World War Two
World War II brought death and destruction upon the world. On the other hand, it also opened doors
for pioneering developments that commonly occur during such situations of high adversity. Some of
the most important advancements took place in the field of medicine when the world was embroiled
in World War II. As Dr. Ralph Major states, "An army is a vast laboratory of medical research where
disease and injuries are seen on a far larger scale than in peacetime. Many improvements in the
treatment of infections have come from experiences on the battlefield" (Major 52). Devastation in
the war left countless soldiers and civilians with life threatening injuries and diseases. This
devastation and destruction, led to the innovation of the three ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Plasma was used to transfer blood as it served to keep satisfactory blood pressure and supply critical
proteins and globulins (antibodies) to the wounded soldiers (www.usaaf.net/wwii). There were many
uses of Plasma on the battlefield and on the whole, it helped keep a proper balance in the body
which makes it one of the best innovations in medical history. The pressing demand for blood on the
battlefields led to Britain organizing the International Transfusion Association in 1940 which
collected blood (people donated blood) and turned it into blood plasma. This program collected,
processed and transported 14,500 units of plasma to the allied armies and it was all done within five
months (home.att.net/wwii.htm). Dr. Drew was an important member of the group and his scientific
research helped revolutionize blood plasma transfusion so that blood plasma could readily be given
to wounded soldiers on the battlefield, which dramatically improved opportunities to save lives.
Blood plasma could also be dried which made it very easy to transport, pack, store and the soldiers
could also carry it around in their pockets (www.history.amedd/army). As mentioned in the 'United
States office of war' newsreel "Soldiers in Normandy got the best medical care science could offer
and plasma cheated death in cases of many soldiers" (www.concise.britannica.com). Soldiers
received the most modern medical treatments on D–day in Normandy beach and blood transfusion

Dapsone And T-Cell Response Lab Report
Dapsone and T–cell Response
Like most sulphonamides, dapsone can lead to a hypersensitivity reaction that is likely cell mediated
(type IV hypersensitivity reaction). T–cells are indicated because of the time delay from beginning
therapy to the time of disease, approximately 4 weeks. The mechanism of T–cell response to
dapsone is unknown and three mechanisms are postulated. According to the hapten model, a small
inert molecule could illicit an immune response by first covalently binding directly to an intra or
extra cellular protein. Where the native protein would likely be recognized as "self" and be ignored
by the immune system the protein adduct could stimulate a T–cell response. This is the mechanism
of the delayed hypersensitivity reactions ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Alternatively, the pro–hapten model asserts that nonreactive molecules can be metabolized
intracellularly and the metabolites then bind to host proteins, modifying them. Again, when
presented to the T–cell receptor they are recognized as abnormal and the T–cell becomes activated
to illicit an immune response. This response is seen in reactions with sulfamethoxazole and other
drugs (Adam et al, 2011). Finally, in the 'pharmacological interactions of drugs with immune
receptors' concept, or p–I model, an inert molecule interacts directly with the antigen presenting cell
at the major histocompatibility complex. These alterations are sufficient to interact with the T–cell
Receptor and induce a response. The p–i model is the most likely candidate for dapsone as there is a
21 fold increased risk associated with HLA*B13:01, a common MHC in South East Asia and

Dr. Josef Mengele's Inhuman Experiments On Prisoners
Dr. Josef Mengele was one of the many infamous physicians who performed many inhuman
experiments on prisoners without their consent. Many of the resulting experiments led to; death,
trauma, disfigurement, or permanent disabilities. Dr. Mengele was chosen to instruct the inmates,
conduct horrific experiments and crimes on inmates, but some survivors said there was a humane
side to him. In 1937, Mengele received his medical degree along with joining the Nazi party and the
Schutzstaffel (S.S.) that year. "When he was wounded during his campaign he returned to Germany
and was stationed at many concentration camps, staying at Auschwitz until the end of the World War
II, (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2016)." Being a physician at concentration ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To commit these experiments, sleep well at night, and avoid punishment is truly terrifying. The
Nazis conducted these experiments to benefit Ggerman soldiers and the Aaryan race. To some of the
children at Auschwitz, they thought that Mengele was a father figure because some of them had lost
their family and had no one left. Livia Bitton–Jackson (a Holocaust survivor) said to the USC Shoah
Foundation on January 21, 2015 "Mr. Mengele pulled me aside as my mother and aunt were walking
to the left and so I went over. He asked if I was Jewish and I said yes, but I believe he pulled me
aside because I looked like the typical Aryan race and I was tall for my age. He sent me to fetch my
mother and sent us to the right saying remember that you are sixteen now, and I was thirteen at the
time. Of the thousands of thousands of people to pull aside, he pulled me and mother aside which
saved our lives throughout the war." Dr. Mengele was also seen as a compassionate person because
he gave sweets like candy to the children and even created

Dayglo Fluorescent Pigments Research Paper
Fluorescent pigments are a special type of pigment that have the unique ability to reemit a greater
frequency of light. Fluorescent pigments absorb the light frequencies that are emitted onto them, and
reemit them. Fluorescent pigments stand out to the human eye making them a great pigment for
advertising use, children's toys, safety protection wear, and many other commercial uses.
Fluorescent pigments were invented in the 1940's by the Switzer brothers. Bob was a working man
and Joe was an amateur magician. Unfortunately, Bob was seriously injured and fractured his head
on the job. He had to spend months in the hospital recovering from his injuries. Since his head was
fractured, he had to avoid bright light. Since they were in the dark all of the time, both Bob and Joe
Switzer developed a curiosity about illuminating fluorescent pigments to enhance Joe's magic show.
("DayGlo Fluorescent Pigments").They realized that there were many fluorescing compounds in
nature, and when combined with shellac, they were successful ("DayGlo Fluorescent Pigments"). ...
Shortly after the Switzer brothers started the process, the common way of developing the fluorescent
pigment was the bulk polycondensation method. (Color Technology for Plastics). This method uses
the reactions of formaldehyde, melamine, and toluene sulfonamide. The method further developed
in the 1970's when scientists found a technique to suspend a droplet, which allowed a higher degree
of polymerization. At first this method was very expensive and brought out a poor color, but as
technology further developed, the price fell and is now accepted in today's markets. The other
component of these pigments is the dyestuffs that are used. To get a different color of the dye, color
technologists can vary degrees of either rhodamine or coumarin. (Color Technology for

Meningitis Research Paper
Different antibiotics such as penicillin, ampicillin, ceftriaxone and chloramphenicol help to treat
bacterial meningitis. Because meningitis can be fatal admission to a hospital may be necessary.
When it comes to viral meningitis antibiotics don't help but patient usually recovers on their own
within 7 to 10 days. Treatment should begin immediately. The type of antibiotic depends on the type
of causative agent and also patient's tolerance to the drug (allergies change the type of treatment).
Meningitis is commonly treated with sulfonamides, where trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole work
together in order to inhibit bacterial synthesis of tetrahydrofolic acid. Also used to treat meningitis
are for example tetracyclines that work by inhibiting protein synthesis and stopping bacterial
growth. Another type of treatment is using carbapenems that bind to penicillin–binding proteins and
therefore inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis.
When it comes to prevention ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
How is your particular organism transferred from one host to another? Is there a relationship
between nosocomial infection and your specific organism?
Viral meningitis is spread via the oral–fecal route as well as respiratory route, genitourinary tract,
nasopharynx, however, the most common is the infection via respiratory tract. The infection is
usually caused by infection from another part of the body, meaning that the causative agents travel
from bloodstream to meninges or directly from infection in the body, for example, ear infection.
When the agents reach the nervous system they survive in the body because of the lack of the
response of the immune system.
Anyone can get meningitis at any point in their life. However, children between 1 month and two
years old, adults with alcohol problem or chronic ear and nose infections, individuals with sickle
cell disease, kidney failure or college students (16–23 years old), and people in military are more
likely to get bacterial

Antibiotic Resistant And Infectious Diseases
Introduction
Antibiotics are medications that kill bacteria which could also make us sick and eventual patient
died from the virus if not treated quicker. Antibiotics help prevent bacteria from cell duplication.
People are dying worldwide just from virus outbreak while they also seeking for a treatment of the
diagnosis from bronchitis and other infectious diseases. Doctors around the globe have discovered
that some of the organisms "waging warfare" against humans resistant to antibiotics these patients
are often taking. Only the most powerful antibiotics available will cure certain people who are dying
from the course antibiotic–resistant and infectious diseases. From my knowledge and previous
experience, I recognize that it takes days if ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This review presents the salient aspects of antibiotic resistance development over the past half–
century, with the oft–restated conclusion that it is time to act. To achieve complete restitution of
therapeutic applications of antibiotics, there is a need for more information on the role of
environmental microbiomes in the rise of antibiotic resistance. In particular, creative approaches to
the discovery of novel antibiotics and their expedited and controlled introduction to therapy are
obligatory. If something is not done sooner than later to prevent antibiotic resistance, we will
produce the major organism that we will not be unable to kill by some normal manners. The
medicine we are taking for infection disease is making the sickness worse– not to be better.
History of antibiotic resistance
Antibiotics have become the mainstay of our defense against bacterial infections. They
revolutionized medical care in the 20th century and become miracle drug of the modern medicine.
In 1928, British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming serendipitously discovered penicillin in molds
that had contaminated a dish used to grow bacteria in his lab. The dish was

Medical Case Study
As the head physician at Johns Hopkins University Center Infirmary, I must inform you of an urgent
matter regarding the presence of four different diseases that hold the potential for an outbreak on
your campus. These four diagnosed diseases are meningococcal disease, Epstein–Barr virus,
streptococcal pharyngitis, and influenza virus B. Currently, nine students are independently affected
by one of these illnesses and if the campus does not take precaution immediately, the number of
infected students can quickly double within a day.
Found to be the most prevalent disease of the four, meningococcal disease, also known as bacterial
meningitis, was diagnosed in four of the campus' students. It was first diagnosed by DNA
sequencing through ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The second disease was the Epstein–Barr virus, which is also known as mononucleosis, that infected
two students on campus. For diagnosis, DNA sequencing through BLAST was also used to detect
the pathogen's existence in one of the patients. However, since the laboratory was unable to obtain a
sample from the second patient, the clinic deduced their infection by determining their relationships.
The symptoms that accompany this illness include a fever, sore throat, headaches, fatigue, and
swollen lymph nodes. Since the pathogen, Human herpesvirus 4 (HHV–4), for mononucleosis is a
virus, the patients were instructed to rest and antiviral medications were prescribed. Antiviral drugs,
unlike antibiotics, function similarly to pain killers as the viruses cannot be targeted and destroyed
the way that bacteria can, therefore, advising that the patients rest and recover allows for their
immune system to gradually fight off the viral infection. As the pathogen is able to be transmitted
through bodily fluids, students are advised to avoid sharing foods and drinks with other students and
maintain overall good hygiene, which includes regularly washing their hands.
Strep throat claimed one of the students on the campus, which was determined again through DNA
sequencing. With strep throat, individuals typically have a sore throat, fever, headaches, swollen
tonsils and/or lymph nodes, and overall body soreness. The

Sulfanilamide: What Is Sulfanilamide?
Sulfanilamide, also referred to as sulfa, was a drug sold in powder and tablet form used to treat
infections such as pneumonia, meningitis, and strep throat. In the 20th century, these bacterial
infections could easily take the life of anyone. That is why sulfanilamide became so popular
throughout the country. Sulfanilamide was invented by a German microbiologist, Gerhard Domagk.
It was a red dye derivative that he had discovered that would cure the contagion. The drug was safe
until a salesman from Bristol, Tennessee recommended that they produce a liquid form of the drug
to make swallowing easier. The company's head pharmacist and chemist was Harold Cole Watkins,
he found out that sulfanilamide was soluble in diethylene glycol, commonly found ... Show more
Massengill, to speak with the head chemist Harold Watkins. According to Paul Collins, Watkins,
"lacked any formal qualifications and had had a previous run–in with the law over a weight–loss
drug" (Collins, 2004). This goes to show the lack of regulation in the pharmaceutical practice during
this time. Although the proof was there, Harold Watkins refused to admit the toxic solution was
lethal, therefore, to prove his point he drank some of it himself. One day later, the American Medical
Association (AMA) received a telegram from Massengill saying that Harold Watkins had fallen ill.
After this telegram, the FDA knew the cause of the deaths and knew that they had to get it off the
market, however this would prove to be difficult ("Sulfanilamide disaster," n.d.). While Watkins did
survive the dose of sulfanilamide that he had taken, he eventually took his own life presumably as
an admission of guilt. The investigation then focused on finding out what was causing this horrible
reaction from the medicine. The FDA and the AMA arranged for testing at the University of Chicago
by pharmacist Eugene Geiling and his graduate assistant Frances Kelsey to figure out if the
combination of DEG (diethylene glycol) with the sulfa was causing the reaction. They quickly
confirmed that it was the pure DEG that was the poisonous factor in the mixture. DEG and its
similar cousin ethylene glycol

Biological Structures And Processes Within An Organism...
Human's body is constantly under attack by: bacteria, viruses and many other microorganisms, these
are called pathogens. Our body is a rich source of water and nutrients that these pathogens need to
survive, it is a perfect environment for them to live and develop. Nevertheless, human's body has its
own way to protect itself from these invaders, therefore most of the time we remain healthy.
Immune system is a system of many biological structures and processes within an organism that
provides a defence against disease. There are three major lines of our defence against pathogens.
The first is to prevent their entry by defences of the skin and mucous membranes in the respiratory,
digestive and urogenital tracts. If this fails, two internal defences takes over: an initial non–specific
inflammatory response to injury, or if this unsuccessful, is followed by specific immune response.
Two major divisions of the immune response: non–specific and specific.
(Rowland, 1992)
Non–specific defence attacks any molecule, which the body recognises as being non–self and skin is
the first barrier that antigen needs to pass through. The first layer of the skin – epidermis, consist of
the layer of dead skin cells that lack of water and suitable food, which inhibits the growth of micro–
organisms inside the epidermis. Sebum, secreted by sebaceous gland in the skin, contains fatty
acids, which are toxic to many microorganisms. Areas that are not covered by the skin have
alternative

The Differences Of Sulfur ( Sulphur ) Allergy?
What is Sulfur (Sulphur) Allergy? The Difference Between Sulfa, Sulfite, Sulfate, and Sulfur!
What is Sulphur (sulfur) allergy? Are you allergic to Sulfa, Sulfite, Sulfate, or Sulfur? Which one
causes an allergy? There's quite a bit of confusion about the difference between these compounds
because their names sound similar. Many people think if they are allergic to sulfa drugs or sulfites
and thus it is necessary for them to avoid dietary supplements containing sulfates or sulfur such as
glucosamine sulfate, chondroitin sulfate, and organic sulfur.
In this article, I am going to explain the difference between these four substances and hopefully it
will clear up some of the confusion.
Sulfa Drugs (Sulfonamides)
Sulfa drugs were the first antibiotics to treat and prevent bacterial infections in humans.
Sulfa drugs contain a chemical group called sulfonamide, which is not usually allergenic by itself,
but when a sulfonamide molecule is metabolized in the body, it is capable of binding to proteins,
thus forming a larger molecule that can serve as an allergen.
Sulfa drugs (sulfonamide) do contain sulfur, but the allergic reaction is not sulfur per se, rather it is
the byproduct of sulfonamide metabolism.
Symptoms of sulfa allergy include:
Headache
Hives
Rash
Swelling of the face, mouth, tongue, and throat
Wheezing or difficulty breathing
Drop in blood pressure
Asthma attack in people with asthma
Anaphylaxis (a severe, life–threatening reaction that requires immediate

The Reality of Aspartame
Aspartame is about 200 times sweeter than sugar (Magnuson 633). Many foods are reduced in
calories from aspartame. Aspartame is created by joining aspartic acid and phenylalanine, and a little
bit of methanol (Magnuson 633). Aspartic acid and phenylalanine are naturally found in many foods
and. Phenylalanine is an amino acid found in many foods. Ingesting certain amounts of
phenylalanine can build up in the blood. This can cause other chemicals from getting to the brain
that are important for function. Aspartame is digested just like any other protein (Magnuson 645).
Aspartame breaks down into its basic components and is absorbed in the blood (Magnuson 645).
Aspartame does not build up in the body over time. The FDA has concluded that aspartame is safe
for the general public, including people with diabetes, woman that are pregnant or nursing, and
young children. Aspartame is one of the most watched and studied agents in food. It has been tested
over 100 times before the FDA approved of it in 1981. Many studies have looked for the health
effects in animals when fed aspartame. Phenylketonuria is a disorder that is present at birth and
results in the body not being able to break down phenylalanine. Since Phenylalanine is an agent in
aspartame, it is critically important that those who have phenylketonuria limit their intake foods or
beverages that contain aspartame. "Wurtman proposed that when aspartame–containing beverages
are consumed along with dietary carbohydrates, the

How Does Protease Inhibitors Work?
What is a disease
What is protease
How does a protease inhibitors work
What is a protease inhibitor
Protease Inhibitors and HIV
Protease inhibitors and Rheumatoid Arthritis
Anticancer activity of protease inhibitors
Protease Inhibitors and Herpes
Protease Inhibitors and Disease
Fig. 1 Showing a Diagrammatic Representation of the Enzyme Protease.
A disease is the destruction in the function of a human which leads to specific symptoms which in
turn affects specific sites and are not results of physical injury. Protease cleaves longer proteins into
shorter core proteins via proteolysis this is the process whereby hydrolysis of the peptide bonds
occur that links subsequent amino acids to a polypeptide chain (Kohei Oda 2012). It is therefore
crucial for the effectiveness of an infectious virus. Protease Inhibitors bind to the active sites of
these proteases which in turn inhibits the passage of the protein from becoming shorter units
(virions) in order to remain non–infectious. One such example is seen in the Human Immuno–
defiency Virus commonly known HIV. In a video Dr. Rufus Rajadurai extensively explained the
invasion process of the HIV virus into the uninfected cell of a human to the point of infection
.
Fig. 2 Showing a Diagrammatic Representation of a Virion. Fig.3 Showing a Diagrammatic
Representation of a Protease Inhibitor.
A protease inhibitor is therefore a drug used to interfere with the key stage of viral replication and
used to stop this fatal process.

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