Benefits Of Genetic Modification

Benefits Of Genetic Modification
The debate about genetic modification has been going on for a long time. On one hand, advocates for genetic modification believe that many diseases
could be prevented and it would relieve many people from pain. On the other hand, many critics of genetic modification believe that it is unnatural or
playing god. I am drawn to this issue because I believe genetic modification is going to be, if it isn't already, ubiquitous in our future. In my lifetime,
20–30 years from now, I will have to deal with the benefits and the possible ramifications of genetic modification. This issue is going to affect me
directly and therefore I have chosen this topic. Genetic modification is already on the horizon and there is little anyone can do to stop this. Genetic
modification should be allowed because it can relieve suffering, improve the quality of life and strengthen pharmaceuticals. but it obviously needs
limitations and regulations. While genetic modification, can dramatically improve people's lives, it could have side effects if abused. It should be
noted that genetic modification should only be used to cure or prevent serious diseases, there should be no enhancements. There is a fine line between
preventative medicine and enhancements. An enhancement is changing something normal to make it extraordinary. Serious diseases would include all
such ailments that infringes on a human beings quality of life and puts them through pain. Fatal diseases such as cystic fibrosis, cancer,
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The Disease Of Common Diseases
Common diseases such as diabetes, cancer, autism, and age–related macular degeneartion effect substantial number of people. Understanding of genetic
causes of these diseases will provide fundamental insight for preventing, diagnosing, and eventually curing these diseases. In the past few decades,
more than a thousand of rare Mendelian diseases causative genes have been identified by combination of linkage analysis with positional cloning (http:/
/omim.org/). However, this strategy does not have enough power as applied to common diseases, in which usually multiple genetic and environmental
risk factors contribute to disease development, and each risk factor only account for a small fraction of the influences (Risch, 2000).
Thereafter, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In GWAS, a set of sequence variants are used as genetic markers to discover disease associated regions across the human genome, and subsequently to
detect causative variants within these regions. As relying on the assumption that the disease risk variants will be in linkage disequilibrium (LD) with
one of the marker variants tested, this strategy provides the potential to test any region and gene across the genome for disease association. To apply
GWAS, it is necessary to establish a human genetic variant catalog with characterization of their allele frequencies and LD pattern among different
populations.
The first human genome sequence variation map with 1.42 million SNPs was created by the international SNP Map Working Group in 2000
(Sachidanandam et al., 2001). The SNPs localize either within or close to exons, and the map only described the information on the nearby genes and
other genomic features of the SNPs without characterizing their allele frequencies and LD patterns. It was applied for linkage study, but not enough for
association studies
Until 2002, the international HapMap consortium launched a project with aim to construct the first comprehensive human genetic variant database to
facilitate investigation of the genetic risk factors of human diseases, especially common diseases (2003). The HapMap project consists of three phases
lasting from 2002–2009. The

Human Evolution Quiz
Hello,
I took the time to take the Human Variation Quiz before reviewing the text and lesson. I wanted a less informed view.
Identify which question(s) you had the most difficulty in answering.
While a few of the questions required thought, there were only a few that I was unsure about. Questions number 3, Asians, Africans and Europeans
share common DNA variations, but African's have additional variations that the other two categories do not. I found that difficult because I had assume
there were no difference. What does this mean? It means that race is not genetic.
Sickle cell trait is not determined according to skin color. Instead, it is an evolutionary trait to resist malaria. Which is common "The vast majority of
cases in the United States ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is not the only factor that changes DNA. Natural selection and our environment have an effect, but it is a slower progress.
Why are such misconceptions about race popularized?
With any misconception, the problem stems from lack of knowledge. The term race used presently is incorrect and became popularized
"Contemporary scholars agree that "race" was a recent invention and that it was essentially a folk idea, not a product of scientific research and
discovery" (www.pbs.org). Race is term that is built on the science of genetics.
Let's begin from a more genetic approach. Unlike species of primates, human being do not vary as largely as popular opinion would have you
believe. A person taken from Asia and then compared to one from Africa would have small genetic variations. That is not taking into consideration
genetic drift. If instead a person was take from everyone 100 miles instead, you would see the change in genetics. That is not because of raise but due
to environmental and social differences.
Now for the misconception of skin color. Skin color is an evolutionary trait. Natural selection to a skin color that is most beneficial to the area of the
planet. A person who lives in an area that receives high amounts of UVB rays requires darker pigmentations to protect from over saturation of vitamin
D and skin

Genetically Modified Organisms By Margaret Atwood
How far is too far when it comes to genetically modified organisms? Margaret Atwood shares her view on GMOs in Oryx and Crake. Atwood often
expresses distaste for these altered organisms through her examples of pigoons and other genetically modified foods, which are still relatively new
in our society. Despite more commonly occurring dislike from Atwood, she sees a few positives to GMOs. Although GMOs can increase food
supply with higher yields, genetically modified organisms should be regulated to a certain extent for the sake of society 's overall wellbeing. Because
there has not been enough long term testing on GMOs to detect possible problems, everyone's health could be suffering. There are few laws regulating
genetically modified organisms due to the fact that they have not been around for a long time. No long term testing has been concluded, therefore there
is no scientific conclusion when it comes to the safeness of genetically modified organisms. Compared to other countries, the United States regulations
on GMOs is relatively favorable towards their development. According to the Library of Congress, a series of polls conducted from 2001 to 2006
found that the publics understand of biotechnology technology, which produces these genetically modified foods, was relatively low, and that
consumers were relatively unaware of the extent to which their foods included genetically modified ingredients (United States). Sixty–four countries
around the world require labeling of

Genetic Variation Between Human Populations
Population demographic factors such as age, sex, diet and ethnicity explain the largest proportion of genetic variation between human populations
(Fumagalli et al., 2011). Infectious agents including viruses, bacteria and protozoa are likely one of the strongest evolutionary drivers of the remaining
genetic diversity within and between populations, as a result of the selective pressure they inflict in regions where infection is endemic. Mortality is
the strongest selective pressure which is imposed by an infectious agent. Any genetic variant associated with an improved response to that pathogen is
likely to be a target for selection (Fumagalli et al., 2011). Positive selection results in the increased frequency of a beneficial allele. Balancing selection
maintains diversity, while negative selection eliminates deleterious variants. This process of natural selection leaves behind distinctive signatures of
selection that can be exploited to identify regions of the genome under selection (Karlsson et al., 2014). Signatures of selection are distinctive because
they reflect uncommon patterns of allele frequencies at a particular locus when compared to the underlying genetic variation. Candidate based gene
approaches, Genome wide association studies (GWAS), haplotype based methods and various statistical tests such as Tajima's D statistic are used to
detect these signatures of selection within the human genome. This essay uses specific examples to discuss the evidence of

Genetic Engineering And The Human Race
The Hopes of Human Genetic Engineering are Dreadful If the world had the possibility to be a healthier one, one can rest assure that it would make
that possibility a reality. However, the world already has been having that possibility through genetic engineering, but at the same time, it has remained
a possibility and not a reality. With this in mind, one must wonder why; why has it remained a possibility? In order to successfully answer this, it is
important to understand what genetic engineering is, and how it could allow the world, specifically the human race, to become healthier. In his article,
"What's Genetic Engineering," Remy Melina, a staff writer for Live Science, defines genetic engineering as the use of technology to manipulate the
genetic composition of an organism (Melina). Basically genetic engineering consists of a process in which genes of an organism are changed to get a
desired result. As of now, genetic engineering has been used on animals and plants, but the possibility of a healthier world relies onhuman genetic
engineering. According to The Center for Genetics and Society, a nonprofit information and public affairs organization, human genetic engineering is
the potential of changing inherited genes of future children ("About Human Germline Gene Editing"). Considering the possibility of a healthier world,
human genetic engineering could be used to modify, clone, and transform genes. Nevertheless the idea of genetically modifying humans is still not

Quiz On Human Diversity
Sorry everyone for being late! Since Tuesday, an Internet outage with AT@T occurred until early Saturday morning. I was able to take the quiz
before problems became worse. The quiz on human diversity was very intriguing in a way that educated me more on understanding race and
similarities. Even though I did pretty well on the quiz, I did answer a few questions incorrectly. In order for me to understand the questions answered
wrong, I did a little more research and found a lot of information that I was unaware of. Like many other students who mentioned in their discussion
post, I assumed that certain regions possessed a variety of skin color due to environmental changes, but in all honesty, no one really knows. Another
part of the quiz

Genetic Engineering In Margaret Atwood's Oryx And Crake
Margaret Atwood's Oryx and Crake characterizes the world after an uncontrolled experiment causing near total destruction of all human–kind. In the
eyes of Snowman, also known as Jimmy, we witness his journeys back and forth between the reminiscences of the past and the present. The major
calamities slowly make its transition as it all began in the hands of man who believed in the works of biotechnology, as a ground–breaking vitality to
humanity, only to be destroyed by their own creations and conceptions. Similar to reality, biotechnology took off as it began cross–breeding and
modifying produce the creators' desired genetically–modified organisms, also known as GMOs. As how Atwood's views the world pessimistically
through the trials of error from genetic engineering, she warns us and abstracts the reasons that the pervasive usage of the sciences and technology to be
a source to the downfall of humanity.
Deeply entrenched within society is the idea that we are continually advancing and developing in all sorts of ways, but mainly for the benefit of human
vitality. In Oryx and Crake, one of the experiments the scientists and researchers focuses on is their pigoon project, where they can "grow an
assortment of foolproof human–tissue organs in transgenic knockout pig hosts" (22). The pigs are genetically modified by inserting human cells into
them so they can internally reproduce the same organs as humans do, and are also inserted with spliced genes to "fend off attacks by

Genetic Engineering In Humans
Genetic Engineering in Humans: When Should We Stop?
Societies debate against each other on whether or not genetic engineering in humans should be used in humans. When using this type of research and
technology in humans, it means modifying the type of organism(in this case humans) by manipulating the genes to the standards society thinks is the
best. Scientists think humans should use genetic engineering towards curing diseases while other scientists think humans should use this new technology
towards creating new babies and modifying the child to societal standards. Using this technology and new ways of life has positive and negative effects
towards the human population. With this new technology societies are able to cure diseases, create better medicines, create better transplants, and
have the ability to live longer. The new technology advances with this engineering process can lead us to creating children the way we want them.
This means science can allow us to have children be "perfected" while still in the womb. Using this process gets rid of the normal embryos carried by
the mother and the new embryos are implanted with the traits the family requested. By using this process, scientists, the government, and certain
families believe we are crossing the line in "trying to play God and cheat him out of his chance to decide"(Rinkesh). By using this type of technology
the societies are going against many religions and ethnic boundaries in human life. Creating the

Blanding's Turtle Populations
By comparing the observed heterozygosity of two Blanding's turtle populations, it was determined that Area 1 had significantly greater observed
heterozygosity than Area 2. The lower observed heterozygosity found in Area 2 may have been caused by the founder effect, resulting in a loss of
genetic variation. The founder effect occurs when a new population is established by a small group of migrants from a larger population. The founder
effect involves a random sampling of alleles during the reproduction of consecutive generations; when a small population is isolated, it may amplify the
loss of genetic variation as individuals may become increasingly genotypically similar after each subsequent generation. Eventually, the alleles may
become fixed ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Population bottlenecks occur when a population undergoes a large reduction in size as a result of environmental events or human activities. As a result,
genetic variation may decrease as certain alleles may be over presented, under presented, or completely absent. Consequently, the genetic variation may
continue to decline throughout subsequent generations as smaller populations, with less genetic diversity, sexually reproduce, passing on a limited
amount of genes to future offspring. Furthermore, heterozygosity in these populations may decrease as a result of inbreeding. Inbreeding occurs when
two closely related individuals reproduce; inbreeding may cause the accumulation of homozygous recessive genes and a decrease in genetic variation.
Additionally, infrequently occurring alleles, rather than common alleles, may face a greater chance of being lost, which may further decrease the level
of genetic diversity. As the population continues to decline, the genetic drift may be intensified as a result of increasing genetic limitations. Similarly,
Rubin et al. (2001) compared smaller, isolated populations of Blanding's turtles found in the Greater Chicago area to larger populations found in
Michigan, Nova Scotia and Wisconsin, and determined, by using amplified polymorphic DNA, that the smaller populations had a loss of genetic
variation in comparison to the

Genetic Engineering Of Food Products Essay
Genetic engineering of food produce is considered a miracle technology. Many speculate that this discovery has the possibility to end world hunger.
By mass producing and marketing produce, the associated costs will decrease. With lower production costs for crops, healthy options will not only
be more accessible, but more affordable for customers as well. Some even contend that the overall health of the general population will improve.
How does this affect the healthcare industry? If we can genetically modify food, why not humans? By accepting and utilizing engineered produce as a
viable food source, many express it would eliminate the need for trade, because each country would be capable of producing its own food. Which
corporation(s) would corner the market? If genetically engineered goods permeate the market, a trading would become obsolete. An intense plunge in
the value of produce would agitate the stock market. The eradication of trading produce would cripple most, if not all, economies (Gandel, 2010).
Though genetic engineering of food has drawbacks, the benefits arguably may manage to outweigh them. The total dissolution of world hunger is an
impressive feat. But, do the perceived benefits of genetic engineering make the hassle of starting a business worthwhile? Have the potential threats to
democracy along with the socioeconomic implications associated with the utilization of new and emerging human engineering technologies thoroughly
been considered?

The Human Genome Project Essay examples
The Human Genome Project (HGP), an international scientific research project, has educated the public tremendously on various topics concerning
DNA and genetics. This study has been beneficial to communities alike. As stated, the HGP sought to identify all the genes in human DNA, determine
the sequences of the three billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA, store this information in databases, improve tools for data analysis,
transfer related technologies to the private sector, and address the ethical, legal, and social issues that may arise from the project. In favor of achieving
these goals, scientists studied the genetic makeup of several nonhuman organisms (Human Genome Management Information System, 2011).
The HGP ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Due to scientist's interest in human genetic variation, human racial classification became a focus of scientific investigation by evolutionary biologists
attempting to categorize individual humans based on presumed patterns of biological difference. Scientists had hoped to classify humans in the same
way that they classified other species. These scientists attached hierarchical titles to these categorizations; they claimed that differences in skin color,
physiognomy, and geography were associated with scientifically measurable differences in character, aptitude, and temperament (Smedley, 1998).
However, studies supporting these claims have been unsound (Gould, 1981). Categorization of humans by racial and ethnic groups continues, as
researchers must remain aware of this historical legacy of the science of heredity as the genomic era continues to develop (Bonham et al., 2005).
Although the HGP has been informative to the public, especially when it comes to racial variations in disorders and genetic reflected illnesses, there
are ways it may be used to harm rather than help human development. Due to the information obtained through the research, the stigma related to
illnesses or disorders may be closely associated with certain ethnic or racial backgrounds. This can have negative effects on ethnic groups, in that some
people may already believe they are pre–exposed to an illness.

Genetic Engineering : The Future Of The Human Race
Genetic Engineering? No Way
The future of the human race is in your hands. Though it may not feel that way in your everyday routines, the decisions you make will distinctively
impact your children's live, their children's lives, etc. Genetic engineering is sparking questions among the human race whether or not it is the next
step. Creating a test tube baby I in order for parents to conceive a child is one thing but genetically modifying the human race is against human nature.
Genetic engineering should be prohibited because it could be difficult for a child to live up to the expectations of their parents, parents possess
unconditional love for their child, and genetic engineering is not the answer for our future.
If parents begin to pick and choose particular traits their child will obtain as an individual, it is not allowing them to be their own person. In the
novel, Beggars in Spain by Nancy Kress, the parents brainstormed traits they wanted their child to acquire such as "A girl. Blonde. Green eyes.
Tall. Slender." (pg 6). Parents should have the free will to use science techniques to conceive a child, but going as far as specific gender, traits she
would possess, and how her body shape will be does not giving that child a chance to choose how they want themselves to be. Each person has full
authority over their own body. That is the law. Every parent wants the absolute best for their child, but going as far as altering their genes to create
their "perfect child" is

The Importance Of Race In Waking Up White
As a white individual that grew up in a predominantly white town, I rarely talked about race when I was growing. The only time I typically talked
about race was when we studied the Civil Rights movement in school, and even then it was only talked about in a historical context. Consequently,
prior to this class, I assumed that race was a biological difference of skin color and genetics. I thought that people of other races would have a larger
difference in genetic make–up because race was a genetic difference race between individuals. I then saw society using this difference as a means to
belittle certain races and favor others. However, after taking this class my understanding of how we define race has changed dramatically. This class
has proven my assumptions wrong, and shown me that race is not biological but rather a social and historical construct created to ensure a racial
hierarchy. Debby Irving's book Waking Up White: And Finding Myself in the Story of Race helped me to see that I never talked about race because I
am part of the dominant culture. While in her class at Wheelock College, Irving's African–American classmate spoke about how she had to talk about
race because she is treated differently because of it. (Irving, 2014).Like Irving, I have white privilege that allows me to not have to talk about race.
Consequently, I always assumed that racial differences were due to genetic variation. I found out that this assumption was wrong when I started reading
Waking

Lizzie Wade Analysis
The main take home message I took from the articles was that genomes hold a part of a way to show what ethnic group an individual may be
associated with. In the article by Lizzie Wade, she described how it is understandable how someone of German descent has a different genetic variation
than someone from Japan. Wade goes on and mentions that even some ethnic groups may have many genetic variations within its own. Studying only
one ethnic group would not help with determining how much an individual belongs to a certain ethnic group. That is why researchers take all genetic
variations in account when for example trying to explain the risk of disease or reactions to different kinds of medications an individual might acquire.
The quote by

Genetic Modification : The Human Buffet
Genetic Modification: The Human Buffet
Carol Burnett once said, "Only I can change my life. No one can do it for me." With the future of medicine evolving, that may not stand true
anymore. A new and evolving discovery in medicine may provide parents the capability to modify and select which traits they want their child to
receive. Genetic modification could possible change a child's life forever, although it could also damage a child's life. Could future generations be
walking Barbie dolls in society? Although genetic modification may potentially improve the quality of life for many individuals, it should be used only
in cases where the outcome improves an individual's health.
Advancements in medicine, especially with genetic modification, may potentially change the lives of people with genetic disorders and give them a
second chance at life. Many individuals are affected everyday by harmful, painful, and possibly deadly diseases or mutations. As stated in, "Genetic
Engineering Will Benefit Society," "Given that there are more than 4,000 genetic diseases, and cancer lead to over 500,000 deaths in the United States
each year, it is clear that new treatments are necessary" (Christopher 1). Each year, many suffer life–changing consequences due to diseases.
"Supporters in the scientific community argue that genetic modification of embryos has the potential to cure inherited diseases and disorders and
increase the quality of life for generations of people" (Designer Babies p. 3). Genetic modification can improve the quality of life and prevent passing
on that mutation to an offspring. Craig Calhoun stated that, " . . . there are some 10,000 potential problematic medical conditions known to be caused
by specific inherited mutations" (p. 1). Because genetic modification is just beginning to be used as a medical intervention, other strategies are more
commonly used to fight disease and health problems. One of these solutions is transplants. But, ". . . treatments that replace missing enzymes require
repeated injections, and organ transplants may be rejected by the body's immune system" (Christopher p. 1). Genetic modification is a more reliable
and permanent solution that can drastically improve the quality of life

Arguments Against Genetic Engineering Babies
Fifty years ago two men James Watson, and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA, the sequence that makes up everything in life from humans
to eagles. DNA controls everything from hair color, athleticism, cancer, and intelligence through genes. From this discovery, a new field of science
formed called genetic engineering, where they studied the DNA makeup of living things. Eventually acquiring the ability to modify the genes genetic
engineers could modify genes to receive the desired outcome according to their own design. Starting small using bacteria and gradually getting larger
they began to transfer genes successfully from species to species, these ideas eventually made their way toward human evolution. Everyone wants their
children ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the article "Should we ban genetically engineered babies?" Sara Fetch raises to the readers attention issues that are pending. For example, how
can scientist text genetic engineering in an ethical manner? There are bound to be failures. What if these failures lead to abnormalities? We cannot
just discard of the infant like we do other plants and animals. What will happen to these individuals (Fetch)? Similarly, Wolfson writes regarding
genetic engineering testing and failure "Gone also is compassion. Liberal societies have done better than most in treating the mentally and
physically disabled as full members of the human community. Yet eugenics'[(genetic engineering)] unmistakable message to the disabled is this:
Better had you never been born. Better had you never burdened society with your deformities." The disabled are placed below society as if they
do not belong with the others. Genetic engineering is to make the recipient happier through upgraded genes, and there are many examples of
people with Downs syndrome who are extremely happy, but also the opposite; there are smart people who are not happy (Wolfson). So who is to
decide what will make a person happy, or better? Some say six foot tall is a good height, but why not seven or eight how do we as a society choose
what is right and wrong

Pros And Cons Of Human Biological Race
The question of whether human biological race exists has been a long debated, controversial topic within the field of anthropology. There have been a
number of obstacles that have prevented proper research into this particular topic. For example, because of the potential social ramifications that seem
to accompany study into human biological variation, there has been hesitancy among researchers in publishing material that could be interpreted as
validation of racist ideologies. Besides social considerations, another significant factor that has inhibited thorough research into the topic is
biotechnology, which has only recently become readily available and cost efficient. Lastly, the mere definition of "race" itself has caused difficulties in
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is not to say that genetic variation among populations is meaningless or insignificant, but it does indicate that ideas surrounding biological race
should be rethought as new information presents itself. Because human variation cannot be neatly categorized into definite boundaries, the question
then becomes how should genetic difference be interpreted, if at all. In recent years, researchers have begun to replace the word "race" with terms
like "clines" or "ecotypes." Unlike the term "race," which implies strict boundaries, "clines" is a character gradient that is continuous when looked at
through scopes like latitude or altitude (Pigliucci & Kaplan, 2003). This definition is preferred as it attributes a fluidity to genetic variation and can
distribute individuals into a variety of clines depending on the genetic trait being measured. In addition to clines, "ecotypes" have also begun to gain
popularity in contemporary human genetic research as well. Ecotypes can be defined simply as local populations adapted to particular environments
(Pigliucci & Kaplan, 2003). The concept of ecotypes aligns more so with traditional concepts of race, but with a few notable exceptions. First, ecotypes
allow for far more categorizations of human populations than the traditional concept of race does. Furthermore, ecotypes take into consideration the
genetic

The Importance Of Growth In Human Growth
Human growth relies on both genetics and environment to reach an optimal fitness that is advantageous for productive reproduction. Growth refers to
increase in physical size that is measurable. Stature is one kind of growth that is complex to understand as both human variation as well as secular
trends can affect stature. Secular trends are shifts within a measurable time period that can affect humans. For example, past the industrial revolution,
humans began to increase in size and also experienced earlier maturation. Specifically, in the article by Pes et al., "A secular trend in body height,
namely its progressive increase over more than a century has also be documented in the Sardinian population," (Pes et al., 5). The measureable amount
of time is not the only note for change, as several factors can influence growth that include: genetics, economic status, culture, ecology, nutrition,
disease, as well as stress. A few of these factors are discussed in Pes's article.
The subject of nutrition was a factor of body height increase, since the increase in height was, "...caused by the increase in limb length rather than trunk
length, which strengthens further the suggested influence of environmental and/or nutritional factors," (Pes et al., 5). The article further explains that
short legs are an indication of poor prepubertal nutrition (Pes et al., 5). Another secular trend that was noted in the article was the effect of disease on
Sardinian stature. The stature of Sardinians

Family History Of Dna Genetic Testing
DNA is the genetic code that exists in all living organisms. Usually, DNA is replicated with the same genetic information. However, there are some
mistakes which occur during the DNA replication, which will result in some complications and abnormalities in genes leading to genetic diseases.128
So the identification of genetic mutations is an important component in the early diagnosis of many types of diseases and undesirable behaviors.
Genetic testing is usually required for a diagnostic reason if there are symptoms of a disease that may be caused by genetic alterations. If there is a
family history of a genetic condition, it is always wise to take the genetic testing before the symptoms show up. Genetic tests are available for the
pregnant

Brown Eye Research Paper
New research shows that people with blue eyes have a single, common ancestor. A team at the University of Copenhagen have tracked down a genetic
mutation which took place 6–10,000 years ago and is the cause of the eye colour of all blue–eyed humans alive on the planet today.
What is the genetic mutation
"Originally, we all had brown eyes," said Professor Hans Eiberg from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine. "But a genetic mutation
affecting the OCA2 gene in our chromosomes resulted in the creation of a "switch," which literally "turned off" the ability to produce brown eyes."
The OCA2 gene codes for the so–called P protein, which is involved in the production of melanin, the pigment that gives colour to our hair, eyes and
skin. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"From this we can close that all blue–eyed people are linked to the same ancestor," says Professor Eiberg. "They have all inherited the same switch at
exactly the same spot in their DNA." Brown–eyed people, by contrast, have much personal variation in their DNA that controls melanin production.
Professor Eiberg and his team examined mitochondrial DNA and compared the eye colour of blue–eyed people in countries as diverse as Jordan,
Denmark and Turkey. His findings are the latest in a decade of genetic research, which began in 1996, when Professor Eiberg first implicated the
OCA2 gene as being responsible for eye colour.
Nature shuffles our genes
The mutation of brown eyes to blue represents neither a positive nor a negative mutation. It is one of several mutations such as hair colour, baldness,
freckles and beauty spots, which neither increases nor reduces a human's chance of survival. As Professor Eiberg says, "it simply shows that nature is
constantly shuffling the human genome, creating a genetic cocktail of human chromosomes and trying out different changes as it does

Elephant Seal Overpopulation Research Paper
Elephant seal populations were some sorts of huge in the 1990s, but after that time, many bears started to kill those seals making the population
decrease by a noticeable amount. After this, the population of seals remained very low undergoing what many called the genetic bottleneck effect,
which is nothing more than when a population goes through a drastic reduction in size, leaving that certain population low in size for an indefinite
amount of time. After this event, the genetic variation of elephant seal populations remained low for thousands off generations because this genetic
bottleneck wiped out many alleles, decreasing the chance for those alleles to be passed on from generation to generation. After this mass effect, the
genetic pool was immensely reduced, leaving this elephant seal population with very little genetic variation to be passed on for thousands of years.
Genetic drift definitely did not take part whatsoever at the beginning when the population was somewhat big, but it surely started to slow down the
recovery of genetic diversity once the population underwent the bottleneck event. Genetic drift only works when the population is little and there is
almost no genetic variation between individuals. In other words, genetic drift should have ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, conservations efforts are worthless and not seen because of all of these changes explained above. It is very difficult for a trait
/alleles to be conserved in a population when a bottleneck event or a genetic drift event happens, since many of these traits will be lost and not passed
on from generation to

Viral Genetic Variation Lab Analysis
Title: Viral Genetic Variation Accounts for a Third of Variability in 1 Set
–Point Viral Load
Introduction: The extent to the pathogenesis of the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV–1), or "HIV", has been studied for years. It is of large
consensus to the medical community that any strong predictor of the time showing phenotypic characteristics of HIV from the original transmission of
the disease can be predicted through assessing and evaluating the set–point viral load (SPVL). Depending on the subsequent viremia in the blood,
biologists and medical professionals can strongly predict the severity of the infection and future clinical outcomes.
The severity of SPVL is strongly associated with the genotype of the virus and its heritability ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Researchers used a large data set of HIV genome sequences of over 2028 selected participants in the study. Cohorts were broken down by age, sex, and
mode of transmission. Using the data results, the heritability of SPLV was calculated using common methods, which included the Brownian motion
model, parametric bootstrapping, and the "OU" model.
Results: Based on the SPLV of the sample size used for the study, it was determined that there is a strong correlation between viremia and the genetic
makeup of the virus with viral loads ranging from 20% to 30% with the cohorts in the study. Thus, up to 30% of the variation in viral load is explained
by the viral genetic variation. When looking at the cohorts CD4 (cells that the HIV virus kills), the heritability cell count is 11%. This result shows that
this percentage is determined by the virus's genotype.
In addition, the hypothesis that inconsistencies of the varying heterogeneity of SPLV in different studies were a result of differences in viral genetics,
differences in the host's genetics, and calculation error as a result of incorrect methods were examined. After an assessment of the results of the study,
and the different methods uses, it can be determined that the difference in SPLV heritability is not a direct result of genetic differences between large
populations. On the contrast, it was confirmed that there is a significant variability in viral load of an

Is Race Biologically Real Essay
Is Race Biologically Real? People often use the meaning of "race" like a sticker; race is defined by skin color, eyes and body shape, hair texture and
facial features. However, there are no genetic markers which will prove that one race is different than another. The concept of race isn't biologically
real but "race" it's a method to divide a group from another one. Race doesn't have any genetic basis. There is no genetic characteristic such as; gene
or feature to tell the differences between humans. In other words, the race isn't biologically real because there is no scientific evidence which can
prove that race is biologically real because there is no 'genetic markers' evidence–which cannot be denoted that one particular group is different than
other.
To illustrate, in the 'lab class' according to the ""Race: The Power of an Illusion" generally speaking about DNA workshop. Scott Bronson proposed to
take a sample; students were taking DNA samples which ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Many years ago people weren't divided by "race" but were divided by their religion, language, and status. We are all one 'race' because we are very
similar to each other. The scientists could not find any explanation or DNA evidence to convince us that there are differences between 'races'–group of
people, therefore 'biological race' is not real which leads people to the conclusion that is just a myth. Human variation is very complex we aren't alike;
different hair texture, eye shape, and skin color but we are one 'race.' Racism takes potentially an idea of 'race' because it is used to separate one
group from other; even if we don't share the same languages, customs or cultures we aren't that diverse 'human variation/genetic markers' with each
other. Indeed, no matter how we see each other and we nor approve or disapprove the idea of race; we are all 'one

Is Genetic Modification Is Safe Enough?
Believing Game In discussions of Genetic Modification, one controversial issue has been can it improve human life span. On the one hand, parents
argue the safety and results of genetic modification. On the other hand, scientists argue it can improve future technology. Others even maintain the idea
this is another step to high–end technology. My own view is genetic modification has many unknown results. Many parents worry about protecting their
children, so they would like to know if the process for genetic modification is safe enough. Genetic engineering also raises the question of compliance.
"Genetically altered babies will have no say in what 's being done to their bodies before birth, and consequently will have to live with whatever
happens as a result of genetic tampering" (Bird). The process may take over 40 testing on humans or more just to get it right. I believe we
shouldn't allow people to risk their healthy on a risky project. Everybody has a different immune system so how do we know it will work the same
for us all. We aren't provided with a percentage of people whom gone through the process and succeeded. Unborn babies can end up with
deformation or maybe death, so we should have reassurance for a positive outcome. There can also be the possibility by removing one disease it can
cause an even more powerful one. By having a small portion of a disease it can be balancing out and not cause any health problems. We wont know
how the body will react to no diseases

Human Genetic Engineering Essay
Genetic engineering is a practice commonly used in food to produce yields of superior size or quality. Recently this technology has been tested on
humans. The human race will now be able to improve upon itself and their offspring. With this technology disease can be disposed of and normal
people can become better than average. Not all technology needs to be utilized. Genetic engineering that should not be used in humans unless done to
prevent or treat disease until it is fully understood since the consequences are undetermined and potentially devastating. Human genetic engineering,
HGE, is a new technology been incorporated into modern science where the genes or more specifically DNA are manipulated within a living person or
zygote. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Preventing sickness is not wrong. The issue occurs when one tries to, as Sandel claims, "reach beyond health" or "above the norm" ("The Case
Against"). Pills and other devices have done this. For example, David King, a professor at Harvard, recollects when human growth hormone was
marketed towards people with hormone deficiencies. Now it is prescribed to normal short children (39). Surgery was also originally used for medical
uses, but cosmetic surgery is now its own field. When HGE becomes affordable and safe the public will find use.
Clapper explains germline changes the genes in eggs or sperm ("Human Genetic"). This will modify any future children. Mitochondrial transfer, a form
of germline engineering, is now possible allowing for three genetically linked parents to a child. Wynne Parry, LiveScience contributor, describes that it
replaces faulty mitochondria with healthy ones from a third party ("Designing Life") riding the child of mitochondrial diseases from the mother due to
old age during pregnancy.
Germline engineering will satisfy few people who have infertility and do not want to use other methods. Parents can have the same bond between
another being without conceiving a child. There is adoption, but some do not do this since the child will not be genetically linked to them. Clapper
mentions that gamete and embryo donation, or pre–implantation diagnosis and selection can be used ("Human Genetic"). The latter allows for both
parents to be related

Meiosis In Children Lab Report
Introduction Ever wonder how children inherit their parent's traits? Though every human being is unique, there are often family–shared traits that
stand out from family to family. Family similarities occur because children inherit genes from their parents. Genes are genetic information that
contributes to what traits children get, or don't get, from their parents. A child's genetic information is shared through tetrads. Tetrads are homologous
pairs that carry genes controlling the same inherited trait. Tetrads are exchanged and distributed to the child during the process of meiosis. Hypothesis
Crossing over in meiosis increases genetic variation in the offspring's traits. Occurring in interphase one, crossing over is the process... Show more
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Also, to possibly explore how meiosis ensures new traits and diversity. The data showed that when going through the meiosis simulation there will be
different varieties and possibilities of ending chromosomes in the four haploid daughter cells. The genetic information of the chromosomes began to
change during prophase. Here, the homologous chromosomes are coming closer to form tetrads and are exchanging segments of adjacent "non–sister"
chromatids. The chromatids can do this by breaking and reattaching to the other chromatids, this is called crossing–over. After this each ending
chromosome varied in genetic information. The completion of the lab the results in 4 haploid cells, each with a unique set of chromosomes. Therefore,
the outcome of meiosis will always be different from the initial

Material And Method Of Plant Materials
Material and method
Plant materials
Extensive field visit and collection was undertaken during 2010–2014 throughout the country and six geographical populations were identified for L.
nervosum varieties (Table 1). From each populations four to five individuals were selected and identified based on the descriptions provided in
different references such as Flora Iranica (Rechinger, 1974) and Flora of Iran ( Sharifnia & Assadi, 2001).The voucher specimens were deposited in
the herbarium of Shahid Beheshti University (HSBU).
Morphological study
In total twenty five, including sixteen qualitative and nine qualitative, morphological traits were investigated. These characters were: the stem height
and its diameter, number of veins in basal leaf, the basal and floral leaf shape, the width and length of the basal and floral leaves, the length/width
ratio of the basal and floral leaves, the shape of leaf apex and margin, the size of calyx width, length and its length/width ratio, the size of sepal width
and its color, the size of corolla length and the style length. Two replications were made for each character per each flowering stem. The mean value
and standard deviation of quantitative characters were presented in table 2.
DNA extraction and ISSR assay
For molecular studies, fresh leaves were collected randomly from 10 randomly selected plants in each population. Nuclear DNA was extracted using
CTAB activated charcoal protocol (KriЕѕman et al., 2006). These procedures were based on

Charles Darwin Transformative Essay
Topic 1: The ways that Darwin's theory of natural selection was transformative to his society.
Charles Darwin grew up as a shy kid who did not show much interest in his studies which led to his father, a prominent English medical doctor, to
send him to a medical school in Edinburgh and was later sent to Cambridge for clergy and still showed no interest in either but found interest in nature
whilst studying Botany. While studying in Cambridge, he got an offer to embark on a voyage to survey the coast of South America in the British Navy
Ship (Pew Research Centre, 2009)
His most prominent findings were most notably in the Galapagos Islands. He observed the variety of finches, tortoises in different islands. It is with
these observations in which he coined the Natural Selection and Evolution Theories.
On the voyage, Darwin read books by a British economist, Thomas Malthus, whom studied the problems of overpopulation and books by Charles Lyell
who has written about uniformitarianism. These two scholars are believed to be the influences of Darwin, according to Rice and Moloney (2008).
Another contemporary of Darwin, Thomas Huxley wrote saying that he felt "extremely stupid not to have thought of that" (Huxley 1901).
Of course, no scholar goes unopposed; among ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scupin and DeCorse (2012) go on to explain this saying the environment affect human variation by promoting growth and development. Differences
amongst humans may be a result because of how well requirements for growth have been met. Humans are very sensitive changes in their surrounding
environment. For example, if you were to separate two identical twins, who share the same parents, and raise them separately in different
environmental settings. Variations will definitely be visible. Genetic variation in some human populations has also revealed how natural selection has
played a role in adaptations to specific

Biological Aspects Of Biological Anthropology
Biological anthropology can be defined as the science that focuses on a person biological aspect. There are several branches of this type of science
which will deal with human being evolution as well as bring out understanding in reference to the behaviors which are often seen in human beings.
Biological anthropology in relation to human variation will be based on the biological or physical differences that may be physical and genetic
characteristics of a person. The evolution of human being has been linked to human variation where the variation will be in reference to the biological
aspect of the human being which will relate to the racial differences that may include the physical differences, as well as the skin, and the skeleton of
the human being. However, despite the variations which may be seen in terms of race, in the current world today, human beings belong to the same
particular species which is normally known as Homo sapiens. The differences in terms of race will be as a result of the evolution of human being in
various geographical locations, and over time, the differences will be highly noticeable due to various biological variations which may include traits
which have been shared throughout the geographical area. In addition, human variations from a biological aspect will also be brought about by factors
which will be hereditary and will bring about an effect on the human being's natural environment as well as the person's environment from a social point
of

Why Do Offspring Differ from Their Parents?
Why offspring produced by the same parents are different in appearance
Offspring differ somewhat from their parents and from one another. Instructions for development are passed from parents to offspring in thousands of
discrete genes, each of which is now known to be a segment of a molecule of DNA. This essay will explore some of the reasons behind how and why
these differences in appearance arise, from the base sequence of DNA through to the observed phenotype.
Genes come in different varieties, called alleles. Somatic cells contain two alleles for every gene, with one allele provided by each parent of an
organism. Genotype refers to the information contained in an organisms DNA, or genetic material. Its phenotype is the physical ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The problem with crossing over is that some unexpected results can occur. For instance, the offspring of a bull homozygous for two recessive but
desirable traits and a cow with "normal" genes will all have one copy of each recessive gene. But when these offspring produce gametes, one
recessive gene may migrate to a different chromosome, so that the two traits no longer appear in one gamete. Since most genes work in complicity
with others to produce a certain trait, this can make the process of animal breeding very slow, and it requires many generations before the desired traits
are obtained
In meiosis the pairs of chromosomes (that code for possible outcomes of characteristics) temporarily join and exchange information (crossing over)
creating different combinations of gene types (alleles). For example; a pair of chromosomes could be a dominant allele (gene type) and a recessive
allele which might code for brown hair. After crossing over it might be recessive which could be blond hair.
Chromosomes line up in different orders (random assortment) so when they go to either new cell on cell might have dominant for one characteristic
(e.g. brown eyes), recessive for another (e.g. blond hair), and dominant for a third one (e.g. can roll tongue) whereas the other created cell might be
dominant, dominant dominant (brown eyes, brown hair and can roll tongue.
More rare is mutation where DNA is randomly altered (although certain things can make this more likely e.g. UV light).This

Blurring The Boundary
Mutants
The world we live in is advancing more and more every day. We are beginning to exceed boundaries and reach new limits. Science and Technology
has come a long way since Copernicus said that the sun was the center of the universe. Science fiction is slowly coming to life. We are building robots
that are extremely similar to humans, modifying genes, and creating clones. Authors wrote about these abstract ideas not too long ago, but at the time
they seemed far–fetched. Scientific and technological advancement may be for good or for evil. The good side is the advancements in medicine that
could limit the risk of a particular disease or even cure one. The potentially bad side is the steps we may take to get there without knowing the
long–term effect. In Michael Bess's article "Blurring the Boundary Between Person and Product," he discusses the advancement of genetic ... Show
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He looks at the ins and outs of modifying a person's genes and what the selection process will be like for parents. Moral, ethical, and economic
boundaries of genetic modification are discussed as well. In Tenzin Gyatso's article "ethics and the NewGenetics," he describes how scientists are
beginning to perform unimaginable tasks. Such as, cloning and genetic modification to build a baby. This building of babies may lead to the
development of a "super race." A "super race," consists of people who are genetically modified in the developmental stages of birth, so that they are
born with characteristics and advantages chosen by the parents. For example, parents will choose eye color, hair color, height, weight, intelligence
level, athletic ability, and anything else they want for their child. A "super race," will have everything thing that we wish we had. Although the idea of
a "super race," sounds splendid, it is not all sunshine and rainbows. Developing a "super race," will Further separate social classes, start a war, and
destroy human

Endangered Animals
The world is facing many serious issues in this day and time. One of the major one is endangered species. These organisms are living on the edge of
extinction. There are many things that threaten these species like loss of habitat, lack of food, hunting and many more. The victim of this horrendous
crime against living organisms is the fastest running mammal called Cheetah, scientifically known as "Acinonyx jubatus".
Cheetahs are true carnivores which means they depend on meat for survival. They use high speed to easily hunt their prey. Primary diet of cheetah
consists of springbok, ostriches, impala, deer, gazelles, warthogs, birds, hares, young zebras etc. These animals tend to target younglings because of the
greater rate of success. And while hunting these species like to stalk their prey for 10– 50m and then start sprinting towards it. During this time frame,
their bodies are under immense strain and pressure as a result their body temperature rises to its highest.
These mammals live in the dry grasslands of sub– Saharan Africa, and in eastern and southern parks. Some can also be found in southern Algeria,
northern Niger and Iran. Today Namibia has the largest population of cheetahs living in Africa. It is very hard to believe that these species use to
roam around nearly all of Africa and much of Asia, but now they are driven out of 91% of its historic range. These animals are nearly extinct in Asia,
only around 50 of these individual are living in isolated areas of

To What Extent Does Genetics Affect Human Intelligence
To what extent do genetics affect human intelligence (IQ) in relation to monozygotic and dizygotic twins?
Precious Obaro
Gems Wellington International School Dubai
Author Note
Introduction
This paper will be comparing and providing an evaluation of the extent to which genetic information plays a role in the human intelligence in relation to
IQ levels in monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Human intelligence is defined as the ability to mentally solve, learn and reason and due to its nature,
intelligence integrates cognitive functions such as perception, memory, language and planning. As a grand basis of the definition of intelligence,
intelligence can be calculated and evaluated with the help of standardized testing known as IQ testing. IQ is a quotient of intelligence. (Colom, R.,
Karama, S., Jung, R. E., & Haier, R. J. (n.d.). Human intelligence and brain networks.).
The role of genetics and the human genome in intelligence has been discussed by researchers for centuries, the heritability of intelligence as a trait in ...
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Differences in DNA is what causes variation in individuals and this was established in Darwin's theory. Monozygotic and dizygotic twins share
significant amounts of their DNA with their other twin, 100% in monozygotic twins and 50% in dizygotic twins. This is why twins are specifically
targeted in investigations to find the extent at which genetics influences intelligence. Therefor allow researchers to see the separation of the shared
genetic and environmental influences in intelligence, once again allowing them to estimate a quota that is attributed to genetic variation and what is as
a result of the environment, shared or unshared. ("Twin studies," n.d.). Psychologist and researcher Sir Francis Galton stated in 1883 "there is no
escape from the conclusion that nature prevails enormously over nurture" (Galton,

C-Fern In Population Genetics
Experimental Analysis of C–Fern in Population Genetics
Abstract
C–Fern plants are a strain of Ceratopteris richardii and have a rapid reproductive cycle, making them perfect subjects in lab to be tested and observed
on population genetics. Population genetics is the study of genetic variation and allelic frequencies on a specific group over an amount of time. It is a
great way to predict future genetic information on more than just the C–Ferns. In this experiment, two different generations for gametophytes and
sporophytes of C–Ferns were observed and counted for the amount of wild type and polka dot mutant individuals within a sample and a population.
The overall results demonstrated a 1:1 ratio of mutant to wild type in the F1 gametophyte generation for both the sample and population, which was
expected. The F1 sporophyte generation demonstrated a 1:1 ratio of mutant to wild type in the sample and a 2:1 ratio of mutant to wild type in the
population. A 3:1 ratio of mutant to wild type was expected in the sporophytes. It was concluded that the polka dot mutant is recessive in sporophytes
and demonstrates random fertilization in the diploid stage, but not in gametophytes. This process of population genetics in C–Ferns can be extremely
beneficial in other organisms, such as humans. Population genetics could be a tool in medicine in determining human ... Show more content on
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A population cannot truly survive for a long period of time without some sort of genetic variation. It was first seen with Gregor Mendel and his
research within pea plants. (Hickok) In this experiment, a different plant's allele frequencies were observed. They go through a reproductive cycle after
meiosis in a 2–week time span, so these variations are easily noticed and perfect for a lab research setting. They are very easily grown and observed
(Project) in a way that is not possible for other organisms.

Out Of Africa Hypothesis Essay
The Out of Africa hypothesis and the Multiregional hypothesis are the two most contentious theories pertaining to the origins and migration patterns of
modern Homo sapiens. The aim of this essay is to examine the genetic and phenotypic evidence of these two greatly debatable theories using the
scientific method to adapt, adjust, reject or accept these theories in order for the reader to retrieve information about this discussion and make an
informed decision as to which theory they deem most logical.
Recent studies (Jin & Su 2000) has suggested that both the Out of Africa (OOA) and Multiregional hypotheses agree that Homo erectus originated in
Africa and expanded to Eurasia about one million years ago, but they vary in clarifying the origin of modern Homo sapiens. The Out ... Show more
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Erik Trinkaus of Washington University claims various fossils as hybrid individuals, including the "child of Lagar Velho", a skeleton found at Laqar
Velho in Portugal dated to about 24,000 years ago and in a recent study, researchers (Hayes, Jacqui, November 2006) found remains of European Homo
sapiens in Pestera Muierilor, Romania, from 30,000 years ago who had mostly indicative "modern" anatomical features, but also had distinct
Neanderthal features not existent in ancestral modern humans in Africa. This phenotypic evidence reinforces the idea that there was not a single origin
of modern Homo sapiens and that the Neanderthals were not merely swept away by advancing anatomically modern humans, thus supporting the
Multiregional

Genetics and Human Sexuality
Human sexuality plays a major role in everyone's life. Regardless, whether we are young or old, man or woman, American or Japanese, it is an
integral part of what we do and who we are as a human species. Next to sleeping and eating, it seems that it is one of the most important drives we
have to deal with as humans. That is, it takes up so much of our time in thought and behavior that it sometimes seems that every facet of our life
revolves around this to a certain extent. Human sexual behavior is different from the sexual behavior of other animals, in that, it seems to be
governed by a variety and interplay of different factors. That is, while "lower" animals or species are driven by a "force" to reproduce and therefore
partake in sexual... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the second volume of The Variation, written by Charles Darwin, to prove his theory ofevolution he had to explain the notion of natural selection and
how genetic variations play a vital role in this process. Which brings up the second principle of evolution which is that the variations must be passed on
genetically. Numerous identical twin case studies have shown that the hereditary of homosexuality is not strictly a genetic linkage, because there are
many pairs of identical twins who have differing sexualities. Scientists from the National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis say
homosexuality seems to have an epigenetic, not a genetic link. Epigenetic is the study of heritable changes in gene activity that are not caused by
changes in the DNA sequence or genotypes, but rather phenotypes. Homosexual attraction has been said to be passed along in families, there is no
proof of that, but leading researchers presume a genetic underpinning of sexual preference is lurking. While genes hold the instructions in the DNA,
epi–marks direct how those instructions are carried out. The act of sexual activity among homosexual does not allow genetic traits to pass forth through
reproduction which requires semen

Benefits Of Genetic Modification

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