Brain The Most Complex Three Pound Organ In The Human Brain

Brain The Most Complex Three Pound Organ In The Human Brain
The brain the most complex, three–pound organ in the human body. When I think of the brain it
reminds me of a committee of professions working together to achieve one goal each with
individual tasks to get the job done. The brain can be divided into the basic parts and two
hemispheres: The forebrain, the midbrain and the hindbrain, the right hemisphere and the left
hemisphere. The two hemispheres are then connected by the corpus callosum. the cerebrum is
covered by a thin layer of gray tissue called the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is in turn
divided into four lobes: frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes. The
cerebrum or telencephalon.
The four different lobes located within the cerebral cortex have individual
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Literature Review On Stroke
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Stroke:
Stroke is a common, serious and global health care problem; it's the third most common cause of
death and first cause of adult disability (12). The rehabilitation is the major part of his care (13).
Stroke is a neurological deficit caused by an acute focal injury of the central nervous system (CNS)
by a vascular cause: a cerebral infarction appears with overt symptoms or intracerebral hemorrhage
with no symptoms (10%) and subarachnoid hemorrhage (5%) (14).
The motor impairment that can be regarded as a loss or limitation of function in movement or
limitation in mobility and muscle contraction, is the most common and widely recognized
impairment caused by stroke. The movement of face, arm, and leg of one side of the body are the
structures affected by the motor impairment after stroke and affected 80% of patients. Motor ...
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Mirror visual feedback
1.2.1. Definition of mirror visual feedback
Sensory–motor integration is the capacity of the central nervous system to transform different
sources of sensory input such as visual feedback to motor actions, it help in for the control of motor
performance, skill acquisition, and the detection of motor errors (23).
Mirror visual feedback (MVF) was first introduced in 1992 by Ramachandran et al., it's a simple
non–invasive technique for the treatment of two disorders that have long been regarded as
permanent and largely incurable; chronic pain of central origin (such as phantom pain) and
hemiparesis following a stroke. (6). Altschuler and colleagues reported in their pilot study the effects
of this treatment on "the ability of movement of patients in terms of range of motion, speed and
precision," especially for patients with severe hemiparesis (24, 25).
This therapy has been used to treat phantom limb pain in amputee patients, and in stroke patients
with complex regional pain syndrome type I, peripheral nerve injury, brachial plexus avulsion, and
the paretic hand

The Brain's Correction: The Most Important Parts Of The Brain
There are many important parts in the human brain such as the cerebellum and the hind brain, but
the specific part that this essay will be focused on is the brain's cortex. The brain is made up of
layers and the cortex is the outer layer of the brain. If one were to look at a human brain the layer of
wrinkles covering the brain would be the cortex. The cortex is not just wrinkles on the brain, it is
also responsible for controlling our senses and several movements of our body. However, there are
several parts to the cortex dedicated to a certain task, these parts of the cortex are called lobes. One
of the important lobes in the human brain cortex is the parietal lobes. The parietal lobes are located
on the top of a regular human brain which makes it the center of the cortex. Moreover, according to
ciccarelli and white's textbook (2010), the somato–sensory cortex, which is located in the parietal
lobes, is responsible for recognizing the information ghathered through body receptors in order to
identify the temperature of something, the sensory details of what is touched, and to control the
body position of humans. Therefore, the parietal lobes are an important part of the brain because if it
ever got damaged it could leave a person without being able ... Show more content on
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The frontal lobes which as its name indicates are located in the front of the brain's cortex and is
responsible for the most complex and tasking functions of the brain. The frontal lobes contain
several parts compared to the other lobes in the cortex which includes the prefrontal cortex, medial
prefrontal cortex, and the orbitofrontal prefrontal cortex, all of which have a strong relationship with
the limbic system according to ciccarelli and white (2010). The functions of the frontal lobes are
mostly dedicated to complex decision making, storing and accessing memories and also affects
personality, language, and making

Ap Psychology Case Study
Fig. __ Feed–forward projections from the eyes to the brain and topographic mapping. In each eye
the visual field on the left and right of the fovea (the cut goes right through the fovea!) projects to
different cortical hemispheres: the ipsilateral retina projects to the ipsilateral visual cortex, and the
contralateral retina crosses the contralateral cortex (hemifield crossing in the optic chiasma). The
first synapse of the retinal ganglion cells is in the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), but information
from the left (L) and right (R) eye remains strictly separated. The LGN consists of six layers, layers
1 and 2 are primarily occupied by the magnocellular pathway, and 3–6 by the parvocellular.
Information from both eyes comes first together

The Human Response On An Ignition Hole For The Vehicle Essay
The focus of this paper is to highlight the human response in relation to an action, in this case
turning the key in an ignition, once it has been inserted into the correct ignition hole for the vehicle.
The aim is to identify the brain response with the haptic perceptions and to a lesser extent the visual
perceptions that are involved when completing the instruction set.
Before I begin to explain how we complete this instruction I would like to explain some functions of
our brain and how it relates to completing this task.
Before anything can begin the process to turn the key in the ignition must begin with the decision to
complete the task. The area responsible is called the prefrontal cortex (PFC) which is the cerebral
cortex located in the frontal lobe. Although this area is implicated in planning complex cognitive
behaviour, personality expression, decision making and moderating social behaviour (Yang, 2009)
we are primarily interested in its effect on decision making in relation to our instruction set chosen.
This region of the brain is considered to be responsible for alignment of thoughts and actions in
accordance with internal goals, in this case getting the key to the ignition and turning the key the
appropriate amount to complete the action of turning on the vehicle.
Another area of the brain responsible for assisting in the completion of our task is the premotor
cortex also lying in the frontal lobe just anterior to the primary motor cortex. Although this area

Secrets of the Mind Essay example
Rufus Bryant
National American University
Composition I–WI12–EN1150
Final Draft
Secrets of the Mind This summary is based on a video series, found on YouTube, depicting the
findings of neurologist, Dr. V.S. Ramachandran. Ramachandran is noted for his use of experimental
methods that rely relatively little on complex technologies such as neuroimaging. According to
Ramachandran, "too much of the Victorian sense of adventure [in science] has been lost." In the
case of Derek Steen, who is suffering from Phantom Limb Syndrome, Dr. Ramachandran evaluated
the levels of feelings on both sides of the patient's body by touching certain parts of the patient with
a q–tip. When the Dr. stroked the q–tip across the left side of the patients ... Show more content on
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DR. Ramachandran says that the reason Graham doesn't see anything, but can sense its presence due
to damage in the visual cortex. In a case similar to Graham Young, Peggy Palmer suffers from visual
neglect caused by a stroke in the parietal lobes of the brain. Dr. Ramachandran explains that parietal
lobes create a three dimensional layout of the world around us, which allows us to navigate our
direction. The patient can see, but only on one side or the other, i.e. she only sees half of what is
really there. During an experiment where the patient was asked to draw a picture of a daisy from
memory, she was only able to draw the right half of the daisy.
Until, it was brought to her attention, she had no idea that she was only drawing half of the picture.
This gives us evidence that there is not only a sensory problem, but a problem of consciousness.
With 30 areas in the brain for seeing, visual input divides into two parallel streams of processing.
One called the How pathway, is concerned with navigation and the other called the "What" pathway
is concerned with recognition.
David Silvera has damage to the "What" pathway and has been diagnosed with Capgras Syndrome.
The patient does not recognize familiar people and places. He contends that his parents are not who
they say they are and does not recognize his own home. The patient sometimes refers to himself as
he was not David. He does recognize his parent's

Visual Cortex
The Visual Pathway 1. Light must pass through the cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous humor
before reaching the retina. It must then pass through the inner layers of the retina to reach the
photoreceptive layer of rods and cones. 2. When the photoreceptors are stimulated they transmit
impulses to the bipolar cells that project to the ganglion cells of retina. 3. The axons from the
ganglion cells converge at the optic disc to form optic nerve which enters the cranial cavity through
the optic foramen. At the optic disc these axons acquire a myelin coat from oligodendrocytes of the
CNS. 4. The optic chiasm is formed by decussating fibers, which originates from the nasal half of
the retina, fibers from the temporal retina project ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Any displacement of the tympanic membrane causes changes in pressure waves which is transmitted
by tiny bones. 2–Middle ear: Sound waves traveling through the ear canal will hit the tympanum.
This wave information travels across middle ear cavity via a series of delicate bones: the mallus
(hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup). These ossicles act as a lever converting the lower–
pressure eardrum sound vibrations into higher–pressure sound vibrations to smaller membrane
called the oval window. Higher pressure is necessary because the inner ear beyond the oval window
contains liquid rather than air. The auditory reflex of the middle ear muscles helps protect the inner
ear from damage. The middle ear still contains the sound information in wave form; it is converted
to nerve impulses in the cochlea. 3–The inner ear: The inner ear consists of the cochlea. The cochlea
has three fluid–filled sections, and supports a fluid wave driven by pressure across the basilar
membrane separating two of the sections. 1–called the cochlear duct or scala media, contains an
extracellular fluid similar in composition to 2–endolymph, which is usually found inside of cells.
The organ of Corti is located at this duct, and transforms mechanical waves to electric signals in
neurons. The organ of Corti –transforms mechanical waves to electrical signals in neurons. located
in cochlear spiral ; a tube containing three compartments separated by two membranes .The upper
and

The Traveling-Wave Analysis
The travelling–wave fMRI measurement clearly reveal the human visual areas i.e. V1, V2 and V3 in
the occipital lobe (Engel et al., 1997; Sereno et al., 1995). The visual areas in the left hemisphere
contains a topographic map of the right half of the visual field, with the fovea being represented at
the back of the occipital lobe, increasingly eccentric retinal regions being represented at more
forward locations within the calcarine sulcus. Moreover, the lower visual field projects to the upper
bank of the calcarine sulcus, and the upper visual field to the lower bank, to provide a full
topographic map of the right visual field. These maps are repeated, with variants, in areas V2 and
V3. Primary visual cortex (V1), which receives direct input from retinogeniculate pathways,
occupies calcarine cortex and represents as a hemifield of visual space. ... Show more content on
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V2 and V3 both contain discontinuous hemifield maps, which are divided along the horizontal
meridian. This discontinuity creates two quarterfield maps in V2 and V3, each of which has one
long edge representing the horizontal meridian and a second representing the vertical meridian. The
dorsal V1/V2 boundary represents the lower vertical meridian; the angle maps continues toward the
horizontal meridian that defines the dorsal V2/V3 boundary, where it then reverses back to the lower
vertical meridian. There is a corresponding reversal at the horizontal representation separating
V2/V3 on the ventral surface. The concentric arrangement of V1–V3 splits the V2 and V3 maps at
the horizontal midline into dorsal and ventral subdivisions – referred to as V2d, V2v and similarly
for V3 which are V3d and V3v. The reversals in the direction of change of the angle maps
distinguish V1–V3; the eccentricity maps are aligned with

Unit 4 Brain Unit
Writing Assignment
Unit 4 – Brain Unit
A.
The brain is the most important organ for regulating human behavior and thought. The brain is very
complex and has taken centuries to discover how it functions. The brain is separated into four
distinct regions or lobes. These regions are called the frontal lobe, the occipital lobe, the temporal
lobe, and the parietal lobe. The frontal lobe is located directly behind the forehead and is the brain
region that controls higher level thinking such as memory, planning, and judgment. The frontal lobe
also contains motor cortex which allows voluntary movements. Another vital brain region is the
occipital lobe. The occipital lobe can be found in the back of the brain. Its job is to process and store
visual information. The occipital lobe ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In this situation there are three external stimuli that would cause a reaction in the body. These
stimuli are the flashing scoreboard, the taunting fans, and the intensity of the game. The flashing
scoreboard will be interpreted by a normal brain as annoying and eye catching. The information will
enter the brain via the visual cortex where the numbers will be identified. Once the numbers are
identified then the brain can tell that the score is close. This will trigger the sympathetic nervous
system which will cause increased heart rate and a fight or flight response. The information about
the taunting fans would enter the brain through the auditory cortex. The temporal lobe will then
process what they are saying. The reaction to this taunting would either be taunting the opposing
fans back or ignoring them and focusing on the game. The last stimuli is the intensity of the game
which would be enter the brain by the visual cortex. The occipital lobe will process this information
and tell the hypothalamus to have the adrenal glands release

The Neuroscience in Human Functions
In neuroscience there are many components that play important roles in the many human functions.
They are part of the reasons why human are complex and can perform complex actions. Categories
that show the importance of neuroscience is divisions and subdivisions of the human nervous
system, neurotransmitters & receptors, neuromuscular, vision, audition, somatosensory, olfaction,
gustatory, emotion, learning and memory, and communication.
The divisions and subdivisions of the human nervous system consist of the central nervous system
(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. In
the brain anatomy it consists of the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe occipital lobe,
cerebellum, and medulla oblongata. They all play in major components of the forebrain, midbrain,
and hindbrain. The forebrain consists of the telencephalon and diencephalon. In the telencephalon
consists of the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system. The diencephalon consists of the
thalamus and hypothalamus. The next component of the brain is the midbrain also known as the
mesencephalon. The mesencephalon is composed of the tectum and tegmentum. The last part of the
brain is the hindbrain, which consists of the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The
metencephalon consists of the cerebellum and the pons. The myelencephalon, consists of the
medulla oblongata. The next part of the CNS is the spinal cord. It is the CNS tissue that extends
caudally

Functions Worksheet: Abnormal Psychology
Functions Worksheet
Inside Key
Amygdala (Green)
The amygdala is responsible for how one perceives certain emotions such as anger, fear, and
sadness, also for controlling emotions like aggression. Helps to store memories of events and
emotions, so that
Hypothalamus
Thalamus(Hannah)
The thalamus, which is located above the brainstem, sorts and distributes data. It sorts sensory
information as being visual, tactile, auditory, or gustatory, then sends it to different locations within
the cortex.
Sends information received through the eyes to the occipital lobe to be processed.
Transmits auditory information to the brain's primary auditory complex.
In addition to organising and relaying sensory information, the thalamus also plays a role ... Show
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Parietal Lobe(ian)
The parietal lobe can be divided into two sections one of the sections involves itself with sensation
and perception while the other side works with sensory input and our visual system
The main function is to work with cognition and perception
The second function works mainly with spatial awareness
Integrates sensory information
Visuospatial processing
Knowledge of numbers and their relations
Occipital Lobe(Hannah)
The main function of the occipital lobe is to receive and process visual information. The occipital
lobe helps an individual understand what they are seeing. In the visual cortex, visual information is
processed, allowing for the distinction of different colors and shapes.
The occipital lobe is integral to an individual's ability not only to read, but to understand what they
have

A Brief Note On The Pathway Of Vision
1A. The pathway of vision is most easily explained by a light sensory neuron that is triggered and
then is passed on to the interneurons, passed on to the LGN neuron in the thalamus, which then goes
to the occipital cortex neuron. When the eye sees the red balloon start to come out of hand of the
man, the left visual field picks it up and the light travels through the left eye of the retina to get to
the photoreceptors, these signals are then passed through synapses to bipolar cells and from there to
ganglion cells which leave the eye as the optic nerve. Some of the axons or ganglion cells cross over
to the other side of the brain and some of those axons stay on the same side of the brain. This is so
the visual field can cross the image over to the correct side of the brain that it will be essentially
processed at. One pathway that the brain sees and image is the "old pathway'", and this pathway
would tell me where the balloon is and enables me to turn my head and body to follow it as it is
released. The other pathway it is seen as is the "new pathway", which determines what exactly the
object is and then decides how to respond to the image. The temporal lobes control the "what" that
you see, the parietal lobe controls the "how" pathway.
1B. Top– down processing is when the brain fills in information when the eye can't see exactly
everything that is suppose to be seen. For example, the blind spot in the eye that is created by the
optic nerve is filled in with

Computational Model of Neural Networks on Layer IV or...
Topic: Computational Modeling of Neural Networks on Layer IV of Primary Visual Cortex
Confirms Retinal Origin of Orientation Map
Results section Orientation selectivity is one of the properties of neuron in primary visual cortex that
a neuron response maximally when particular orientation of stimulus is given. The orientation map
is a map showing the orientation preferences of cortical neurons in primary visual cortex. This
research provides evidences for support of the theory posit that the orientation selectivity map is a
product of a Moiré interference pattern that originates in retinal ganglion cells. This paper shows
that interactions between excitatory neurons and inhibitory neurons in neuron network modeled by
NEURON simulator having a Moiré interference pattern which results in an orientation selectivity
map on the primary visual cortex.
The LGN neural network
The Feed Forward Input Network
The On and Off mosaics of magnocellular LGN cells were created. Examples of the mosaics are
shown in the figure 5. The networks act as feed forward input to the cortical neural network. Figure
5. The On and Off KGN mosaics. A) The ideal mosaic when there is no spatial noise.
B) The mosaics that created following the real physiological data constraints.
A shows more interference pattern than B.
Layer 4C of Primary Visual Cortex Cortical Network Model
There are two types of cortical neurons being considered in the model, excitatory neurons and
inhibitory neurons.

Cerebrum Essay
The Cerebrum
To begin with, the human brain is the most complex part of the human body. It has control to every
organ because of a primary functional unit which is the neurons. The exterior part of the brain has
specific functions to every organ in the human body. Therefore, the human brain is the most
important organ in the human body. A person can be left brained or right brained according to how
they act.
The Cerebellum is the trilobed structure of the brain. The cerebellum helps provide smooth
coordinated body movement. Examples would balance, posture, coordination, and voluntary
movements. It also modifies motor commands to make more movement accurate and adaptive. The
cerebellum is located at the back of the brain and contains 50% ... Show more content on
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(Canedo, A. (1997, February 7))
Broca's area can also be called convolution of Broca. Broca's are has functions linked to speech
production. In other terms it produces language. Broca's area was discovered in 1861 by Paul Broca.
Broca's area is connected to Wernicke's area by a neural pathway called accurate fasciculus. (Broca's
Area (n.d.))
Parietal lobe receives all somatosensory input from the body. Wernicke's area is located in the back
of the parietal lobe. Wernicke's area is important for understanding sensory information for
language. Damage to this part of the brain produces sensory aphasia. Patients cannot understand
language but can still make sounds. (Amthor, F. (n.d.))
Somatosensory cortex processes input from various systems in the body that are sensitive to touch.
Specialized cells react specifically to pain. Multiple types of sensation from body, includes tough,
sight, hear, smell, and taste. Sensory information carried to the brain by the neural pathways.
(Somatosensory cortex. (n.d.))
Occipital lobe receives visual information directly from eyes. This lobe is important so the eyes
know what they are seeing. These lobes have to be very fast to process rapid information that the
eyes are sending. V1 is visual area one related to whichever image is around somebody's current
point of gaze. Damage to the V1 can cause blindness. (Scott, T. (n.d.))
Temporal lobe processes auditory info from the ears. The basal ganglia works with

Visual Cortex Function
The visual cortex is related to the primary visual cortex, labeled V1 and Brodmann area 17, and
extrastriate visual cortical areas V2–V5. [12] Located in the occipital lobe, V1 functions as the
primary relay station for visual input, transferring information to two main ways marks the dorsal
and ventral streams. The flow back covers V2 and V5 areas and is used for visual interpretation
"where" and "how." The ventral stream comprises areas V2 and V4, and is used in the interpretation
of "what." [13] Increases in Task negative activity in the ventral attention network are observed after
sudden changes in sensory input, [14] at the beginning and end block tasks [15] and at the end of the
completed study. [16] Auditory cortex Temporal lobe is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The cortex like two main structures: the anterior insula, the island flap and the front cover in the
frontal lobe. Similar to the olfactory cortex of the way like working through both peripheral and
central mechanisms. Peripheral taste receptors on the tongue, soft palate, pharynx, esophagus, and
transmit the received signal to primary sensory axons, where the signal to the nucleus of the solitary
tract in the medulla, or the flavor of the nucleus of the solitary tract projected complex. The signal is
then transmitted to the thalamus, which in turn projects the signal in a plurality of areas of the
neocortex, including gustatory cortex

Cross-Modal Plasticity Essay
Part A (Word Count: 200) Cross–modal plasticity (CMP) is a fundamental feature of the nervous
system, whereby the loss of one sensory modality leads to enhanced sensory performance in
remaining modalities. Several studies have observed that areas within the occipital cortex (O.C.) of
blind individuals are recruited to process non–visual input. This was reported in blinded monkeys,
wherein the O.C. showed robust activation during tactile stimulation. However, different areas show
different susceptibilities to such plasticity depending on the developmental age at which the sensory
deprivation occurred. One study showed that O.C. activity varies between sighted and congenitally
blind participants, and those blinded later in life. Their findings indicated that the longer a person
has been blind for, the higher the amount of CMP. This might result from a variety of mechanisms
such as the emergence of new connections due to sensory deprivation or the unmasking of
preexisting connections. That said, to prove that the activation of the O.C. is truly an indicator of
CMP, scientists investigated whether stimulating the cortex with TMS would disrupt participants'
tactile acuity. Results showed congenitally blind individuals to have a much higher error rate in
reading ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, in deaf individuals, the auditory cortex would be recruited for the processing of visual
information. That said, I recall learning that you can restore people's hearing with a cochlear
implant. This would work for congenitally deaf individuals as well, who probably have a high
degree of CMP, as their auditory cortex is probably being used to process non–auditory input. This
raises the question: Are the connections formed for the expression of CMP reversible? If not, does
this mean that CMP is unfavorable, seeing as it may limit hearing restoration with cochlear

Visual Recognition And Its Effects On The Brain
Perception is based on ones ability to convert physical stimuli into behavioral responses. The
processes of perception can be viewed as fluid always free flowing. Physical stimuli being sent to
the brain being converted into information an in return a behavioral response is expressed. When the
brain suffers brain damage a lesion is caused and the brains elasticity will work around the lesion so
the brain can still function. However, the lesion is still in the brain. Visual recognition is selective
attention in vision where one has the ability to recognize objects, or people's faces (site). Agnosia is
defined as ones inability to recognize sensory inputs. Agnosia is typically a result of brain injury
(site). When one suffers brain damage ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Journal of Vision 2015). There was an experiment conducted where Participants were calibrated
with an 8–dot calibration before the start of each task. Subsequently, each participant did both the
Number and the Area Task, with order counterbalanced across subjects. Participants had to verify
whether the cumulative area was higher for the blue or yellow side, independent of number. In the
Number Task participants had to verify whether the total number of items on the screen was higher
for the blue or yellow side, independent of cumulative area. The experimenter stayed with the
participant for four practice trials in order to make sure that the participant understood which
dimension to attend to on each Task. Each trial was presented for 2000 milliseconds and participants
were able to respond at any time during that period. The stimulus stayed up after the response,
allowing eye tracking to continue for the full 2000 millisecond period. However, all of the reported
results are reduced to the participant 's response time on the particular trial. All eye–tracking
variables were extracted from the data by examining fixation points along the horizontal and vertical
axes; fixation points were determined with thresholds on both velocity and position. Any samples
that were unreliable were removed from the data analysis, because the participant blinked or looked

How Human Brain Works Essay
How the Human Brain Works
The human brain is one of the most amazing organs in a body and at the same time the most
mysterious. It is the control center of the body and it's important to understand the complexity of the
human brain. Although your brain functions as a whole, it consists of three main parts, The Central
Core, the Limbic System, and the Cerebral Cortex. Then those parts break into even smaller parts.
The brain is just like the computer, it depends on certain parts to work correctly and get every day
jobs and even more complex jobs done.
The Central Core The Central Core is the first of the three main parts of the brain. It is also broken
up into five main parts that help us do the everyday simple things in life like, ... Show more content
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The Limbic system is separated in three parts, the Hippocampus, the Amygdala, and the
Hypothalamus. The Hippocampus's role is controlling emotion, learning, and memory; while the
Amygdala controls aggression, eating, drinking, and sexual behaviors. Then you have the
Hypothalamus which monitors the blood levels of glucose, salt, blood pressure, and hormones. It
also helps to control the processes in the body through its connection to the central and autonomic
nervous systems and endocrine system.
The Cerebral Cortex
The Cerebral Cortex directs the brain's higher cognitive and emotional functions. It is divided into
two equal halves called cerebral hemispheres. Each hemisphere has the same four areas called lobes.
Areas in the lobes control all forms of conscious experience, perception, emotion, thought, and
planning, as well as many unconscious and emotional processes. The frontal lobe helps in motor
control and cognitive activities, like planning, making decisions, setting goals, and relating the
present to the future through purpose. The parietal lobe controls the sensory process, spatial
interpretation, attention, and language understanding. The occipital lobe controls the process of
visual information and passes its conclusions to the parietal and temporal lobes. This leads me to the
temporal lobe which assists in auditory perception, language comprehension, and visual recognition.
If the central core, limbic system or cerebral cortex fails the brain will not be

Why is Hubel and Wiesel's Description of the Classical...
The ultimate goal for a system of visual perception is representing visual scenes. It is generally
assumed that this requires an initial 'break–down' of complex visual stimuli into some kind of
"discrete subunits" (De Valois & De Valois, 1980, p.316) which can then be passed on and further
processed by the brain. The task thus arises of identifying these subunits as well as the means by
which the visual system interprets and processes sensory input. An approach to visual scene analysis
that prevailed for many years was that of individual cortical cells being 'feature detectors' with
particular response–criteria. Though not self–proclaimed, Hubel and Wiesel's theory of a
hierarchical visual system employs a form of such feature detectors. I ... Show more content on
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Applying this notion to mammalian vision is however problematic; humans for example, are capable
of visually perceiving greater detail and variety than a frog and would thus require considerably
more of these uniquely coded feature detectors. The notion of a 'grandmother cell' was thus
introduced to highlight the entailment of such a theory; if every unique stimulus requires its own
feature–detector cell, an absurdly high number of neurons would be required for humans to
represent the vast variety of visual scenes encountered in a lifetime.
Aware of this shortcoming, Hubel and Wiesel (1962,1965,1968) were cautious not refer to 'feature
detectors' when examining the receptive fields of the mammalian visual cortex of live cats (Hubel &
Wiesel, 1962) and monkeys (Hubel & Wiesel, 1968). Nonetheless, it is now widely accepted that
Hubel and Wiesel's theory of simple, complex and hyper–complex cells remains a form of the
original feature–detector theory, albeit formulated into a more economical hierarchical structure.
(Lennie, 2003; Martin, 1994) Hubel and Wiesel (962, 1965) concluded that vision involved a
hierarchical process starting in the retina, continuing through the lateral geniculate body, the primary
visual cortex and possibly even into areas V2 and V3. As sensory information travels further up the
hierarchy, it passes through progressively higher–order cells that become increasingly

Parietal Lobe Research Paper
The cerebral cortex is the largest outer most part of the brain. It consist of tissue known as gray
matter which is made of neuronal bodies. The optimal function of the cerebral cortex is vitally
important. All information necessary to sustain life is stored and processed in the cerebral cortex.
The tissue are divided into the left and right sides which are joined together by the corpus callosum.
The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes, the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobe. Each
area carrying its own set of functions and responsibilities. These four lobes together make up the
primary somatosensory area of the brain which controls the five sensory systems in the brain taste,
olfaction, touch, hearing and vision. These systems receive sensory information from the thalamic
nerve projections. The primary motor area of the brain consist of a much smaller area located within
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Dopamine limits and selects sensory information from the thalmus. The parietal lobe also deals with
movement, along with orientation, recognition, and perception of stimuli. This cortical region is the
main sensory area for the sense of touch, major inputs from the skin relay from the thalmus to the
parietal lobe. All visual processes are carried out in the occipital lobe (true to its name), and the
temporal lobe is associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and speech.
The temporal lobe is responsible for deriving meanings for the appropriate retention of visual
memories, language comprehension, and emotional association. Together these areas of the brain
control the body through the CNS (central nervous system). Every bodily function needed to sustain
life is initiated first through these primary sensory areas, making the brain of course the most
important muscle in the

The Neurological And Behavioral Changes Associated With...
Sarah Walker
Gordon Deecker
INSC 3909
December 14, 2015
The Neurological and Behavioral Changes Associated with Learning Music as a Child
Some would argue that humans are intrinsically wired to produce music. As an infant, the sounds
children make while learning language mimic the tonal shape of language. Parents also tend to use
exaggerated highs and lows in their voices much like a simple melody to prepare and help develop
the infant's capacity to learn language. It has also been found that the neural networks used in
language acquisition are very similar to those used in music acquisition (Mithen 2006). Language
acquisition and development is imperative for an individual to survive, and if training the brain with
music can strengthen those networks, this is a subject of great importance. Since the 1940s doctors
have recognized the impacts of music on the behavior of patients with mental disabilities, and from
this discovery, the effects of music on a regular developing brain became a subject of great interest.
Researchers recognized that there was potentially an opportunity to increase brain development in
children resulting in discernable enhancements of skills into adulthood (Reschke–Hernandez, 2011).
It is now known that childhood music education improves skills required for playing music, namely
motor functioning, auditory discrimination, and long and short term recall. These skills, learned
through music instruction, transfer to non–musical skills such as verbal

Essay about Blindsight and Qualities of Visual Perception
Blindsight and Qualities of Visual Perception
ABSTRACT: The aim of this paper is to defend a broad concept of visual perception, according to
which it is a sufficient condition for visual perception that subjects receive visual information in a
way which enables them to give reliably correct answers about the objects presented to them.
According to this view, blindsight, non–epistemic seeing, and conscious visual experience count as
proper types of visual perception. This leads to two consequences concerning the role of the
phenomenal qualities of visual experiences. First, phenomenal qualities are not necessary in order to
see something, because in the case of blindsight, subjects can see objects without experiences
phenomenal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Concerning the role of the phenomenal qualities for seeing particularly the following two questions
are of importance:
(1) The first question is dealing with the causal or functional role of phenomenal qualities: Under
the assumption that seeing is based on cortical information–processing, the question arises, whether
the phenomenal qualities of visual perceptions have a function with regard to this processing, in the
sense that the intentional content of visual perceptions depends not only on their intentional, but also
on their phenomenal qualities. Is it true, as among other authors Frank Jackson and Steven Pinker
claim, that phenomenal qualities are only epiphenomena, not having any function for information–
processing? (1)
(2) The second question concerns the status of phenomenal qualities: Are the phenomenal qualities
of visual perceptions non–intentional qualities, or do they belong to a certain type of intentional
qualities? In other words, are phenomenal and intentional contents essentially different, or are the
so–called phenomenal contents of visual perceptions really part of their intentional contents?
In order to come to a decision concerning these two questions, several authors, among them Peter
Carruthers, Daniel Dennett, Colin McGinn, Nicholas Humphrey and Robert VanGulick, refer to an
empirical phenomenon called "blindsight". (2)

Is Dyslexia A Common Neurological Lifelong Condition?
What is Dyslexia?
Dyslexia is a common neurological lifelong condition which affects 1 out of 5
people in the country (Facts About Dyslexia, 2008). It is not caused by poor
vision(Understanding Dyslexia, 2014); in fact it can happen to those whom are very
intelligent (Davis, 1992). The brain has difficulty processing reading, written and spoken
language (Facts About Dyslexia, 2008). People with dyslexia need a little more time and
a different way to process the information (Understanding Dyslexia, 2014).
What part of the brain is affected?
Individuals with dyslexia actually process information in a different part of the
brain; the right of their brains understand language called the planum temporale but they
often cannot ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a study it was discovered a structural difference in two parts of
brain, in the cerebral cortex and thalamus. The cerebral cortex it is a six layer in the outer
part of the brain which processes sensory, motor, memory, language, and attention. The
thalamus is located in the center of the brain it processes information from the eyes and
ears (Neuroscience, 2000).
There are nerve cells and nerve fibers located in the first layer of the cortical area
which is responsible for language called ectopias; Ectopias sometimes travel too far and

end up in foreign places. Scientists believe that this occurs during the development of the
brain of a fetus before its sixth month (Structrual Brain, 1999). Ectopic neurons connect
to other parts of the brain differently; Most ectopias are in the language area, and the
front part of the brain is related to verbal memory (Structrual Brain, 1999).. With
different wiring patterns in the brain it affects the reading and writing process (Structrual
Brain, 1999).
To say a word that is read, the information goes to the primary visual cortex; the
word then goes to the primary visual cortex which then travels to the posterior speech
area, including Wernicke's area and to Broca's area, and lastly to the

Complications Of Functional Perception Patterns In The...
Introduction
The ability to generate category–related representations for a limitless collection of visual contents
is a vital function of human brain (Chao et al., 1999). It is demonstrated that widely–distributed
neural networks are engaged in the distinction of semantic categories, such as the ventral temporal
cortex, which plays a significant role in face and object recognition (Chao et al., 1999; Haxby et al.,
2000; Haxby et al., 2001; O'toole et al., 2005). Accumulating evidence has suggested that
differential neural response patterns in human brain are closely associated with specific categories of
visual stimuli (Haxby et al., 2000; Haxby et al., 2001; Kanwisher et al., 1997). However, it remains
unclear how the functional ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using multi–voxel pattern analysis (MVPA), they found that the neural representations of face and
objects can be discriminated not only by activation patterns within the specific cortical regions that
maximally respond to one category, but can also be identified according to the patterns of
nonmaximal responses (Haxby et al., 2001), which provided us with novel insights into the neural
mechanism underlying the decoding of semantic categories.
While the MVPA method adopted in this study well characterized the features of the response
patterns associated with the semantic categories, it was computationally heavy. Also, it remained an
open question whether a simpler method–univariate analysis will provide sufficient evidence
indicating the category–specificity of the distributed neural representations in human brain.
Therefore, in the current study, I applied a straightforward univariate analysis on the original data of
Haxby et al.'s (2001) experiment to further investigate the neural response patterns evoked by face
and object stimuli. More specifically, I examined whether the category–related information was
revealed by the patterns of response across the whole brain space, and the activation in the
functional localizer fusiform face area resulted from face stimuli.
Methods
Subjects
Six subjects participated (5 females) in Haxby et

The Controller of Humans: The Brain Essay
The human brain is composed of many important parts of everyday life. The exterior part of the
brain has 9 part in which include are divided into different sections, lobes, cortex, and areas. Within
the lobes, it includes frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. In cortexes, it has the motor
cortex, and the sensory cortex. Within the areas section it includes Broca's Area. The cerebellum is a
small version of the brain, and the cerebrum is the like the whole brain. Although the brain is about
three pounds blood flows through the brain about 750–1,000 milliliters (mL) per minute, (Disabled
World, 2008) (Brain Trivia, (n.d.)).
The brain is quite small but there is still a little brain, the cerebellum. The cerebellum function is to
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Largest of the lobes, handles brain thinking functions (Frontal Lobe: (n.d.)). This lobe is located in
front of the central sulcus (Lobes of the Brain, (n.d.)).
The cortex responsible for coordination of planning, control, and executing voluntary movements is
the motor cortex. Motor areas are located in both hemispheres meaning it is located in between. The
motor cortex of the left hemisphere control right side of the body. The motor cortexes of the right
hemisphere control the left side of the body. Three parts make up the motor cortex. Which are the
primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex, and the supplementary motor area (The Motor Cortex.
(n.d.)).
Broca's Area generates speech, writing, language processing and comprehension (Cold Spring
Harbor Laboratory, (n.d.)).Named after French scientist Paul Broca. Scientist believe that we speak
with the left–brain. Located in the front part of the left hemisphere. Lies specifically in the third
frontal convolution. Broca's Area contains motor neurons involving the control of speech.
(Encyclopedia of Britannica, (n.d.)).
Within the lobes, the parietal lobe lies in that category. This lobes function is to stimuli touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain (Lobes of the Brain, (n.d.)). This parietal lobe is divided into two
parts, superior parietal and the inferior parietal lobe. Neurons receive sensory information from skin
and tongue. This then processes information from the ears and the eyes (Parietal Lobe, (n.d.)).
The

Internal Lobe Research Paper
There are four lobes that make up the complex organ that we call the brain. Each of these parts or
lobes have different functions that range from reasoning to auditory perception and make that
particular person so unique. Some people have stronger and well more developed lobes in which is
why not everyone is the same and could mean one section is inferior to the rest. To begin with, the
frontal lob, which is located in the front of the human head, is associated with reasoning, higher
level cognition, language, and motor skills. Behind the frontal lobe lies the motor cortex in which is
the part where the brain receives an ample amount of information. The information that was
mentioned are from various lobes of the brain and helps the body with movements. Another section
of the brain, located in the middle is called the parietal lobe. This lobe, is in charge of processing
tactile sensory information. Touch, pain, and pressure are essential to a persons everyday life and
without it could lead to naturalistic numbness. A portion of the brain, known as the somatosensory
cortex, is located in this major lobe and helps to the stages of processing body senses. The Occipital
lobe, found in the very rear of the head governs the ability of interpreting visual stimuli and
information. A primary conductor called the visual cortex receives all info from ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
This lobe is very important as well due to the hearing benefit it supplies and allows people to
interpret sounds and languages. It is also the primary location of the auditory cortex that is home to
the hippocampus, which is involved in construction of new memories , is located in this lobe. Being
in this region is the reason this portion of this brain is heavily associated with the development of
memories. Other problems include speech perception as well as language skills which is crucial to a
humans everyday

The Name of the Brain Areas and Its Functions
) The name of the brain areas and its functions Image 1: Brain parts
Image 1: http://www.infocomcanada.com/cmpi/Program%20Guide/brain.htm (viewed at 08/03/14)
Brain Part Function A) Frontal lobe The frontal lobes of the brain are the most anterior, which
means they are positioned right behind your forehead and at the top–front of the head.
The frontal lobes, which are also called the cerebral cortex, are the seat of emotions and judgments
related to sympathy, which is the ability to feel sadness for someone else's suffering, and empathy,
which the ability to understand another's feelings and problems. They are also the seat of
understanding humour, including delicate witticisms and word plays.
The frontal lobes also identifies sarcasm and irony, another function of lobes control is the
functioning of sequencing events, which is the ability to plan a series of movements needed to
perform a multi–step task, like making a sandwich. The ability to solve problems, which often
depends on flexible thinking and the ability to correctly express language are both controlled by the
frontal lobes. The left is most predominantly language related while the right is most predominantly
non–verbal. the left brain is the source of logic, which tends to be language based, and the right is
creative, which tends to be non–verbal
Rear part of the frontal lobe is especially designed for the movements and tissue disorganization
cause of the disability of a limb. Stimulate of every part of the

The Functions Of The Talamus In The Midbrate Brain
Translated from Greek thalamus means "chamber" and is a midline symmetrical structure of two
halves, with the vertebrate brain, situated between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain. The
functions of the thalamus is to relay the sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex and the
midbrain, and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness. The thalamus is located in the
forebrain superior to the midbrain, near the center of the brain, with nerve fibers projecting into the
cerebral cortex in all directions of the brain. The surface of the thalamus constitutes the upper part of
the lateral wall of the third ventricle, and is connected to the corresponding surface of the opposite
thalamus by a flattened gray band, the interthalamic

Role Of Neurological Change
The overall picture of neurological changes following early moderate PEE
1.1. The role of GABA signalling system in the developing brain
The embryonic brain development process commences after the neural tube is closed at neurulation.
Progenitor cells in the brain start to proliferate in the progenitor zone, where they transform into
postmitotic cells and migrate to different brain regions. Once they reach their final destination, they
start to grow their axons to make connections with other cells (synaptogenesis). When the axons
reach their correct targets, these connections are strengthened by myelination [255]. In rodents,
myelination continues until the first two postnatal months [255].
GABA signaling system plays a critical role in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Ligand–gate ion channels are a family of neurotransmitter receptors, which include GABAa and
glutamate [228].
1.2. Multi–level abnormalities were detected in the brain following an early moderate PEE profile
Our study showed that moderate PEE from GD0–8 can produce significant brain abnormalities at a
gross level as well as at microscopic level. These abnormalities may be largely linked to the effects
of ethanol in early gestation, which was shown to induce disruption of the GABA signaling system,
including altered functions and expression of GABAa receptors. Brain alterations were observed in
adult animals, suggesting long–term persistent teratogenic effects of PEE on the CNS.
Gross volumetric changes included:
(1) a smaller third ventricle and a smaller left lateral ventricle;
(2) local shrinkage of the ventral olfactory bulbs, septal region, thalamus, motor, somatosensory,
auditory, visual and ectorhinal/entorhinal/piriform cortex, caudate putamen, hippocampus, PAG,
outer layers of lobules IV–V and pyramus (VIII) of the cerebellum;
(3) local enlargement of the olfactory tract areas, outermost layer of frontal pole, motor and visual
cortex, left anterior cingulate, right hippocampal commissure, bilateral dorso–caudal CA1 of the
hippocampus, inner layers of lobules IV–V of the cerebellum and ventral medullary reticular
nucleus.
Tissue microstructure changes included:
(1) reduced AD in the anterior cingulate region, motor and

The Contribution Of David Hunter Hubel
Introduction In 1981, D.H Hubel and T.N Wiesel were awarded half of the Nobel prize in
Physiology or Medicine, along with R.W. Sperry who received the other half. The two had been
conducting experiments and publishing their findings together for over twenty years, before they
were awarded the Nobel prize for "their discoveries concerning information processing in the visual
system." They produced many reports including single and complex cells, and ocular dominance.
Their work provided better understanding of the visual system and therefore led the way for others
to develop knowledge and treatment of eye conditions. Their discovery also helped other scientists
to conduct and publish work of their own.
Background
David Hunter Hubel was a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Their experiments took place on anaesthetized cats with microelectrodes inserted into their primary
visual cortex, their eyes were also held open allowing the experiment to be conducted. Small spots
of light were shone onto the restricted retinal regions which often would cause brisk responses and
could be divided into excitatory and inhibitory regions (shown in fig.1). Excitatory areas if
illuminated produced an increased frequency of firing compared to inhibitory regions, although both
did produce responses. Stationary spots showed that the excitatory and inhibitory regions were
aligned side by side within the central responsive area, flanked by antagonistic areas. Light stimulus
covering the whole receptive field was practically ineffective in most units due to mutual
antagonism between excitatory and inhibitory regions, shown in figure 1 (f).
A vertical slit of light was projected, which only covered the excitatory areas and avoided all
inhibitory areas, however when turned horizontally, it touched inhibitory areas and responses were
dramatically reduced or lost completely. This was due to the stimulation of excitatory areas being
smaller than the antagonistic areas that were stimulated and thus responses shielded. The excitatory
and inhibitory areas had similar shape and positioning and responded in the same way to directional
movement (Hubel and Wiesel, 1959).
Simple and Complex Cells

The Cerebral Cortex
Q1: The cerebral cortex is a highly organized, six layered structure (L1–6) with a variety of
excitatory and inhibitory cell types. Excitatory (glutamatergic) neurons make up 80% of the cortex
and consist of pyramidal and spiny stellate (granule) neurons. Inhibitory (GABAergic) neurons
make up only 20% of the cortex and consist of four different subtypes: non–fast spiking serotonin
expressing GABAergic neurons, martinotti cells, basket cells, and chandelier cells (Petersen &
Crochet, 2013; Shipp, 2007). The total number of neuronal cells in the adult human cortex is 21.4
billion for females and 26.3 billion for males; however, there are also non–neuronal cells present in
the cortex (Pelvig, Pakkenberg, Stark, & Pakkenberg, 2008). The major non–neuronal cells are glial
cells and consist of: oligodendrocytes (75% of non–neuronal cells), astrocytes (20%) and microglia
(5%) (Pelvig et al., 2008). The layering of the cortex is highly organized, with specific cell bodies
located in each layer. Layer 1 receives input from other cortical layers as well as subcortical layers
and is comprised solely of inhibitory neurons, although there are axons and dendrites that project
onto these neurons in addition to non–neuronal cells (Petersen & Crochet, 2013). Layers 2/3 are
difficult to differentiate from one another, and often referred to as the supragranular layers. These
layers contain medium sized pyramidal cells that have densely packed and highly aligned apical
dendrites and make

Examples Of Signal Detection Theory
S. S. Stevens, who was considered the World's first Professor of Psychophysics, proposed the Signal
Detection Theory. The basic premise of this theory states that perception is not a matter of
sensitivity, but considered in terms of the environment in which the event occurred. Two critical
components of the Signal Detection Theory includes signal, which is considered as the desired
"stimulus", and noise, which is the undesired "stimulus", or the events in the environment. Within a
signal detection task, there are in total four possibilities or outcomes. These outcomes depend on the
presences of a stimulus as well as a "yes" or "no" response. If the stimulus is present and the
response is "yes", then the task outcome would be considered a hit. If the stimulus is absent and the
response is "yes", then the task outcome would be considered a "false alarm". If the stimulus is
present and the response is "no", then the task outcome would be considered a "miss". Lastly, if the
stimulus is absent and the response is "yes", then the task outcome would be considered a "correct
rejection". ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Sensitivity involves the intensity of the stimulus and the ability of the observers. It is defined by a
sensitivity index, which is the function of the strength of the signal. Sensory criterion, on the other
hand, is defined as Decision Point or Response Bias–tendency to respond in a particular manner.
This depends on the expectation of signal and the observer's motivation. These components are
expressed by "Receiver Operating Characteristics" (ROC) curves, which d' is a value defining the
amount of overlap between noise and stimulus. The larger the d' value, the more likely one is going
to detect the stimulus

The 1981 Nobel Prize Of Physiology And Medicine
The 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine
In the year of 1981 three gentlemen were awarded The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
where the prize was divided and then shared amongst the three men. At the time of awarding, the
three gentlemen specialized in the field of neurophysiology while two also specialized in the field of
ocular physiology. One–half of the prize was awarded to Roger W. Sperry for his discoveries
involving the cerebral hemispheres whereas the other half was awarded and split between David H.
Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel for their findings on the visual system. Therefore, together their
research altered how people originally thought the brain processed information by verifying how the
brain functions and why information is perceived in such a manner. The research conducted by
Roger W. Sperry began in the 1960's and dealt solely with the cerebrum. Before this time, society
only understood the left hemisphere of the brain to be dominant over the right hemisphere. In this
understanding, the cerebrum was composed of two halves, which were referred to as the
hemispheres. The cerebrum consisted of the two hemispheres and millions of nerve fibers that
allowed each hemisphere to distinguish what occurred in the other hemisphere. In the same sense, it
was understood that although both the left and right hemisphere were the same in structure, their
functions differed.
According to The Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute press release, "Sperry has

Complex Part Of The Brain Essay
The brain is a very complex part of the human anatomy. It has two hemispheres which control
different parts of the body and mental processes like breathing, thinking, and sleeping. The cerebral
cortex, which surrounds the two hemispheres, is just one of these complex areas of the brain
(Huffman, 2005, p.67). This part of the brain has different functions for motor and sensory data.
Four lobes are the part of the brain are that is covered. These lobes have extremely important
participating roles in the human system, and without them the body would be unable to do mundane
tasks like talking or memorization (Huffman, 2005, p.68). These help to control more functions and
sending various messages to parts of the body. Continually, the two hemispheres of the brain have
four specific sections which control certain aspects of the brain: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal
lobe, and occipital lobe.
I. Frontal Lobes ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The frontal lobes, located near the top of the brain, receives and creates messages from the other
lobes of the brain and help with talking, muscle movements, thinking, and more (Huffman ,2005,
p.68) In the left lobe, there is an area called Broca's area and is "known to play a crucial part in
speech production(Huffman,2005, p.68). The frontal lobe influences our emotions, it also effects our
"social behavior" and how we interact with others (Lobes of the brain, 2014). The frontal lobes, for
they are so close to the front of the skull, are the most likely to injure (Lobes of the brain, 2014).
This is not good because the frontal lobes helps with "self–awareness" and studies have shown
abnormalities in the frontal lobes of schizophrenic patients" (Huffman, 2005, p.69). On the left of
the frontal lobes are where motor cortex is found (Huffman, 2004, p.68). When going to the store
and getting some groceries and you pick up some cookies, this is the frontal lobe and the motor
cortex

Ap Psychology Chapter 9 Answer Key
Psych Chapter Dos
Is our identity in the heart?
In the brain?
In the whole body?
Biological Psychologists explore the associations between body, mind, and behavior.
Cell Body– The cell's life– support center
Dendrites– Receive messages from other cells
Axon– passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Neutral Impulse– (actin potential) electrical signal traveling down the axon
Myelin Sheath– covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neutral impulses
Terminal Branches of axon– From junctions with other cells
There are billions of neurons throughout the body. Body's communication system.
Glial Cells
Glial Cells– outnumber neurons 9 to 1
They provide nutrients to neurons/ protect
Action Potential: a neural impulse that travels down an axon like a wave
"The Wave" (sports stadium)
When does the cell send the action potential? When it reaches a threshold.
How neurons communicate (with each other).
The threshold is reached when excitatory(Fire!) signals outweigh the inhibitory (Don't Fire!) signals
by a certain amount.
The Synapse– The synapse is a junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite
or cell body of the receiving neuron.
The synapse is also known is also known as a "synapse junction" or "synaptic gap"
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemicals used to send a signal across the synaptic gap

Reuptake
Reuptake: After the neurotransmitters stimulate the receptors on the receiving neuron, the

Vision and Blindsight Essay
Vision and Blindsight
Implications Regarding Consciousness
Vision–– receiving and interpreting light signals from the environment in order to form an image in
one's mind–– is an incredibly complex process. Somehow signals from photoreceptors located in the
eye are converted into the conscious experience of sight. Of all the aspects of vision, perhaps the
most difficult for us to comprehend scientifically is this notion of consciousness. Somehow the brain
interprets light waves hitting the retina so that we are visually aware of our surroundings. While the
mechanism of signal transduction from the photoreceptor through the visual cortex has been
extensively elucidated, science has difficulty dealing with the phenomena of consciousness ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Patients tend to correctly identify shape, color, and motion of inputs. In a forced choice experiment,
where the subject is asked to identify certain features of a visual cue, the subject will perform much
better than chance even though they feel as if they are randomly guessing (2).
While head trauma or tumors often induce the "psychic" blindness of these patients, a model has
been developed in monkeys by removing all or part of the primary visual cortex. These monkeys are
able to respond to visual inputs. They can be trained to touch illuminated bulbs rather than unlit ones
and identify certain colors and patterns in order to obtain food. This phenomenon is believed to
parallel human blindsight because when trained to respond differently according to whether there is
a visual cue or not, these monkeys respond as if there were no cue when a visual input is presented
to the blind field (1). It is therefore believed that these animals are able to respond to and identify
features of a visual cue even though they do not report seeing it.
The phenomenon of blindsight has far reaching implications regarding consciousness, awareness
and the "I" function. These studies demonstrate that receiving and interpreting visual inputs is
independent of our awareness of that input. Does this imply that there is a separate mechanism of
"consciousness" which can be disengaged from our senses? Marcel proposes that this loss of visual
consciousness results from the

Primary Visual Cortex
Throughout history, a human being was always reliant on the primary sensory areas. An ability to
communicate and contract languages is considered to be a unique ability of human nation as no
other species show an equal amount of complexity in terms of the structure and sound combination.
On the other hand, primary visual cortex provides a skill set in order to identify the objects
presented in the world, the distance towards them as well as to design a set of actions in order to
incorporate some items such as a stone or a pen. The understanding of these systems is crucial,
especially for those who suffer from strokes and tumors and as a result lost the ability to visually
recognize objects or hear other people. This work will focus of the structure ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The system consists of the eyes where the information is collected, geniculate lateral nucleus and
visual cortex. The visual cortex could be subdivided into the primary visual cortex and the striate
cortex. This sensory system is located at the back of a brain parts of which are located in both
hemispheres. Recent studies obtained a sufficient amount of information in order to construct the
two–stream hypothesis, which describes the ventral and dorsal streams. The ventral stream begins at
the primary visual cortex and goes to the inferior temporal cortex. Main functional responsibilities
of this area include identification of objects and the emergence of the long–term memory the origins
of which are placed in this area (Rauschecker, Josef P and Sophie K. Scott 722). Dorsal stream also
begins at the primary visual cortex and ends at the posterior parietal cortex. It is mainly responsible
for the body part control required in order to manipulate an object. The research shows that these
"what" and "why" systems are not directly related, and the damage in one affect the other only to a
certain extent. It could be explained by the fact that that input is transformed differently via action
and

Perceptual Disorders That Can Disrupt Visual Perception
In the following essay an attempt will be made to look at the different perceptual disorders that can
disrupt visual perception. Efforts will be made to compare (which by definition is the pointing out of
differences and similarities) and it will also attempt to contrast (by pointing out the differences) in a
logical and factual way. To do this, it is important to first define what is (a) meant by 'Visual
perception' and what it is thought to (B)encompass, and the (c) different perceptual disorders that
may consequently lead to a disruption in this visual perception. The following account will
culminate in a factual recording of the effect these disorders may have on the individual and the
resulting disruptions that may occur within visual perception.
(A) Explained as simplistically as possible, Visual perception itself is the ability to interpret one 's
surrounding environment by, processing information through the eye to the brain. The eye is a sense
organ which is part of the sensory system which in turn transmits information about one 's
environment to the brain.
(B) The eye sees its environment by using light, at first the image of one 's environment is perceived
as upside down but their eye changes this image to the correct way around; this process is called
Reception. The image is then transformed from electromagnetic energy to electrochemical energy;
this process is called Transduction. At this point the energy is transmitted along the individual's optic
nerve to

How Disease Affects The Brain
how can disease affect the brain and what can we do to treat this?
The brain is the main asset of our body as it controls different functions, therefore it is part of the
nervous system alongside the spinal cord. Our brain has four different parts (known as lobes) that
are required for different types of bodily functions (found within the cerebral cortex). The different
parts are called: –
1. Frontal lobe (motor cortex) – which is found on the forehead. This part of the brain is mainly
involved with lever cognition and expressing languages.
2. Occipital lobe (visual cortex) – which is found at the back of the brain. This part of the brain in
mainly involved with interpreting visual stimuli and information.
3. Parietal lobe (somatosensory

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