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  1	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
City	
  Logistics	
  
	
  
Working	
  on	
  livable	
  cities	
  through	
  
sustainable	
  city	
  logistics	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Walther	
  Ploos	
  van	
  Amstel	
  
	
  
Professor	
  of	
  City	
  Logistics	
  
at	
  the	
  Amsterdam	
  University	
  of	
  Applied	
  Sciences	
  (HvA)	
  
Faculty	
  of	
  Technology	
  
Urban	
  Technology	
  research	
  program	
  
September	
  2015	
  
  2	
  
	
  
	
  
Content	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
1.	
   Urban	
  mobility	
  
2.	
  	
   Measures	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  	
  
3.	
  	
   International	
  research	
  
4.	
   Supply	
  chain	
  perspective	
  
5.	
   City	
  logistics	
  as	
  we	
  head	
  towards	
  2050	
  
6.	
   An	
  integrated	
  approach	
  
7.	
   Applied	
  research	
  
8.	
   The	
  future	
  of	
  sustainable	
  city	
  logistics	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Copyright	
  
Walther	
  Ploos	
  van	
  Amstel	
  
Amsterdam,	
  2015	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
This	
  relatively	
  new	
  discipline	
  has	
  several	
  different	
  names	
  in	
  English,	
  including	
  urban	
  freight	
  
transport	
  (UTF),	
  urban	
  distribution,	
  city	
  distribution,	
  urban	
  logistics,	
  and	
  city	
  logistics.	
  	
  
I	
  prefer	
  the	
  term	
  "city	
  logistics”	
  and	
  use	
  that	
  in	
  this	
  lecture	
  and	
  otherwise	
  in	
  my	
  work.	
  
  3	
  
	
  
Clean	
  and	
  sustainable	
  cities	
  are	
  appealing	
  places	
  to	
  live,	
  to	
  work,	
  
to	
  enjoy	
  life,	
  and	
  –	
  not	
  least	
  –	
  to	
  invest	
  in.	
  
	
  
I	
  live	
  right	
  in	
  the	
  very	
  center	
  of	
  Amsterdam	
  and	
  look	
  out	
  over	
  the	
  bustling	
  square	
  in	
  
front	
  of	
  Central	
  Station.	
  Every	
  day,	
  around	
  the	
  clock,	
  trucks	
  and	
  delivery	
  vans	
  drive	
  
past	
  my	
  door	
  to	
  deliver	
  shoes	
  and	
  put	
  fresh	
  fish	
  on	
  the	
  table;	
  they	
  deliver	
  packages	
  
from	
  web	
  stores,	
  they	
  arrive	
  with	
  construction	
  materials,	
  and	
  they	
  pick	
  up	
  lots	
  and	
  
lots	
  of	
  garbage.	
  It’s	
  a	
  wonderful	
  sight	
  if	
  you	
  enjoy	
  transport	
  as	
  much	
  as	
  I	
  do.	
  
	
  
My	
  neighbors	
  aren’t	
  quite	
  as	
  excited	
  about	
  transport,	
  however.	
  They	
  complain	
  
about	
  the	
  poor	
  air	
  quality,	
  the	
  lack	
  of	
  safety,	
  and	
  the	
  inaccessibility	
  of	
  the	
  
neighborhood.	
  Irritation	
  is	
  also	
  growing	
  among	
  the	
  local	
  business	
  owners	
  
themselves.	
  Their	
  customers	
  are	
  complaining...	
  It’s	
  really	
  not	
  much	
  fun	
  trying	
  to	
  
enjoy	
  a	
  cold	
  beer	
  at	
  an	
  outdoor	
  café	
  with	
  all	
  those	
  trucks	
  and	
  touring	
  cars	
  
chugging	
  by.	
  
	
  
Good	
  city	
  logistics	
  is	
  important	
  for	
  the	
  economic	
  vitality	
  and	
  the	
  appeal	
  of	
  cities.	
  It	
  
ensures	
  that	
  restaurants	
  can	
  serve	
  their	
  guests,	
  that	
  stores	
  can	
  offer	
  the	
  very	
  latest	
  
product	
  range	
  and	
  that	
  buildings	
  can	
  be	
  renovated	
  without	
  delays.	
  
	
  
Urbanization	
  puts	
  new	
  demands	
  on	
  urban	
  mobility.	
  As	
  customer	
  demands	
  evolve,	
  
city	
  logistics	
  is	
  becoming	
  more	
  and	
  more	
  finely	
  meshed	
  and	
  more	
  often	
  just-­in-­time.	
  
If	
  no	
  adjustments	
  are	
  made	
  to	
  current	
  policy,	
  city	
  logistics	
  will	
  continue	
  to	
  grow.	
  
City	
  logistics	
  needs	
  to	
  become	
  smarter,	
  cleaner,	
  quieter,	
  and	
  safer,	
  with	
  faster	
  flows.	
  	
  
	
  
The	
  City	
  Logistics	
  research	
  program	
  will	
  be	
  conducting	
  applied	
  research	
  on	
  ways	
  
to	
  improve	
  city	
  logistics.	
  In	
  my	
  inaugural	
  lecture	
  I	
  will	
  start	
  by	
  giving	
  an	
  
impression	
  of	
  the	
  challenges	
  in	
  relation	
  to	
  city	
  logistics	
  in	
  Amsterdam	
  and	
  other	
  
cities.	
  I	
  will	
  then	
  give	
  an	
  overview	
  of	
  the	
  themes	
  for	
  future	
  research.	
  In	
  developing	
  a	
  
base	
  of	
  practical	
  knowledge,	
  we	
  will	
  be	
  making	
  use	
  of	
  an	
  integrated	
  approach	
  on	
  
the	
  basis	
  of	
  a	
  city	
  logistics	
  concept	
  and	
  the	
  Business	
  Model	
  Canvas.	
  Finally,	
  I	
  will	
  
conclude	
  by	
  presenting	
  the	
  themes	
  of	
  this	
  new	
  research	
  program.	
  
	
  
Walther	
  Ploos	
  Amstel	
  
Amsterdam,	
  September	
  2015	
  
  4	
  
	
  
1.	
   Urban	
  mobility	
  
	
  
	
  
All	
  around	
  the	
  globe,	
  urban	
  populations	
  are	
  growing.	
  In	
  the	
  Netherlands,	
  too,	
  the	
  
process	
   of	
   urbanization	
   is	
   taking	
   place	
   in	
   many	
   large,	
   medium-­‐size,	
   and	
   small	
  
cities	
  and	
  in	
  their	
  immediate	
  vicinity.	
  The	
  most	
  highly	
  urbanized	
  region	
  of	
  the	
  
Netherlands	
   is	
   commonly	
   referred	
   to	
   there	
   as	
   the	
   Randstad.	
   Encircling	
   the	
  
country’s	
  rural	
  “Green	
  Heart”,	
  the	
  Randstad	
  includes	
  the	
  country’s	
  four	
  largest	
  
cities:	
   Amsterdam,	
   Rotterdam,	
   Utrecht,	
   and	
   The	
   Hague	
   (PBL,	
   2015).	
   In	
   an	
  
interview	
  in	
  the	
  Dutch	
  daily	
  newspaper	
  Trouw,	
  Amsterdam	
  urban	
  planner	
  and	
  
social	
  geographer	
  Zef	
  Hemel	
  predicted	
  that	
  Amsterdam’s	
  population	
  will	
  reach	
  
two	
  million	
  inhabitants	
  by	
  2040	
  (Hemel,	
  2015).	
  As	
  a	
  consequence	
  of	
  such	
  growth,	
  
more	
  and	
  more	
  people	
  will	
  need	
  to	
  share	
  the	
  same	
  space	
  in	
  the	
  city	
  (Groen	
  Links	
  
Amsterdam,	
  2011).	
  
	
  
Policy-­‐makers	
   around	
   the	
   world	
   are	
   facing	
   the	
   challenge	
   of	
   keeping	
   their	
  
growing	
  cities	
  livable.	
  Freight	
  traffic	
  plays	
  an	
  important	
  role	
  in	
  that	
  connection,	
  
in	
  both	
  a	
  positive	
  and	
  a	
  negative	
  sense.	
  ALICE/ERTRAC	
  (2015)	
  estimates	
  that	
  
between	
  10	
  and	
  15%	
  of	
  all	
  vehicle	
  mileage	
  driven	
  in	
  cities	
  involves	
  freight	
  traffic.	
  
Research	
  in	
  the	
  US	
  has	
  shown	
  a	
  disproportionately	
  strong	
  increase	
  in	
  the	
  share	
  
of	
  truck	
  mileage	
  driven	
  within	
  cities	
  in	
  the	
  past	
  50	
  years,	
  particularly	
  by	
  smaller	
  
trucks:	
  from	
  40%	
  in	
  1966	
  to	
  60%	
  in	
  2013.	
  The	
  increase	
  has	
  been	
  particularly	
  
steep	
   in	
   the	
   past	
   few	
   years	
   as	
   consumers	
   purchase	
   more	
   and	
   more	
   online	
  
(Brookings,	
  2015)	
  
	
  
Urbanization	
  is	
  placing	
  new	
  demands	
  on	
  urban	
  mobility:	
  	
  
between	
   10	
   and	
   15%	
   of	
   all	
   vehicle	
   mileage	
   driven	
   in	
   cities	
  
involves	
  freight	
  traffic.	
  
	
  
Mobility	
  in	
  Amsterdam	
  
In	
   the	
   Uitvoeringsagenda	
   Mobiliteit	
   voor	
   Amsterdam	
   (“Implementation	
   Agenda	
  
for	
   Mobility	
   in	
   Amsterdam”)	
   from	
   April	
   2015,	
   city	
   alderman	
   Pieter	
   Litjens	
  
(Gemeente	
  Amsterdam,	
  2015b)	
  wrote	
  (in	
  Dutch):	
  	
  
	
  
Throughout	
  the	
  centuries,	
  Amsterdam	
  has	
  held	
  a	
  special	
  attraction	
  for	
  many	
  people.	
  
The	
   city’s	
   appeal	
   has	
   brought	
   us	
   many	
   new	
   Amsterdammers,	
   unprecedented	
  
dynamism,	
  and	
  economic	
  and	
  cultural	
  prosperity.	
  Its	
  success	
  is	
  astonishing:	
  each	
  
year	
   more	
   and	
   more	
   people	
   come	
   to	
   live,	
   work,	
   and	
   study	
   in	
   Amsterdam.	
   And	
  
especially	
   since	
   the	
   recent	
   reopening	
   of	
   the	
   city’s	
   greatest	
   museums,	
   more	
   and	
  
more	
  tourists	
  are	
  finding	
  their	
  way	
  to	
  our	
  nation’s	
  capital.	
  	
  
	
  
With	
  each	
  new	
  day,	
  Amsterdam	
  is	
  only	
  getting	
  busier	
  and	
  busier	
  –	
  but	
  that	
  also	
  has	
  
a	
  downside.	
  Cars,	
  bicyclists,	
  and	
  pedestrians	
  increasingly	
  find	
  themselves	
  in	
  each	
  
other’s	
   way,	
   and	
   the	
   scarce	
   public	
   spaces	
   in	
   or	
   near	
   the	
   city	
   center	
   are	
   nearly	
  
always	
  full	
  of	
  people.	
  Both	
  the	
  accessibility	
  and	
  the	
  public	
  spaces	
  of	
  Amsterdam	
  are	
  
under	
   increasing	
   pressure.	
   To	
   keep	
   the	
   city	
   safe	
   and	
   easy	
   to	
   reach,	
   and	
   to	
   keep	
  
public	
  spaces	
  accessible	
  and	
  appealing,	
  we	
  are	
  going	
  to	
  need	
  to	
  make	
  some	
  choices.	
  
It	
   is	
   no	
   longer	
   workable	
   to	
   have	
   cars	
   and	
   bikes	
   and	
   pedestrians	
   and	
   public	
  
transport	
   going	
   everywhere	
   at	
   the	
   same	
   time.	
   We	
   need	
   to	
   accommodate	
   the	
  
  5	
  
increasing	
   mobility	
   in	
   a	
   heavily	
   urbanized	
   area	
   such	
   as	
   Amsterdam	
   primarily	
   by	
  
giving	
  more	
  room	
  to	
  pedestrians,	
  bicyclists,	
  and	
  public	
  transportation.	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
This	
  Uitvoeringsagenda	
  lists	
  a	
  number	
  of	
  measures	
  aimed	
  at	
  creating	
  more	
  room	
  
for	
  loading	
  and	
  unloading	
  and	
  for	
  optimizing	
  regulations	
  and	
  enforcing	
  those.	
  It	
  
mentions	
   a	
   Supply	
   Committee	
   (an	
   initiative	
   of	
   the	
   trade	
   organizations	
   MKB	
  
Amsterdam,	
  VNO-­‐NCW,	
  EVO,	
  and	
  TLN)	
  that	
  will	
  make	
  proposals	
  for	
  improving	
  
accessibility	
  and	
  ensuring	
  a	
  better	
  flow	
  in	
  the	
  transport	
  of	
  goods.	
  Topics	
  that	
  the	
  
City	
  of	
  Amsterdam	
  would	
  like	
  to	
  gain	
  more	
  insight	
  into	
  include:	
  slow	
  traffic	
  flows	
  
(pedestrians	
   and	
   bicyclists),	
   urban	
   distribution	
   and	
   logistics,	
   electric	
   mobility,	
  
automated	
  transport,	
  and	
  mobility	
  behavior.	
  The	
  City	
  of	
  Amsterdam	
  is	
  studying	
  
these	
   themes	
   in	
   collaboration	
   with	
   the	
   following	
   knowledge	
   institutions:	
   the	
  
Amsterdam	
   Institute	
   for	
   Advanced	
   Metropolitan	
   Solutions,	
   the	
   University	
   of	
  
Amsterdam	
   (UvA),	
   Vrije	
   Universiteit	
   Amsterdam	
   (VU),	
   and	
   the	
   Amsterdam	
  
University	
  of	
  Applied	
  Sciences	
  (HvA).	
  
	
  
In	
   its	
   Agenda	
   Duurzaamheid	
   (“Sustainability	
   Agenda”),	
   the	
   City	
   of	
   Amsterdam	
  
states	
   its	
   intention	
   to	
   improve	
   the	
   city’s	
   air	
   quality	
   by	
   stimulating	
   the	
   use	
   of	
  
zero-­‐emission	
   vehicles	
   and	
   introducing	
   low-­‐emission	
   zones	
   (Gemeente	
  
Amsterdam,	
  2015a).	
  A	
  more	
  regional	
  focus	
  in	
  the	
  distribution	
  of	
  products	
  or	
  an	
  
expansion	
  of	
  the	
  separate	
  collection	
  of	
  waste	
  streams	
  will	
  mean	
  more	
  mileage	
  
for	
  trucks.	
  But	
  that	
  would	
  come	
  at	
  the	
  expense	
  of	
  greater	
  accessibility	
  and	
  better	
  
air	
   quality,	
   and	
   it	
   will	
   call	
   for	
   new	
   forms	
   of	
   urban	
   distribution	
   and	
   the	
  
consolidation	
  of	
  waste	
  collection	
  trips	
  in	
  the	
  city.	
  Agreements	
  will	
  be	
  made	
  with	
  
trade	
  organizations	
  about	
  ways	
  to	
  achieve	
  zero-­‐emission	
  mobility.	
  The	
  subsidies	
  
that	
  are	
  intended	
  to	
  stimulate	
  zero-­‐emission	
  mobility	
  will	
  be	
  continued	
  to	
  make	
  
it	
  possible	
  to	
  meet	
  the	
  air-­‐quality	
  standards.	
  
	
  
The	
   Stad	
   in	
   Balans	
   (“City	
   in	
   Balance”)	
   memorandum	
   (Gemeente	
   Amsterdam,	
  
2015c)	
  has	
  also	
  made	
  the	
  case	
  for	
  paying	
  closer	
  attention	
  to	
  city	
  logistics.	
  It	
  calls	
  
for	
  smart,	
  small-­‐scale,	
  and	
  zero-­‐emission	
  urban	
  distribution,	
  including	
  a	
  greater	
  
use	
  of	
  waterways.	
  	
  
	
  
  6	
  
	
  
Freight	
  traffic	
  is	
  only	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  transport	
  flows	
  in	
  the	
  city,	
  of	
  course.	
  It	
  shares	
  
the	
  infrastructure	
  with	
  pedestrians,	
  bicyclists	
  and	
  other	
  two-­‐wheeled	
  vehicles,	
  
private	
  cars,	
  taxis,	
  and	
  public	
  transportation,	
  and	
  it	
  shares	
  the	
  water	
  with	
  canal	
  
excursion	
  boats	
  and	
  pleasure	
  craft.	
  
	
  
Recent	
   traffic	
   surveys	
   held	
   on	
   Amsterdam’s	
   Ferdinand	
   Bolstraat	
   (Hogeschool	
  
van	
   Amsterdam,	
   2015a)	
   show	
   that	
   some	
   80%	
   of	
   the	
   freight	
   traffic	
   consists	
   of	
  
delivery	
  vans	
  (the	
  remaining	
  20%	
  concerns	
  larger	
  trucks	
  and	
  garbage	
  trucks).	
  
The	
  main	
  categories	
  are	
  (in	
  order	
  of	
  importance)	
  construction	
  and	
  installation,	
  
hospitality	
   and	
   food	
   service,	
   and	
   waste.	
   There	
   are	
   also	
   many	
   parcel	
   and	
   store	
  
deliveries.	
  In	
  addition	
  there	
  are	
  the	
  combined	
  flows	
  of	
  people	
  and	
  material	
  such	
  
as	
   service	
   technicians,	
   builders,	
   and	
   installers	
   (Hogeschool	
   van	
   Amsterdam,	
  
2015a).	
  In	
  Amsterdam’s	
  bustling	
  Haarlemmerstraat	
  neighborhood,	
  freight	
  traffic	
  
account	
  for	
  as	
  much	
  as	
  40%	
  of	
  rush-­‐hour	
  traffic,	
  both	
  in	
  the	
  mornings	
  and	
  in	
  the	
  
evenings	
  (Hogeschool	
  van	
  Amsterdam,	
  2015f).	
  
	
  
Most	
  of	
  the	
  deliveries	
  in	
  the	
  city	
  are	
  still	
  made	
  using	
  carriers	
  on	
  own	
  account	
  or	
  
dedicated	
   outsourcing.	
   City	
   logistics,	
   whereby	
   a	
   logistics	
   service	
   provider	
  
consolidates	
  freight	
  flows	
  from	
  multiple	
  shippers,	
  is	
  limited.	
  The	
  carriers	
  on	
  own	
  
account	
   enters	
   the	
   city	
   from	
   relatively	
   short	
   distances:	
   about	
   25	
   miles	
   on	
  
average.	
   In	
   contrast,	
   professional	
   freight	
   transport	
   takes	
   place	
   over	
   longer	
  
distances:	
   an	
   average	
   of	
   56	
   miles	
   according	
   to	
   the	
   transport	
   statistics	
   of	
   CBS.	
  
Studies	
   on	
   public	
   procurement	
   confirm	
   these	
   figures	
   (Hogeschool	
   van	
  
Amsterdam,	
  2014,	
  2015c;	
  Balm	
  et	
  al.,	
  2015).	
  
	
  
Amsterdam	
  and	
  innovations	
  in	
  mobility	
  
Since	
  July	
  2014,	
  the	
  City	
  of	
  Amsterdam	
  has	
  had	
  a	
  chief	
  technology	
  officer	
  (CTO).	
  
As	
  an	
  advisor	
  and	
  facilitator,	
  the	
  CTO	
  has	
  a	
  flywheel	
  effect,	
  helping	
  the	
  city	
  to	
  
comprehend	
  complex	
  urban	
  issues,	
  to	
  choose	
  a	
  focus,	
  to	
  connect	
  different	
  parties,	
  
and	
  to	
  formulate	
  an	
  approach	
  and	
  strategies	
  in	
  the	
  area	
  of	
  smart	
  mobility,	
  among	
  
others.	
  	
  
	
  
Cities	
  are	
  under	
  increasing	
  pressure.	
  People	
  are	
  migrating	
  to	
  the	
  cities,	
  where	
  
they	
  are	
  eager	
  to	
  live,	
  work,	
  and	
  enjoy	
  themselves.	
  	
  This	
  growth	
  means	
  added	
  
pressure	
   on	
   the	
   traffic	
   and	
   transport	
   both	
   within	
   and	
   to	
   and	
   from	
   the	
   city.	
  
Amsterdam	
  will	
  continue	
  to	
  grow	
  in	
  the	
  coming	
  years,	
  and	
  so	
  will	
  the	
  traffic	
  and	
  
transport	
  there.	
  As	
  CTO	
  Ger	
  Baron	
  puts	
  it:	
  “The	
  big	
  challenge	
  is:	
  how	
  do	
  we	
  keep	
  
Amsterdam	
   accessible,	
   ensure	
   good	
   air	
   quality,	
   and	
   keep	
   the	
   public	
   spaces	
  
attractive,	
   so	
   that	
   the	
   quality	
   of	
   life	
   in	
   the	
   city	
   and	
   the	
   draw	
   of	
   the	
   city	
   will	
  
improve?”	
  (translated	
  from	
  the	
  Dutch;	
  source:	
  Gemeente	
  Amsterdam,	
  2015d).	
  
As	
  the	
  most	
  important	
  trends,	
  the	
  CTO	
  sees:	
  the	
  Internet	
  of	
  Things,	
  the	
  rise	
  of	
  
connected	
   vehicles	
   and	
   smart	
   infrastructure,	
   capacity	
   sharing,	
   using	
   real	
   time	
  
(open)	
  data	
  for	
  precision-­‐guided	
  logistics	
  alternative	
  fuels.	
  
The	
  CTO	
  matches	
  urban	
  mobility	
  issues	
  with	
  the	
  knowledge	
  already	
  present	
  in	
  
the	
   city	
   in	
   projects	
   such	
   as	
   the	
   urban	
   mobility	
   lab	
   (AMS	
   Institute),	
   ALLEGRO,	
  
SELF	
  STAD	
  self-­‐driving	
  cars	
  and	
  bicycles.	
  The	
  Amsterdam	
  University	
  of	
  Applied	
  
Sciences	
  (HvA)	
  is	
  involved	
  in	
  a	
  number	
  of	
  these	
  studies	
  as	
  a	
  knowledge	
  partner.	
  
	
  
  7	
  
European	
  perspective	
  
The	
   future	
   of	
   city	
   logistics	
   is	
   being	
   carefully	
   considered	
   at	
   the	
   European	
   level	
  
(ALICE/ERTRAC,	
  2015).	
  Europe	
  is	
  a	
  largely	
  urban	
  continent;	
  some	
  359	
  million	
  
people	
  (72%	
  of	
  the	
  total	
  EU	
  population)	
  currently	
  live	
  in	
  urbanized	
  areas.	
  The	
  
share	
  of	
  the	
  population	
  that	
  lives	
  in	
  cities	
  continues	
  to	
  grow	
  and	
  will	
  reach	
  as	
  
much	
  as	
  80%	
  by	
  2020.	
  Cities	
  are	
  not	
  only	
  the	
  places	
  where	
  goods	
  are	
  delivered,	
  
but	
  also	
  where	
  shipments	
  originate.	
  Outgoing	
  transport	
  represents	
  between	
  20	
  
and	
  25%	
  of	
  the	
  transport	
  mileage	
  in	
  urban	
  areas,	
  incoming	
  freight	
  amounts	
  to	
  
between	
  40	
  and	
  50%,	
  and	
  the	
  rest	
  both	
  originates	
  in	
  and	
  is	
  delivered	
  to	
  locations	
  
within	
   the	
   city	
   itself	
   (ALICE/ERTRAC,	
   2015).	
   Waste	
   transport	
   also	
   forms	
   a	
  
significant	
  share	
  of	
  city	
  logistics.	
  	
  
	
  
The	
  transport	
  of	
  freight	
  in	
  cities	
  leads	
  to	
  congestion,	
  poorer	
  air	
  
quality,	
  problems	
  with	
  noise	
  and	
  a	
  lack	
  of	
  safety.	
  	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
The	
   transport	
   of	
   freight	
   in	
   cities	
   with	
   trucks	
   and	
   delivery	
   vans	
   leads	
   to	
  
congestion.	
   Other	
   problems	
   include:	
   poorer	
   air	
   quality,	
   noise	
   pollution,	
   and	
   a	
  
lack	
   of	
   safety	
   (MDS	
   Transmodal,	
   2012;	
   Taniguchi	
   et	
   al.,	
   2015).	
   In	
   Europe,	
   city	
  
logistics	
  is	
  responsible	
  for	
  25%	
  of	
  the	
  transport-­‐related	
  CO2	
  emissions	
  and	
  30	
  to	
  
50%	
  of	
  the	
  remaining	
  transport-­‐related	
  air	
  pollution	
  (PM,	
  NOx,	
  etc.)	
  Within	
  the	
  
OECD,	
  the	
  transport	
  sector	
  is	
  the	
  largest	
  consumer	
  of	
  energy	
  in	
  general	
  and	
  of	
  oil	
  
in	
  particular	
  (OECD,	
  2015).	
  
	
  
Even	
  though	
  the	
  number	
  of	
  freight	
  vehicles	
  is	
  limited,	
  they	
  are	
  relatively	
  more	
  
often	
   involved	
   in	
   accidents	
   with	
   pedestrians	
   and	
   bicyclists.	
   As	
   city	
   logistics	
   is	
  
responsible	
   for	
   a	
   significant	
   share	
   of	
   the	
   ambient	
   noise	
   in	
   cities,	
   it	
   also	
  
  8	
  
inconveniences	
   residents	
   during	
   the	
   night.	
   The	
   utilization	
   rate	
   of	
   city	
   logistics	
  
vehicles	
  is	
  low.	
  According	
  to	
  Transport	
  for	
  London,	
  for	
  example,	
  delivery	
  vans	
  in	
  
that	
   city	
   have	
   an	
   average	
   utilization	
   rate	
   of	
   about	
   38%.	
   	
   These	
   negative	
  
consequences	
  of	
  city	
  logistics	
  have	
  a	
  direct	
  impact	
  on	
  the	
  appeal	
  and	
  livability	
  of	
  
cities	
  (ALICE/ERTRAC,	
  2015).	
  	
  
	
  
Smart	
  and	
  zero-­emission	
  city	
  logistics	
  should	
  contribute	
  to	
  more	
  
livable	
   and	
   appealing	
   cities	
   with	
   cleaner	
   vehicles	
   that	
   better	
  
match	
  the	
  size	
  of	
  the	
  city,	
  but	
  also	
  to	
  the	
  consolidation	
  of	
  freight	
  
flows	
   and	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   waterways	
   for	
   transporting	
   goods	
   to	
   and	
  
from	
  the	
  city.	
  
	
  
A	
  more	
  finely	
  meshed	
  network	
  
The	
  urgency	
  to	
  promote	
  smart	
  and	
  zero-­‐emission	
  city	
  logistics	
  is	
  growing.	
  City	
  
logistics	
  is	
  becoming	
  more	
  finely	
  meshed	
  and	
  more	
  frequent	
  (Taniguchi	
  et	
  al.,	
  
2015).	
   And	
   that,	
   in	
   turn,	
   is	
   putting	
   increasing	
   pressure	
   on	
   the	
   city:	
   there	
   are	
  
more	
  shipments,	
  involving	
  more	
  vehicles.	
  A	
  more	
  finely	
  meshed	
  network	
  is	
  the	
  
result	
  of	
  developments	
  such	
  as	
  the	
  following:	
  
	
  
• The	
   growth	
   of	
   omnichannel	
   retailing,	
   with	
   home	
   delivery	
   and	
   pick-­‐up	
  
points,	
  the	
  increase	
  in	
  sales	
  transacted	
  between	
  consumers	
  themselves,	
  
and	
  the	
  sharing	
  economy	
  (Weltevreden	
  &	
  Rotem-­‐Mindali,	
  2009;	
  Visser	
  et	
  
al.,	
   2014).	
   Consumers	
   who	
   also	
   want	
   shorter	
   delivery	
   times	
   and	
   more	
  
delivery	
  options.	
  
• The	
  growth	
  of	
  e-­‐commerce	
  in	
  B2B	
  markets	
  (Forrester,	
  2015).	
  
• The	
  return	
  of	
  stores	
  from	
  the	
  outskirts	
  of	
  town	
  to	
  inside	
  the	
  city.	
  Among	
  
others,	
  IKEA	
  and	
  Praxis	
  are	
  opening	
  stores	
  in	
  the	
  city	
  (NOS,	
  2015).	
  
• The	
   faster	
   exchanges	
   of	
   collections	
   in	
   retail	
   stores,	
   especially	
   in	
   the	
  
fashion	
  branch	
  (Barnes	
  &	
  Lea-­‐Greenwood,	
  2010).	
  
• The	
   rise	
   of	
   nano	
   stores	
   such	
   as	
   Albert	
   Heijn	
   To	
   Go	
   (Blanco	
   &	
   Fransoo,	
  
2013).	
  
• The	
  growth	
  of	
  the	
  inner-­‐city	
  renovation	
  market	
  in	
  the	
  construction	
  sector	
  
(RESIDE,	
  2015).	
  
• The	
  linking	
  of	
  return	
  flows	
  from	
  the	
  city	
  with	
  the	
  circular	
  economy	
  (Soto	
  
et	
  al.,	
  2015).	
  
• The	
   servicification	
   of	
   products,	
   which	
   leads	
   to	
   more	
   service	
   provision.	
  
(Eckerdal,	
  2012).	
  
• The	
  growth	
  of	
  3D	
  printing,	
  which	
  leads	
  to	
  local	
  production,	
  which	
  in	
  turn	
  
needs	
  raw	
  materials	
  in	
  small	
  amounts	
  (Janssen,	
  2014;	
  Taniguchi,	
  2015).	
  
• The	
  growing	
  number	
  of	
  urban	
  seniors	
  who	
  need	
  home	
  care	
  (Hogeschool	
  
van	
  Amsterdam,	
  2015b).	
  
	
  
  9	
  
	
  
2.	
  	
   Measures	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  	
  
	
  
	
  
Local	
   and	
   national	
   authorities	
   play	
   an	
   active	
   role	
   in	
   regulating,	
   coordinating,	
  
facilitating,	
   and	
   stimulating	
   city	
   logistics	
   (MDS	
   Transmodal,	
   2012;	
   Vlaamse	
  
Ministerie	
  van	
  Mobiliteit	
  en	
  Openbare	
  Werken,	
  2013;	
  Quak	
  et	
  al.,	
  2014b).	
  Table	
  1	
  
shows	
  the	
  measures	
  that	
  such	
  authorities	
  can	
  take.	
  Research	
  is	
  being	
  done	
  at	
  the	
  
European	
   level	
   on	
   the	
   effectiveness	
   of	
   measures	
   for	
   the	
   various	
   different	
  
stakeholders	
  (MDS	
  Transmodal,	
  2015).	
  	
  
	
  
Measures	
   Examples	
  
Regulation	
   Delivery	
  windows	
  
Vehicle	
  restrictions	
  
Low-­‐emission	
  zones	
  
Market	
  forces	
   Internalization	
  of	
  external	
  costs:	
  
-­‐ pricing	
  
-­‐ mobility	
  points	
  
-­‐ time-­‐based	
  charges	
  (vignettes)	
  
Subsidies	
  for	
  zero-­‐emission	
  vehicles,	
  bicycle	
  couriers,	
  and	
  
transport	
  by	
  water	
  or	
  rail	
  
Fiscal	
  policy	
  
Spatial	
  planning	
   Redevelopment	
  of	
  (new)	
  areas	
  
Creation	
  of	
  pick-­‐up	
  points	
  for	
  e-­‐commerce	
  shipments	
  
Loading	
  and	
  unloading	
  facilities	
  
Access	
  for	
  transport	
  by	
  water	
  and	
  rail	
  
Facilitating	
  urban	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  
Charging	
  infrastructure	
  for	
  electric	
  vehicles	
  
Infrastructure	
   Loading	
  and	
  unloading	
  facilities	
  on	
  the	
  street	
  
Loading	
  and	
  unloading	
  facilities	
  on	
  the	
  water	
  or	
  the	
  rails	
  
Parking	
  locations	
  for	
  heavy	
  construction	
  traffic	
  
Technology	
   Intelligent	
  transport	
  systems	
  
Dynamic	
  traffic	
  management	
  
Green	
  wave	
  traffic	
  signaling	
  for	
  heavy	
  traffic	
  
Virtual	
  loading	
  and	
  unloading	
  bays	
  
Open	
  data	
  and	
  local	
  traffic	
  control	
  data	
  
Other	
   Granting	
  of	
  privileges	
  
Enforcement	
  
Consolidation	
  of	
  demand	
  via	
  urban	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  and	
  
coordinated	
  (public)	
  procurement	
  
Certification	
  of	
  carriers	
  
Management	
  of	
  construction	
  logistics	
  using	
  the	
  accessibility,	
  
livability,	
  safety,	
  and	
  communications	
  (ALSC)	
  framework	
  
Subsidies	
  for	
  urban	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  
Early-­‐morning	
  and	
  late-­‐night	
  deliveries	
  and	
  stimulating	
  silent	
  
vehicles	
  	
  
Preferred	
  routes	
  for	
  heavy	
  freight	
  traffic	
  
Incentives	
  for	
  research	
  programs,	
  expertise	
  development,	
  and	
  
business	
  networks	
  
Public-­‐private	
  partnerships	
  
	
  
Table	
  1.	
  Government	
  measures	
  with	
  regard	
  to	
  city	
  logistics	
  
  10	
  
Stakeholders	
  
The	
   following	
   are	
   all	
   stakeholders	
   in	
   sustainable	
   city	
   logistics	
   (Macharis	
   &	
  
Bernardini,	
  2015):	
  
	
  
• residents,	
  who	
  want	
  to	
  have	
  clean	
  air,	
  safety,	
  and	
  no	
  undue	
  noise	
  
• visitors,	
   who	
   come	
   to	
   the	
   cities	
   for	
   recreation	
   and	
   do	
   not	
   want	
   to	
   find	
  
streets	
  filled	
  with	
  freight	
  traffic	
  
• companies,	
   which	
   depend	
   on	
   smooth	
   logistics	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   run	
   their	
  
businesses	
  
• shippers	
   and	
   transport	
   companies,	
   who	
   bring	
   goods	
   into	
   the	
   cities	
   day	
  
after	
  day,	
  preferably	
  at	
  the	
  lowest	
  possible	
  cost	
  
• the	
   government,	
   which	
   is	
   responsible	
   for	
   the	
   making	
   sure	
   the	
   carries	
  
responsibility	
  for	
  the	
  draw	
  of	
  the	
  city	
  
• real	
  estate	
  owners,	
  project	
  developers	
  and	
  investors,	
  who	
  want	
  to	
  receive	
  
a	
  decent	
  return	
  on	
  their	
  investments	
  in	
  homes	
  and	
  commercial	
  properties	
  
• politicians,	
  who	
  want	
  to	
  be	
  re-­‐elected	
  every	
  four	
  years.	
  
	
  
City	
  logistics	
  in	
  a	
  historical	
  perspective	
  
The	
  first	
  plans	
  for	
  urban	
  distribution	
  centers	
  in	
  the	
  Netherlands	
  were	
  developed	
  
in	
  the	
  early	
  1990s.	
  The	
  consulting	
  firm	
  Coopers	
  &	
  Lybrand	
  (Coopers	
  &	
  Lybrand,	
  
1991;	
   Van	
   Aken	
   et	
   al.,	
   1993)	
   did	
   research	
   on	
   urban	
   distribution	
   centers	
   in	
  
Maastricht,	
   Amsterdam,	
   and	
   Alkmaar,	
   among	
   other	
   locations.	
   In	
   subsequent	
  
years,	
  those	
  studies	
  were	
  followed	
  by	
  stacks	
  of	
  reports	
  on	
  other	
  municipalities,	
  
including	
   Breda,	
   Oosterhout,	
   Utrecht,	
   and	
   Amersfoort,	
   on	
   the	
   Stadsbox	
   (“City	
  
box”)	
  initiative	
  (Groothedde	
  &	
  Rustenburg,	
  2003),	
  on	
  a	
  cargo	
  tram,	
  beer	
  boats,	
  
and	
  freight	
  transport	
  by	
  canal	
  in	
  Amsterdam,	
  on	
  the	
  work	
  of	
  Binnenstadservice	
  
(a	
   city	
   logistics	
   service	
   center)	
   in	
   various	
   municipalities,	
   and	
   on	
   subsidies	
   for	
  
electric	
  vehicles.	
  	
  
	
  
Quak’s	
  dissertation	
  (2008)	
  provides	
  an	
  overview	
  of	
  the	
  most	
  important	
  Dutch	
  
initiatives	
  and	
  literature	
  in	
  this	
  regard.	
  He	
  concludes	
  (in	
  Dutch):	
  	
  
	
  
The	
   extent	
   to	
   which	
   initiatives	
   will	
   be	
   successful	
   in	
   practice	
   depends	
   on	
   the	
  
relationship	
   between	
   the	
   initiators,	
   the	
   incentive	
   to	
   participate	
   in	
   initiatives,	
   and	
  
the	
  dominant	
  actors.	
  If	
  the	
  initiator	
  is	
  not	
  the	
  most	
  dominant	
  actor,	
  an	
  initiative	
  can	
  
only	
  be	
  implemented	
  successfully	
  in	
  practice	
  if	
  the	
  actor	
  who	
  is	
  supposed	
  to	
  change	
  
his	
  behavior	
  actually	
  stands	
  to	
  benefit	
  from	
  it.	
  Another	
  option	
  is	
  to	
  legally	
  oblige	
  
that	
   actor	
   to	
   adapt	
   his	
   behavior.	
   Among	
   local	
   authorities,	
   there	
   is	
   only	
   limited	
  
knowledge	
  of	
  the	
  logistics	
  operations	
  of	
  transporters.	
  In	
  the	
  same	
  way,	
  transporters	
  
know	
  little	
  about	
  the	
  issues	
  regarding	
  sustainability	
  in	
  cities.	
  Moreover,	
  the	
  near	
  
lack	
  of	
  any	
  communication	
  between	
  transporters	
  and	
  local	
  authorities	
  means	
  that	
  
these	
   public	
   and	
   private	
   actors	
   rarely	
   ever	
   get	
   any	
   real	
   insight	
   into	
   each	
   other’s	
  
problems.	
   An	
   initiative	
   is	
   doomed	
   to	
   fail	
   if	
   its	
   initiator	
   is	
   unable	
   to	
   estimate	
   the	
  
consequences	
  of	
  the	
  initiative	
  beyond	
  the	
  scope	
  that	
  he	
  defined	
  for	
  it.	
  Higher	
  levels	
  
of	
  government	
  are	
  hardly	
  ever	
  involved	
  in	
  initiatives	
  for	
  a	
  sustainable	
  distribution	
  
of	
  goods.	
  The	
  initiatives	
  described	
  in	
  the	
  academic	
  literature	
  have	
  not	
  always	
  been	
  
successful	
  in	
  practice.	
  
	
  
	
  
Cargohopper	
  Amsterdam	
  
  11	
  
In	
   its	
   first	
   nine	
   months,	
   the	
   four	
   electric	
   delivery	
   trucks	
   of	
   Cargohopper	
  
Amsterdam	
  managed	
  to	
  deliver	
  more	
  than	
  a	
  million	
  kilograms	
  of	
  freight,	
  saving	
  
the	
  company	
  7,000	
  liters	
  of	
  diesel	
  fuel.	
  
	
  
“We	
   are	
   very	
   happy	
   with	
   this	
   result,”	
   says	
   Ron	
   Klein	
   Tiessink,	
   director	
   of	
  
Cargohopper,	
   on	
   the	
   website	
   of	
   trade	
   journal	
   Truck	
   &	
   Transportmanagement.	
  
Since	
   the	
   delivery	
   service	
   began	
   using	
   electric	
   trucks	
   in	
   March	
   2014,	
   the	
  
company	
   has	
   made	
   nearly	
   34,000	
   deliveries.	
   In	
   the	
   process,	
   the	
   concept	
   has	
  
more	
  than	
  proved	
  itself,	
  according	
  to	
  Klein	
  Tiessink.	
  
	
  
The	
  electric	
  urban	
  distribution	
  has	
  prevented	
  the	
  emission	
  of	
  18,400	
  kilograms	
  
of	
   CO2.	
   At	
   the	
   same	
   time,	
   the	
   emissions	
   of	
   particulate	
   matter	
   and	
   nitrogen	
  
compounds	
   (NOx)	
   have	
   been	
   reduced.	
   Since	
   Cargohopper	
   consolidates	
   its	
  
shipments	
   in	
   a	
   smart	
   way,	
   the	
   company	
   also	
   manages	
   to	
   reduce	
   the	
   average	
  
distance	
  driven	
  for	
  each	
  individual	
  delivery.	
  That	
  means	
  that	
  the	
  actual	
  savings	
  
in	
  terms	
  of	
  fuel	
  consumption	
  and	
  emissions	
  are	
  even	
  higher.	
  
	
  
Klein	
   Tiessink	
   thinks	
   it’s	
   a	
   shame	
   that	
   there	
   are	
   still	
   only	
   seven	
   of	
   the	
  
Cargohopper	
   trucks	
   he	
   developed	
   being	
   used	
   in	
   Amsterdam,	
   Enschede,	
   and	
  
Utrecht.	
  He	
  is	
  pleased	
  with	
  all	
  the	
  attention	
  it	
  has	
  received,	
  but	
  he	
  would	
  prefer	
  
to	
  see	
  the	
  market	
  speed	
  up	
  its	
  development.	
  “Zero-­‐emission	
  urban	
  distribution	
  is	
  
only	
  going	
  to	
  work	
  when	
  it	
  stops	
  being	
  something	
  out	
  of	
  the	
  ordinary.	
  The	
  latest	
  
generation	
  of	
  heavier	
  electric	
  vehicles	
  should	
  be	
  available	
  for	
  purchase	
  from	
  a	
  
dealer.”	
  
	
  
If	
  the	
  market	
  would	
  have	
  a	
  need	
  for	
  700	
  trucks,	
  it	
  would	
  already	
  be	
  possible	
  to	
  
scale	
   up	
   to	
   series	
   production,	
   says	
   Klein	
   Tiessink.	
   That	
   is	
   an	
   absolute	
  
prerequisite.	
   Only	
   then	
   can	
   the	
   price	
   come	
   down	
   far	
   enough	
   that	
   companies	
  
would	
  be	
  able	
  to	
  buy	
  such	
  a	
  truck	
  without	
  a	
  subsidy.	
  
	
  
The	
   Cargohopper	
   director	
   hopes	
   that	
   cities	
   both	
   in	
   the	
   Netherlands	
   and	
  
internationally	
   will	
   begin	
   pursuing	
   a	
   common	
   policy.	
   “Only	
   then	
   will	
   there	
   be	
  
sufficient	
   demand	
   for	
   the	
   right	
   heavier	
   electric	
   trucks,	
   which	
   would	
   make	
   it	
  
interesting	
  for	
  the	
  industry	
  to	
  develop	
  those.	
  
	
  
Source:	
  Truck	
  &	
  Transportmanagement,	
  January	
  23,	
  2015	
  
	
  
  12	
  
	
  
3.	
  	
   International	
  research	
  
	
  
	
  
On	
  the	
  European	
  level,	
  research	
  is	
  being	
  conducted	
  in	
  programs	
  such	
  as	
  Bestuffs,	
  
Bestfact,	
   Straightsol,	
   Sugar,	
   Smartfusion,	
   Citylog,	
   Civitas,	
   Frevue	
   (on	
   electric	
  
transport),	
   CoE-­‐SUFS,	
   Lamilo,	
   ALICE/ERTRAC	
   and	
   Smartset.	
   Also	
   elsewhere	
  
around	
  the	
  world	
  there	
  are	
  comprehensive	
  research	
  programs.	
  
	
  
With	
   regard	
   to	
   the	
   evaluation	
   of	
   European	
   pilot	
   projects,	
   Balm	
   et	
   al.	
   (2014)	
  
conclude:	
  	
  
	
  
The	
  number	
  of	
  initiatives	
  that	
  aim	
  to	
  improve	
  urban	
  freight	
  transport	
  grow	
  (sic)	
  
rapidly.	
  To	
  make	
  sure	
  that	
  the	
  obtained	
  results	
  grow	
  (sic)	
  as	
  fast	
  as	
  well,	
  we	
  should	
  
make	
  sure	
  that	
  we	
  do	
  the	
  right	
  things	
  and	
  that	
  we	
  know	
  how	
  (sic).	
  To	
  avoid	
  wasting	
  
money,	
   effort,	
   and	
   time	
   on	
   implementing	
   measures	
   and	
   initiatives	
   that	
   will	
   not	
  
(likely)	
   be	
   successful	
   in	
   the	
   future,	
   knowledge	
   transfer	
   across	
   cities	
   is	
   very	
  
important.	
  The	
  knowledge	
  should	
  be	
  based	
  on	
  a	
  transparent	
  evaluation,	
  identifying	
  
the	
  relevant	
  impacts	
  and	
  measurable	
  indicators	
  that	
  represent	
  the	
  key	
  objectives	
  of	
  
all	
   stakeholders.	
   As	
   there	
   is	
   not	
   one	
   problem	
   owner	
   of	
   urban	
   freight	
   transport	
  
issues	
  (sic),	
  such	
  a	
  thorough	
  evaluation	
  is	
  often	
  lacking.	
  
	
  
On	
  the	
  evaluation	
  of	
  projects,	
  Quak	
  et	
  al.	
  (2014)	
  claim:	
  	
  
	
  
Small	
  scale,	
  local	
  demonstrations	
  of	
  which	
  the	
  outcomes	
  are	
  considered	
  to	
  be	
  only	
  
appropriate	
  within	
  a	
  specific	
  context	
  occur	
  quite	
  often	
  in	
  the	
  field	
  of	
  city	
  logistics.	
  
Various	
   local	
   demonstrations	
   usually	
   show	
   a	
   solution’s	
   technical	
   and	
   operational	
  
feasibility.	
  These	
  often	
  subsidized	
  demonstrations	
  do	
  not	
  have	
  long-­‐term	
  potential	
  
due	
  to	
  the	
  lack	
  of	
  thought	
  on	
  (sic)	
  their	
  business	
  models,	
  i.e.	
  the	
  financial	
  feasibility.	
  
To	
  make	
  a	
  solution	
  really	
  work	
  in	
  practice	
  a	
  viable	
  business	
  model	
  is	
  required.	
  
	
  
Vahrenkamp	
  et	
  al.	
  (2013)	
  conclude:	
  
	
  
As	
  a	
  main	
  result	
  of	
  the	
  city	
  logistic	
  (sic)	
  projects	
  over	
  the	
  past	
  25	
  years	
  one	
  has	
  to	
  
state	
   that	
   traffic	
   reduction	
   and	
   economic	
   gains	
   of	
   consolidation	
   were	
   only	
   small	
  
(sic).	
  The	
  gains	
  do	
  not	
  cover	
  the	
  costs	
  the	
  projects	
  impose.	
  To	
  make	
  the	
  projects	
  
economic	
  (sic)	
  feasible	
  the	
  cities	
  had	
  to	
  carry	
  a	
  share	
  of	
  the	
  cost.	
  This	
  was	
  the	
  case	
  
for	
  all	
  Urban	
  Consolidation	
  Centre	
  (UCC)	
  solutions	
  in	
  the	
  UK,	
  France,	
  Netherlands	
  
and	
   Italy.	
   The	
   weak	
   position	
   of	
   UCC	
   became	
   evident	
   when	
   public	
   money	
   was	
  
canceled	
  and	
  the	
  UCC	
  had	
  to	
  stop.	
  
	
  
Many	
   initiatives	
   for	
   city	
   logistics	
   started	
   out	
   with	
   government	
  
subsidies.	
   When	
   the	
   government	
   funding	
   dried	
   up,	
   that	
   would	
  
often	
  mean	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  the	
  initiative	
  as	
  well.	
  
  13	
  
	
  
	
  
Many	
  projects	
  failed	
  
Unfortunately,	
   most	
   of	
   city	
   logistics	
   projects	
   have	
   been	
   unsuccessful	
   and	
   have	
  
ended	
   up	
   dying	
   a	
   premature,	
   quiet	
   death.	
   Generally	
   speaking,	
   there	
   are	
   five	
  
reasons	
  for	
  this:	
  
	
  
1. They	
  were	
  developed	
  on	
  the	
  basis	
  of	
  the	
  wrong	
  data	
  about	
  city	
  logistics.	
  
Many	
  initiatives	
  focused	
  on	
  retail	
  distribution,	
  which	
  accounts	
  for	
  only	
  a	
  
small	
  share	
  of	
  city	
  logistics	
  and	
  often	
  already	
  involves	
  consolidation.	
  Until	
  
a	
  few	
  years	
  ago,	
  the	
  major	
  flows	
  such	
  as	
  construction	
  materials,	
  waste,	
  
and	
   catering	
   supplies	
   remained	
   out	
   of	
   the	
   picture,	
   which	
   essentially	
  
meant	
   that	
   no	
   visible	
   results	
   were	
   achieved	
   in	
   terms	
   of	
   improving	
   city	
  
logistics.	
  	
  
2. The	
  proposed	
  solutions	
  were	
  unattractive	
  for	
  the	
  customers.	
  As	
  a	
  result	
  of	
  
logistics	
   consolidation	
   centers	
   (such	
   as	
   urban	
   distribution	
   centers)	
   the	
  
delivery	
  ended	
  up	
  taking	
  longer.	
  	
  
3. The	
  city	
  logistics	
  solution	
  ended	
  up	
  being	
  more	
  expensive	
  for	
  the	
  shippers	
  
than	
  the	
  existing	
  solution.	
  The	
  entire	
  chain	
  –	
  from	
  the	
  distribution	
  center	
  
all	
  the	
  way	
  to	
  the	
  delivery	
  in	
  the	
  city	
  –	
  was	
  not	
  well	
  thought	
  out.	
  Solutions	
  
were	
  often	
  only	
  developed	
  for	
  the	
  last	
  mile	
  on	
  entering	
  the	
  city.	
  
4. The	
   business	
   model	
   for	
   city	
   logistics	
   was	
   not	
   sound.	
   And	
   because	
   the	
  
business	
  model	
  was	
  not	
  sound,	
  a	
  critical	
  mass	
  was	
  never	
  achieved.	
  
5. The	
  local	
  political	
  situation	
  proved	
  volatile,	
  which	
  meant	
  the	
  local	
  playing	
  
field	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  changed	
  every	
  four	
  years.	
  
	
  
This	
   brief	
   analysis	
   of	
   the	
   bottlenecks	
   for	
   city	
   logistics	
   also	
   indicates	
   the	
  
conditions	
  for	
  successful	
  future	
  solutions:	
  
	
  
1. Focus	
  solutions	
  on	
  the	
  major	
  flows	
  of	
  goods	
  within	
  cities.	
  
2. The	
  receiving	
  party	
  should	
  never	
  be	
  worse	
  off	
  in	
  any	
  case.	
  
3. The	
  solution	
  should	
  not	
  be	
  more	
  expensive	
  for	
  the	
  chain.	
  
4. There	
   needs	
   to	
   be	
   a	
   sound	
   business	
   model	
   for	
   city	
   logistics	
   service	
  
providers.	
  
5. There	
  needs	
  to	
  be	
  continuity	
  in	
  local	
  and	
  national	
  policy	
  in	
  terms	
  of	
  city	
  
logistics.	
  
	
  
European	
  vision	
  for	
  2050	
  
On	
  the	
  one	
  hand,	
  Europe	
  needs	
  to	
  provide	
  for	
  the	
  still-­‐growing	
  need	
  for	
  mobility	
  
and	
  freight	
  transport,	
  but	
  on	
  the	
  one	
  hand,	
  it	
  also	
  needs	
  to	
  ensure	
  a	
  substantial	
  
reduction	
  in	
  greenhouse	
  gases	
  and	
  other	
  harmful	
  emissions	
  as	
  well	
  as	
  in	
  noise	
  
pollution	
   (European	
   Commission,	
   2011).	
   The	
   dependence	
   on	
   oil	
   must	
   be	
  
decreased,	
  while	
  at	
  the	
  same	
  time	
  maintaining	
  a	
  high	
  level	
  of	
  efficiency	
  in	
  the	
  
transport	
  system.	
  This	
  calls	
  for	
  radical	
  changes	
  in	
  the	
  system,	
  based	
  on	
  smarter,	
  
cleaner,	
  and	
  safer	
  transport	
  solutions.	
  
	
  
ERTRAC	
   (European	
   Road	
   Transport	
   Research	
   Advisory	
   Council)	
   and	
   ALICE	
  
(Alliance	
   for	
   Logistics	
   Innovation	
   through	
   Collaboration	
   in	
   Europe)	
   have	
   put	
  
together	
   a	
   roadmap	
   for	
   research	
   on	
   city	
   logistics	
   (ALICE/ERTRAC,	
   2015).	
   The	
  
  14	
  
aim	
  of	
  this	
  roadmap	
  is	
  to	
  set	
  the	
  research	
  priorities	
  in	
  relation	
  to	
  city	
  logistics.	
  In	
  
the	
   logistics	
   vision	
   of	
   ALICE,	
   which	
   covers	
   the	
   period	
   until	
   2050,	
   the	
   main	
  
ambition	
   is	
   the	
   development	
   of	
   the	
   so-­‐called	
   Physical	
   Internet	
   (Ballot	
   et	
   al.,	
  
2014).	
  To	
  achieve	
  that	
  ambition,	
  two	
  proposed	
  lines	
  of	
  research	
  form	
  the	
  basis	
  
for	
  the	
  logistics	
  projects	
  within	
  the	
  EU	
  Horizon	
  2020	
  research	
  program.	
  These	
  
are:	
  a)	
  sustainable	
  and	
  safe	
  supply	
  chains,	
  and	
  b)	
  coordination	
  and	
  collaboration	
  
in	
   global	
   supply	
   networks.	
   The	
   research	
   will	
   focus	
   on	
   corridors,	
   hubs	
   and	
  
synchromodality,	
  city	
  logistics,	
  and	
  information	
  systems	
  for	
  connecting	
  logistics	
  
systems	
   within	
   the	
   chain.	
   The	
   participants	
   in	
   ALICE	
   are	
   companies,	
   research	
  
institutes,	
   national	
   governments,	
   and	
   innovation	
   partners.	
   The	
   roadmap	
  
(ALICE/ERTRAC,	
  2015)	
  has	
  four	
  objectives:	
  
	
  
1. Decarbonization:	
   energy	
   efficiency	
   can	
   be	
   achieved	
   by	
   making	
   city	
  
logistics	
  more	
  efficient	
  (for	
  example	
  by	
  consolidation	
  deliveries)	
  and	
  by	
  
using	
  zero-­‐emission	
  and	
  energy-­‐efficient	
  vehicle	
  technology	
  (Stanislaw	
  et	
  
al.,	
   2014).	
   One	
   condition	
   for	
   the	
   introduction	
   of	
   electric	
   vehicles	
   is	
   the	
  
implementation	
  of	
  a	
  charging	
  infrastructure	
  with	
  rapid	
  charging	
  points.	
  
Smart	
  city	
  logistics	
  concepts	
  can	
  compensate	
  for	
  the	
  extra	
  costs	
  of	
  using	
  
electric	
  vehicles	
  for	
  the	
  transportation	
  of	
  goods	
  by	
  raising	
  the	
  utilization	
  
rate,	
  by	
  reducing	
  the	
  number	
  of	
  miles	
  driven	
  and	
  the	
  number	
  of	
  empty	
  
runs	
  made,	
  and	
  by	
  preventing	
  hours	
  from	
  being	
  lost.	
  	
  
2. Livability	
  and	
  the	
  quality	
  of	
  the	
  environment:	
  the	
  research	
  is	
  expected	
  to	
  
help	
  improve	
  the	
  air	
  quality	
  in	
  European	
  cities	
  and	
  to	
  reduce	
  noise	
  levels.	
  
The	
  factors	
  contributing	
  to	
  local	
  air	
  pollution	
  can	
  differ	
  significantly	
  from	
  
city	
  to	
  city,	
  just	
  as	
  the	
  relative	
  share	
  of	
  transport	
  as	
  a	
  cause	
  of	
  urban	
  air	
  
pollution	
  also	
  varies	
  from	
  place	
  to	
  place.	
  The	
  goal	
  is	
  to	
  reduce	
  particulate	
  
matter	
  by	
  80%	
  and	
  NOx	
  by	
  90%	
  in	
  the	
  period	
  from	
  2010	
  until	
  2030.	
  It	
  is	
  
possible	
  to	
  improve	
  air	
  quality	
  by	
  reducing	
  the	
  emissions	
  of	
  the	
  vehicles	
  
themselves	
   by	
   applying	
   higher	
   emission	
   standards,	
   by	
   using	
   smart	
   city	
  
logistics	
  concepts,	
  and	
  by	
  local	
  traffic	
  management.	
  The	
  reduction	
  of	
  noise	
  
emissions	
  in	
  connection	
  with	
  city	
  logistics	
  is	
  important	
  due	
  to	
  its	
  impact	
  
on	
   the	
   health	
   of	
   the	
   citizens.	
   Quieter	
   vehicles	
   will	
   make	
   it	
   possible	
   to	
  
make	
   deliveries	
   at	
   night.	
   This	
   will	
   require	
   not	
   only	
   a	
   reduction	
   of	
   the	
  
noise	
   level	
   of	
   the	
   vehicles	
   themselves,	
   but	
   also	
   of	
   the	
   noise	
   from	
   the	
  
loading	
  and	
  unloading	
  of	
  goods.	
  	
  
3. Reliability:	
  city	
  logistics	
  is	
  only	
  effective	
  when	
  the	
  goods	
  are	
  delivered	
  to	
  
the	
   expected	
   delivery	
   point	
   and	
   at	
   the	
   expected	
   delivery	
   time.	
   With	
  
regard	
   to	
   business-­‐to-­‐business	
   (B2B),	
   the	
   percentage	
   of	
   effective	
  
deliveries	
   is	
   already	
   around	
   95%.	
   For	
   business-­‐to-­‐consumer	
   (B2C)	
  
deliveries	
  in	
  the	
  urban	
  environment,	
  that	
  is	
  currently	
  only	
  70%	
  to	
  75%.	
  
The	
  reliability	
  will	
  need	
  to	
  improve	
  substantially	
  with	
  an	
  eye	
  to	
  the	
  fast	
  
growth	
  of	
  e-­‐commerce	
  (Van	
  Duin	
  et	
  al.,	
  2015;	
  EY,	
  2015).	
  
4. Safety:	
   there	
   is	
   growing	
   concern	
   about	
   the	
   number	
   of	
   injuries	
   and	
  
fatalities	
  involving	
  trucks	
  and	
  more	
  vulnerable	
  road	
  users	
  in	
  the	
  urban	
  
environment.	
   The	
   European	
   Union	
   has	
   ambitious	
   goals	
   in	
   relation	
   to	
  
traffic	
  safety.	
  Some	
  cities	
  have	
  already	
  adopted	
  Vision	
  Zero	
  as	
  their	
  policy	
  
objective.	
  The	
  roadmap	
  focuses	
  research	
  on	
  infrastructure,	
  vehicles,	
  and	
  
human	
   behavior.	
   Besides	
   traffic	
   safety,	
   there	
   is	
   also	
   attention	
   for	
   safe	
  
deliveries	
  with	
  less	
  theft	
  and	
  damage.	
  	
  
  15	
  
4.	
   Supply	
  chain	
  perspective	
  
	
  
	
  
In	
  the	
  effort	
  to	
  realize	
  these	
  objectives,	
  city	
  logistics	
  should	
  be	
  seen	
  as	
  a	
  link	
  in	
  
the	
  logistics	
  chain,	
  with	
  the	
  end	
  user	
  as	
  the	
  primary	
  end	
  point	
  (which,	
  based	
  on	
  
the	
   notion	
   of	
   circularity,	
   is	
   also	
   a	
   potential	
   new	
   starting	
   point).	
   A	
   holistic	
  
approach	
  should	
  be	
  followed	
  in	
  order	
  to	
  understand	
  what	
  can	
  be	
  done	
  upstream	
  
to	
  optimize	
  the	
  logistics	
  chain	
  and	
  to	
  have	
  it	
  link	
  up	
  with	
  city	
  logistics.	
  	
  
	
  
City	
  logistics	
  lies	
  at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  an	
  integrated	
  logistics	
  chain:	
  from	
  
field	
  to	
  fork.	
  
	
  
Three	
   technological	
   developments	
   in	
   transport	
   and	
   distribution	
   are	
   going	
   to	
  
fundamentally	
   change	
   the	
   existing	
   distribution	
   networks:	
   the	
   Trans-­‐European	
  
Transport	
  Networks	
  (TEN-­‐T),	
  the	
  autonomous	
  trucks	
  that	
  will	
  carry	
  goods	
  safely	
  
and	
  reliably	
  across	
  the	
  TEN-­‐T,	
  and	
  the	
  innovations	
  in	
  warehouse	
  automation.	
  
	
  
1. TEN-­‐T:	
  international	
  transport	
  links.	
  	
  
	
   In	
  the	
  framework	
  of	
  the	
  TEN-­‐T	
  program,	
  the	
  European	
  Commission	
  has	
  
designated	
  ten	
  international	
  transport	
  links	
  –	
  the	
  “core	
  network	
  corridors”	
  
–	
  that	
  are	
  to	
  be	
  fully	
  built	
  up	
  and	
  improved	
  with	
  EU	
  funding	
  through	
  2030.	
  
These	
  concern	
  innovative	
  transport	
  links	
  on	
  water,	
  rails,	
  and	
  roads.	
  
	
  
	
   The	
  aim	
  is	
  to	
  further	
  strengthen	
  the	
  European	
  transport	
  infrastructure	
  –	
  
and	
   the	
   intelligent	
   transport	
   and	
   traffic	
   management	
   systems	
   that	
   go	
  
along	
  with	
  that	
  –	
  and	
  to	
  lower	
  transport	
  costs	
  in	
  the	
  process.	
  On	
  these	
  
safe	
   and	
   robust	
   core	
   network	
   corridors,	
   goods	
   can	
   find	
   their	
   way	
   –	
  
uninterrupted,	
   but	
   especially	
   also	
   reliably	
   –	
   between	
   Europe’s	
   major	
  
production	
  and	
  consumption	
  areas.	
  This	
  is	
  the	
  preferred	
  network	
  of	
  the	
  
future.	
  
	
  
2. Platooning:	
  autonomous	
  driving.	
  	
  
	
   Unmanned	
   trucks	
   are	
   getting	
   closer	
   and	
   closer.	
   The	
   use	
   of	
   wireless	
  
technology	
  to	
  connect	
  to	
  a	
  road	
  train	
  –	
  a	
  manually	
  steered	
  lead	
  truck	
  with	
  
a	
  column	
  of	
  vehicles	
  behind	
  it	
  –	
  is	
  already	
  technically	
  possible.	
  These	
  road	
  
trains	
  are	
  going	
  to	
  need	
  to	
  have	
  sufficient	
  volume	
  and	
  frequency.	
  That	
  will	
  
require	
  enormous	
  distribution	
  centers	
  where	
  logistics	
  service	
  providers	
  
can	
   consolidate	
   transport	
   flows	
   from	
   different	
   sectors	
   of	
   industry	
   to	
  
deliver	
   –	
   with	
   a	
   high	
   frequency	
   and	
   great	
   reliability	
   –	
   to	
   distribution	
  
centers	
   downstream	
   in	
   the	
   chain,	
   closer	
   to	
   major	
   consumption	
   centers:	
  
urban	
   consolidation	
   centers.	
   Those	
   DCs	
   will	
   need	
   to	
   be	
   strategically	
  
connected	
  with	
  these	
  nodes	
  of	
  the	
  TEN-­‐T	
  network.	
  
	
  
3. Dark	
  stores:	
  robots	
  in	
  warehouses.	
  	
  
	
   Faster,	
   more	
   frequent	
   and	
   more	
   finely	
   meshed	
   delivery	
   calls	
   for	
   the	
  
mechanization	
   of	
   order-­‐picking	
   activities	
   in	
   distribution	
   centers:	
   dark	
  
stores.	
  With	
  new	
  technology	
  such	
  as	
  Amazon’s	
  picking	
  robots,	
  automatic	
  
case	
  picking,	
  RFID,	
  GS1	
  standards	
  for	
  things	
  like	
  pallet	
  labels,	
  dock-­‐and-­‐
  16	
  
roll,	
   and	
   pick-­‐by-­‐voice,	
   the	
   productivity	
   in	
   distribution	
   centers	
   is	
  
increasing	
   in	
   leaps	
   and	
   bounds.	
   Distribution	
   centers	
   where	
   employees	
  
gather	
  900	
  to	
  1,200	
  order	
  lines	
  an	
  hour	
  are	
  no	
  longer	
  exceptions.	
  Those	
  
investments	
   can	
   only	
   be	
   earned	
   back	
   in	
   distribution	
   centers	
   with	
  
sufficient	
  scale.	
  
	
   Ten	
  years	
  ago,	
  experts	
  still	
  thought	
  that	
  distribution	
  centers	
  couldn’t	
  be	
  
any	
  larger	
  than	
  50,000	
  square	
  meters.	
  Warehouses	
  larger	
  than	
  that	
  were	
  
thought	
   to	
   be	
   less	
   efficient.	
   In	
   the	
   meantime,	
   recent	
   examples	
   from	
  
Zalando,	
   Action,	
   Nike,	
   and	
   Zara	
   have	
   shown	
   that	
   efficient	
   distribution	
  
centers	
  can	
  easily	
  be	
  as	
  big	
  as	
  150,000	
  to	
  300,000	
  square	
  meters.	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
The	
  distribution	
  centers	
  of	
  the	
  future	
  will	
  be	
  located	
  at	
  strategic	
  points	
  within	
  
the	
  TEN-­‐T	
  network.	
  They	
  will	
  consolidate	
  freight	
  flows	
  from	
  many	
  shippers	
  and	
  
have	
   fully	
   mechanized	
   internal	
   processes.	
   The	
   distribution	
   centers	
   will	
   be	
  
interconnected	
  with	
  advanced	
  systems	
  for	
  the	
  minute-­‐by-­‐minute	
  planning	
  and	
  
steering	
   of	
   the	
   operational	
   processes	
   with	
   transport	
   management,	
   warehouse	
  
management,	
  and	
  traffic	
  management:	
  sense	
  and	
  respond.	
  Control	
  towers	
  will	
  
see	
   to	
   the	
   tactical	
   coordination	
   of	
   the	
   flows	
   of	
   goods	
   and	
   capacities	
   in	
   the	
  
distribution	
  network:	
  predict	
  and	
  prepare.	
  	
  
	
  
These	
  developments	
  will	
  have	
  consequences	
  for	
  the	
  city	
  logistics	
  at	
  the	
  end	
  of	
  
the	
  logistics	
  chain	
  and	
  thus	
  also	
  for	
  local	
  spatial	
  planning	
  (Dablanc,	
  2014).	
  More	
  
and	
  more	
  often,	
  urban	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  on	
  the	
  edges	
  of	
  cities	
  will	
  be	
  the	
  
points	
  where	
  slow	
  mobility,	
  aimed	
  at	
  efficiently	
  consolidated	
  freight	
  flows,	
  turns	
  
into	
  valuable	
  personalized	
  mobility,	
  aimed	
  at	
  the	
  needs	
  of	
  the	
  receiver.	
  	
  
	
  
The	
  pressure	
  to	
  improve	
  the	
  air	
  quality	
  in	
  urban	
  areas	
  is	
  an	
  important	
  incentive	
  
for	
   the	
   use	
   of	
   electric	
   vehicles.	
   That	
   means	
   that	
   more	
   shipments	
   are	
   being	
  
transferred	
  to	
  these	
  electric	
  vehicles	
  at	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  within	
  or	
  around	
  
the	
  city.	
  	
  
	
  
An	
  urban	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  functions	
  as	
  a	
  lynch	
  pin	
  and	
  pivot	
  point	
  in	
  the	
  
logistics	
  chain	
  for	
  physical,	
  information,	
  and	
  financial	
  flows,	
  but	
  that	
  only	
  works	
  
properly	
  with	
  a	
  corresponding	
  organizational	
  structure.	
  Important	
  ingredients	
  
for	
   the	
   organization	
   model	
   are	
   the	
   neutral	
   director’s	
   role	
   that	
   can	
   serve	
   the	
  
  17	
  
interests	
  of	
  every	
  shipper,	
  transporter,	
  distributor,	
  and	
  receiver,	
  and	
  the	
  national	
  
coverage	
   of	
   uniform	
   services	
   combined	
   with	
   local	
   situation	
   (Guis,	
   2014). This	
  
transfer-­‐of-­‐goods	
   function	
   needs	
   to	
   be	
   integrated	
   into	
   the	
   logistics	
   chain	
   with	
  
multiple	
  parties.	
  Different	
  business	
  models,	
  new	
  processes,	
  and	
  technologies	
  will	
  
need	
   to	
   be	
   investigated	
   and	
   implemented.	
   The	
   city	
   logistics	
   systems	
   are	
  
becoming	
   more	
   and	
   more	
   integrated	
   with	
   both	
   horizontal	
   and	
   vertical	
  
collaboration	
  between	
  parties.	
  Such	
  a	
  development	
  needs	
  to	
  have	
  attention	
  for	
  
intermodal	
  and	
  multimodal	
  solutions	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  (for	
  example	
  the	
  shipping	
  
of	
  products	
  via	
  inland	
  waterways	
  to	
  the	
  edges	
  of	
  the	
  city).	
  
	
  
More	
  and	
  more	
  vehicles	
  are	
  connected	
  with	
  each	
  other	
  and	
  with	
  road	
  authorities,	
  
for	
   example	
   via	
   cooperative	
   intelligent	
   transportation	
   systems	
   (ITS-­‐C).	
   With	
  
traffic	
  management,	
  this	
  can	
  result	
  in	
  better	
  freight	
  traffic	
  flows.	
  	
  
	
  
Finally	
  one	
  should	
  not	
  forget	
  that	
  the	
  freight	
  traffic	
  in	
  cities	
  is	
  the	
  result	
  of	
  the	
  
behavior	
   of	
   customers	
   in	
   those	
   cities.	
   The	
   development	
   of	
   the	
   city	
   and	
   the	
  
lifestyle	
  of	
  the	
  people	
  who	
  live	
  there	
  both	
  have	
  a	
  major	
  impact	
  on	
  city	
  logistics.	
  
Factors	
  such	
  as	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  teleworking,	
  an	
  aging	
  population,	
  housing,	
  
and	
  the	
  growth	
  of	
  omnichannel	
  retail	
  have	
  major	
  consequences	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  
(ALICE/ERTRAC,	
   2015).	
   Digitization	
   may	
   also	
   offer	
   opportunities	
   to	
   put	
   the	
  
client	
   behind	
   the	
   steering	
   wheel	
   in	
   organizing	
   city	
   logistics	
   more	
   efficiently.	
  
AH.nl	
   allows	
   customers	
   to	
   choose	
   a	
   delivery	
   time	
   themselves.	
   By	
   charging	
  
different	
  prices	
  for	
  the	
  different	
  delivery	
  times	
  (ranging	
  from	
  €4.95	
  to	
  €12.95),	
  
AH.nl	
  leads	
  its	
  customers	
  by	
  the	
  hand	
  through	
  the	
  logistics	
  process.	
  And	
  in	
  doing	
  
so,	
   AH.nl	
   is	
   managing	
   to	
   optimize	
   its	
   own	
   home-­‐delivery	
   process	
   quietly	
   and	
  
dynamically.	
  	
  
	
  
	
  
  18	
  
	
  
5.	
   City	
  logistics	
  as	
  we	
  head	
  towards	
  2050	
  
	
  
	
  
The	
  ALICE/ERTRAC	
  (2015)	
  report	
  contains	
  12	
  roadmaps	
  that	
  were	
  developed	
  
for	
  the	
  research	
  themes	
  for	
  the	
  coming	
  decades:	
  
	
  
1. Identifying	
  and	
  assessing	
  opportunities	
  in	
  urban	
  freight.	
  
2. Towards	
   a	
   more	
   efficient	
   integration	
   of	
   urban	
   freight	
   in	
   the	
   urban	
  
transport	
  system.	
  
3. Understanding	
  the	
  impact	
  of	
  land	
  use	
  on	
  urban	
  freight	
  activities.	
  
4. Enabling	
  more	
  efficient	
  movements	
  of	
  goods	
  through	
  the	
  management	
  of	
  
the	
  infrastructure.	
  
5. Improving	
   the	
   interaction	
   between	
   long	
   distance	
   freight	
   transport	
   and	
  
urban	
  freight.	
  
6. Better	
  adapting	
  the	
  vehicles	
  to	
  innovative	
  urban	
  freight	
  delivery	
  systems.	
  
7. Value	
  creation	
  logistics	
  services	
  and	
  more	
  efficient	
  operations.	
  
8. E-­‐commerce	
   implications:	
   Direct	
   to	
   consumer	
   deliveries	
   and	
   functional	
  
logistics	
  services.	
  
9. Reverse	
  logistics	
  and	
  transport	
  of	
  waste	
  and	
  recycling	
  material.	
  
10. Designing	
  and	
  operating	
  urban	
  freight	
  delivery	
  infrastructures.	
  
11. Safety	
  and	
  security	
  in	
  urban	
  freight.	
  
12. Cleaner	
  and	
  more	
  efficient	
  vehicles.	
  
	
  
Netherlands	
  2020–2025:	
  Green	
  Deal	
  Zero	
  Emission	
  Urban	
  Logistics	
  
The	
   Top	
   Sector	
   Logistics’	
   2016–2020	
   multiyear	
   program	
   (Topsector	
   Logistiek,	
  
2015)	
   also	
   gives	
   attention	
   to	
   city	
   logistics.	
   The	
   collaboration	
   between	
   all	
   the	
  
different	
   parties	
   involved	
   in	
   city	
   logistics	
   is	
   currently	
   most	
   evident	
   within	
   the	
  
Green	
   Deal	
   Zero	
   Emission	
   Urban	
   Logistics	
   (GDZES)	
   program.	
   The	
   basis	
   of	
   the	
  
GDZES	
  lies	
  in	
  the	
  Agreement	
  on	
  Energy	
  for	
  Sustainable	
  Growth.	
  	
  That	
   Agreement	
  
states	
  (in	
  Dutch):	
  “In	
  2014,	
  parties	
  intend	
  [...]	
  to	
  conclude	
  a	
  Green	
  Deal	
  about	
  
zero-­‐emission	
   city	
   logistics	
   that	
   will	
   facilitate	
   and	
   give	
   direction	
   to	
   regional	
  
pilots.”	
   In	
   this	
   context,	
   zero-­‐emission	
   city	
   logistics	
   refers	
   in	
   any	
   case	
   to	
   the	
  
reduction	
  of	
  CO2	
  emissions	
  resulting	
  from	
  city	
  logistics	
  to	
  zero,	
  but	
  preferably	
  
also	
  to	
  the	
  reduction	
  of	
  NOx,	
  particulate	
  matter,	
  and	
  noise	
  emissions	
  in	
  the	
  city	
  
centers	
  resulting	
  from	
  city	
  logistics	
  to	
  practically	
  zero.	
  
	
  
Parties	
  to	
  the	
  GDZES	
  have	
  the	
  goal	
  of	
  achieving	
  emission-­‐free	
  deliveries	
  in	
  city	
  
centers	
   by	
   2025.	
   These	
   parties	
   include	
   the	
   Dutch	
   national	
   government,	
  
municipalities,	
  industry	
  associations,	
  knowledge	
  institutions,	
  shippers,	
  transport	
  
and	
  distribution	
  companies,	
  fuel	
  suppliers,	
  and	
  vehicle	
  producers.	
  	
  By	
  means	
  of	
  
Living	
  Labs,	
  parties	
  are	
  working	
  together	
  to	
  come	
  up	
  with	
  workable	
  operational	
  
solutions.	
  The	
  projects	
  have	
  to	
  do	
  with	
  vehicle	
  technology,	
  the	
  use	
  and	
  loading	
  of	
  
trucks,	
  and	
  the	
  initiation	
  of	
  innovative	
  city	
  logistics	
  projects.	
  
	
  
With	
  its	
  action	
  line	
  for	
  city	
  logistics,	
  the	
  Top	
  Sector	
  Logistics	
  wants	
  to	
  connect	
  
with	
  this	
  Green	
  Deal.	
  Considering	
  that	
  city	
  logistics	
  has	
  a	
  major	
  impact	
  on	
  the	
  
accessibility	
  and	
  the	
  broader	
  quality	
  of	
  life	
  in	
  the	
  city,	
  both	
  of	
  which	
  form	
  the	
  
  19	
  
focus	
   of	
   the	
   current	
   Dutch	
   government’s	
   Agenda	
   Stad	
   (“Urban	
   Agenda”),	
   the	
  
action	
  line	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  will	
  form	
  a	
  link	
  to	
  that	
  agenda.	
  	
  
	
  
While	
  there	
  has	
  been	
  no	
  large-­‐scale	
  production	
  of	
  zero-­‐emission	
  vehicles	
  to	
  date,	
  
electric	
  delivery	
  vans	
  are	
  already	
  available	
  and	
  the	
  first	
  heavier,	
  custom-­‐made	
  
zero-­‐emission	
   trucks	
   are	
   already	
   in	
   use.	
   In	
   addition,	
   prototypes	
   of	
   hybrid	
  
vehicles	
  are	
  being	
  developed	
  that	
  can	
  use	
  conventional	
  fuels	
  on	
  the	
  motorways	
  
but	
   travel	
   emission-­‐free	
   for	
   the	
   “last	
   mile”	
   within	
   the	
   city.	
   Despite	
   the	
   great	
  
diversity	
  in	
  load	
  types	
  and	
  the	
  resulting	
  diversity	
  of	
  technical	
  specifications	
  for	
  
vehicles,	
  relevant	
  developments	
  are	
  currently	
  under	
  way	
  for	
  all	
  types	
  of	
  supply	
  
vehicles	
  that	
  are	
  being	
  used	
  on	
  a	
  large	
  scale,	
  each	
  one	
  proceeding	
  at	
  its	
  own	
  pace.	
  
As	
   logistics	
   concepts	
   are	
   scaled	
   up	
   further,	
   the	
   parties	
   to	
   the	
   GDZES	
   want	
   to	
  
boost	
  the	
  development,	
  availability,	
  reliability,	
  and	
  affordability	
  of	
  zero-­‐emission	
  
vehicles.	
  By	
  now	
  there	
  are	
  many	
  opportunities	
  for	
  electric	
  vehicles	
  in	
  connection	
  
with	
   city	
   logistics	
   (Stanislaw	
   et	
   al.,	
   2014)	
   and	
   their	
   use	
   is	
   being	
   monitored	
  
(Nesterova	
  et	
  al.,	
  2013;	
  Pelletier	
  et	
  al.,	
  2014;	
  Hogeschool	
  van	
  Amsterdam,	
  2015d).	
  
	
  
Besides	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  zero-­‐emission	
  vehicles,	
  a	
  reduction	
  in	
  the	
  number	
  of	
  vehicles	
  
needed	
  to	
  bring	
  supplies	
  to	
  the	
  city	
  is	
  another	
  important	
  objective.	
  Some	
  goods	
  
already	
  enter	
  the	
  city	
  in	
  efficient	
  ways.	
  That	
  is	
  especially	
  the	
  case	
  where	
  logistics	
  
professionals	
  and	
  companies	
  have	
  organized	
  the	
  (consolidation	
  of)	
  freight	
  flows	
  
with	
  transport	
  on	
  their	
  own	
  account,	
  as	
  with	
  the	
  stocking	
  of	
  supermarkets	
  and	
  
chain	
  stores.	
  Also	
  the	
  distribution	
  of	
  e-­‐commerce	
  shipments	
  is	
  continually	
  being	
  
optimized	
  by	
  the	
  larger	
  logistics	
  parties,	
  thanks	
  in	
  part	
  to	
  the	
  sound	
  agreements	
  
that	
  are	
  being	
  made	
  with	
  receivers	
  (Van	
  Duin	
  et	
  al.,	
  2015).	
  
	
  
In	
  contrast	
  to	
  the	
  efficient	
  flows,	
  by	
  far	
  most	
  transport	
  movements	
  are	
  known	
  to	
  
work	
  with	
  a	
  low	
  utilization	
  rate	
  or	
  only	
  enter	
  the	
  city	
  to	
  deliver	
  small	
  shipments.	
  
New	
   city	
   logistics	
   concepts	
   and	
   more	
   extensive	
   consolidation	
   make	
   the	
   use	
   of	
  
zero-­‐emission	
  vehicles	
  and/or	
  the	
  use	
  of	
  clean	
  vehicles	
  with	
  a	
  high	
  utilization	
  
rate	
  in	
  lieu	
  of	
  low	
  emissions	
  for	
  those	
  transport	
  movements	
  potentially	
  feasible	
  
and	
  are	
  therefore	
  in	
  line	
  with	
  the	
  GDZES	
  objectives.	
  Amsterdam	
  has	
  it’s	
  own	
  deal	
  
with	
  local	
  business	
  organization	
  and	
  research	
  institutions	
  called	
  ‘Slim	
  en	
  Schoon’.	
  
	
  
	
  
  20	
  
	
  
The	
  action	
  line	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  aims	
  to	
  reduce	
  CO2	
  emissions	
  by	
  5,000	
  kilotons	
  
of	
  CO2	
  per	
  year.	
  Achieving	
  zero-­‐emission	
  city	
  logistics	
  through	
  a	
  combination	
  of	
  
better	
   technology	
   and	
   more	
   efficient	
   logistics	
   will	
   require	
   organizational,	
  
technological,	
  social,	
  financial,	
  and	
  legal	
  adjustments.	
  This	
  variety	
  of	
  factors	
  to	
  be	
  
overcome,	
   in	
   combination	
   with	
   the	
   many	
   different	
   interests	
   of	
   stakeholders,	
  
demands	
  an	
  innovative	
  approach.	
  	
  
	
  
The	
  first	
  phase	
  will	
  start	
  the	
  moment	
  the	
  Green	
  Deal	
  enters	
  into	
  force	
  and	
  run	
  
until	
  2020.	
  In	
  this	
  initial	
  phase,	
  the	
  Green	
  Deal	
  will	
  focus	
  on	
  demonstrating	
  or	
  at	
  
least	
   making	
   plausible,	
   via	
   Living	
   Labs,	
   that	
   zero-­‐emission	
   city	
   logistics	
   is	
  
feasible,	
  from	
  a	
  technical,	
  economic,	
  and	
  enforcement	
  perspective,	
  for	
  a	
  specific	
  
logistics	
  flow.	
  In	
  the	
  second	
  phase,	
  which	
  runs	
  until	
  2025,	
  the	
  Green	
  Deal	
  will	
  
focus	
  on	
  scaling	
  up	
  the	
  demonstrated	
  concepts.	
  	
  
	
  
There	
  are	
  also	
  links	
  with	
  other	
  part	
  of	
  the	
  Top	
  Sector	
  such	
  as	
  the	
  application	
  of	
  
knowledge	
   from	
   the	
   4C	
   roadmap	
   (for	
   cross	
   chain	
   control	
   centers),	
   the	
  
development	
   of	
   new	
   business	
   models,	
   and	
   the	
   implementation	
   of	
   digital	
  
exchanges	
   of	
   logistics	
   information	
   with	
   the	
   Neutral	
   Logistic	
   Information	
  
Platform	
  or	
  NLIP	
  (Topsector	
  Logistiek,	
  2015).	
  
	
  
	
  
  21	
  
	
  
6.	
   An	
  integrated	
  approach	
  
	
  
	
  
Considering	
   the	
   Dutch	
   and	
   European	
   ambitions,	
   a	
   lot	
   of	
   innovation	
   will	
   be	
  
required	
   of	
   shippers,	
   receivers,	
   logistics	
   service	
   providers,	
   and	
   governments	
  
when	
   it	
   comes	
   to	
   city	
   logistics.	
   In	
   practice,	
   the	
   integrated	
   logistics	
   concept	
   is	
  
often	
  used	
  in	
  dealing	
  with	
  such	
  innovative	
  logistics	
  issues	
  (Van	
  Goor	
  et	
  al.,	
  2014).	
  
Local	
  and	
  supralocal	
  government	
  policy	
  is	
  another	
  key	
  factor	
  in	
  city	
  logistics.	
  For	
  
that	
  reason,	
  government	
  policy	
  has	
  been	
  added	
  to	
  the	
  integrated	
  approach	
  of	
  city	
  
logistics	
  (see	
  Fig.	
  1).	
  	
  
	
  
Figure	
  1:	
  Integrated	
  approach	
  to	
  city	
  logistics	
  (based	
  on	
  Van	
  Goor	
  et	
  al.,	
  2014).	
  
	
  
External	
  and	
  internal	
  objectives	
  
In	
   terms	
   of	
   the	
   external	
   objectives,	
   it	
   concerns	
   linking	
   up	
   with	
   the	
   logistical	
  
needs	
   of	
   the	
   receiving	
   party	
   during	
   the	
   customer-­‐experience	
   cycle	
   (pre-­‐sales,	
  
sales,	
  and	
  aftersales).	
  In	
  terms	
  of	
  the	
  internal	
  objectives,	
  it	
  concerns	
  the	
  costs	
  
and	
  the	
  working	
  capital	
  that	
  are	
  involved	
  in	
  supplying	
  the	
  customers	
  in	
  the	
  chain.	
  
These	
  are	
  the	
  framework	
  conditions	
  for	
  setting	
  up	
  a	
  distribution	
  network.	
  	
  
	
  
Especially	
   as	
   a	
   result	
   of	
   the	
   digitization	
   of	
   customers	
   and	
   the	
   changes	
   in	
  
customer	
   behavior,	
   these	
   external	
   objectives	
   are	
   changing	
   (Shopping2020,	
  
2014).	
   Consumers	
   are	
   buying	
   more	
   online.	
   With	
   the	
   advent	
   of	
   nano	
   stores	
  
(Blanco	
   &	
   Fransoo,	
   2013),	
   shops	
   are	
   receiving	
   smaller	
   and	
   smaller	
   shipments	
  
more	
  and	
  more	
  often.	
  To	
  be	
  able	
  to	
  compete	
  with	
  web	
  stores,	
  fashion	
  retailers	
  
are	
  presenting	
  new	
  collections	
  more	
  and	
  more	
  often.	
  	
  E-­‐commerce	
  in	
  the	
  B2B	
  
market	
  is	
  only	
  now	
  really	
  starting	
  to	
  develop.	
  As	
  construction	
  sites	
  in	
  cities	
  get	
  
  22	
  
smaller	
   and	
   smaller,	
   supplies	
   need	
   to	
   be	
   brought	
   in	
   more	
   often	
   and	
   delivered	
  
right	
   on	
   time.	
   In	
   the	
   future,	
   seniors	
   who	
   want	
   to	
   keep	
   living	
   at	
   home	
   will	
   get	
  
customized	
  healthcare	
  logistics	
  at	
  home.	
  
	
  
Processes	
  
For	
   deliveries	
   to	
   customers	
   in	
   cities,	
   there	
   are	
   several	
   types	
   of	
   possible	
  
distribution	
  networks:	
  	
  
	
  
• Directly	
  from	
  the	
  shippers	
  to	
  the	
  customer(s)	
  
• Consolidation	
  of	
  freight	
  flows	
  of	
  shippers	
  upstream	
  in	
  the	
  logistics	
  chain.	
  
• Consolidation	
   of	
   freight	
   flows	
   of	
   multiple	
   shippers	
   and	
   logistics	
   service	
  
providers	
  downstream	
  through	
  urban	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  
• Consolidation	
   of	
   freight	
   flows	
   of	
   multiple	
   shippers	
   and	
   logistics	
   service	
  
providers	
  downstream	
  through	
  urban	
  consolidation	
  centers	
  
• Consolidation	
  of	
  freight	
  flows	
  of	
  multiple	
  shippers	
  via	
  stores	
  or	
  pick-­‐up	
  
points	
  within	
  an	
  urban	
  area.	
  
	
  
As	
   an	
   example,	
   the	
   possibilities	
   for	
   construction	
   logistics	
   are	
   given	
   in	
   Table	
   2	
  
(Quak	
  et	
  al.,	
  2011).	
  
	
  
Logistics	
  
concept	
  
Load	
  characteristics	
   Transport	
  
characteristics	
  
Solutions	
  
FTL	
  
thick	
  flows	
  
Initial	
  phase	
  of	
  
construction	
  projects	
  
Sand,	
  gravel,	
  prefab	
  
Direct	
  delivery;	
  
Out	
  full,	
  empty	
  
back	
  
Preferred	
  network	
  for	
  
construction	
  traffic;	
  
Consolidation	
  of	
  extra-­‐
urban	
  traffic;	
  
Multimodal	
  
Integrated	
  distribution	
  
network	
  
LTL	
  
thin	
  flows	
  
Pallets	
  (load	
  carrier)	
   Trucks	
  not	
  fully	
  
loaded	
  (low	
  
utilization	
  rate)	
  
Innovative	
  construction;	
  
Consolidation	
  at	
  the	
  
source;	
  
Consolidation	
  at	
  an	
  urban	
  
consolidation	
  center;	
  
Outsourcing	
  of	
  
construction	
  logistics	
  
Parcels	
   Parcels	
   Trucks	
  not	
  fully	
  
loaded	
  (low	
  
utilization	
  rate)	
  
Consolidation	
  at	
  the	
  
source;	
  
Consolidation	
  at	
  an	
  urban	
  
consolidation	
  center;	
  
Outsourcing	
  of	
  
construction	
  logistics;	
  
Mobile	
  storage	
  container	
  
(construction	
  finishing	
  
box)	
  
Rush	
  orders	
   Parcels	
   Ad	
  hoc,	
  rush	
  
(very	
  low	
  
utilization	
  rate)	
  
Outsourcing	
  to	
  courier;	
  
Collection	
  points	
  
Returns	
   Clay,	
  rubble,	
  
construction	
  waste	
  
Out	
  empty,	
  back	
  
full	
  
Preferred	
  network	
  for	
  
construction	
  traffic;	
  
Consolidation	
  of	
  extra-­‐
urban	
  traffic;	
  
  23	
  
Multimodal	
  
Integrated	
  distribution	
  
network;	
  
Combicontainer	
  for	
  
moving	
  things	
  to	
  and	
  
from	
  the	
  site.	
  
	
  
Table	
  2.	
  Distribution	
  networks	
  for	
  construction	
  logistics	
  (Quak	
  et	
  al.,	
  2011).	
  
	
  
Then	
  there	
  is	
  the	
  question	
  of	
  which	
  modality	
  or	
  modalities	
  are	
  used	
  for	
  transport	
  
within	
  the	
  distribution	
  network	
  (e.g.	
  cargo	
  tricycle,	
  delivery	
  van,	
  truck,	
  or	
  boat)	
  
and	
  which	
  fuel	
  technology	
  is	
  used.	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Important	
   factors	
   in	
   setting	
   up	
   a	
   distribution	
   network	
   include:	
   the	
   company’s	
  
strategy,	
   the	
   customer	
   demands	
   that	
   the	
   company	
   wants	
   to	
   respond	
   to,	
   the	
  
desired	
  degree	
  of	
  flexibility,	
  the	
  margin	
  on	
  products,	
  the	
  production	
  cycle,	
  and	
  
the	
   product	
   characteristics	
   such	
   as	
   value	
   density	
   and	
   packing	
   density	
   that	
  
determine	
  the	
  distribution	
  costs	
  (Van	
  Goor	
  et	
  al.,	
  2014).	
  
	
  
Planning	
  and	
  control	
  
Tactical	
  and	
  operational	
  planning	
  and	
  control	
  ensure	
  that	
  the	
  shipments	
  reach	
  
the	
   receiver	
   on	
   time	
   and	
   with	
   the	
   appropriate	
   use	
   of	
   resources.	
   Planning	
   and	
  
control	
   concerns	
   decisions	
   about	
   the	
   deployment	
   of	
   personnel	
   and	
   the	
  
scheduling	
  of	
  vehicles	
  and	
  warehouse	
  processes,	
  but	
  also	
  about	
  the	
  charging	
  of	
  
electric	
  vehicles.	
  In	
  terms	
  of	
  city	
  logistics,	
  this	
  planning	
  and	
  control	
  covers	
  the	
  
entire	
  chain,	
  often	
  involving	
  multiple	
  parties	
  that	
  work	
  together.	
  Data	
  alignment	
  
in	
  logistics	
  chains	
  is	
  a	
  condition	
  for	
  the	
  sharing	
  of	
  planning	
  data.	
  
	
  
Information	
  and	
  communications	
  technology	
  
The	
   tactical	
   and	
   operational	
   planning	
   and	
   control	
   requires	
   data	
   about	
   the	
  
shipments,	
   the	
   available	
   capacities,	
   and	
   the	
   routes:	
   transport	
   management	
  
  24	
  
systems	
  (TMS).	
  These	
  systems	
  are	
  increasingly	
  linked	
  with	
  local	
  traffic	
  systems	
  
of	
  the	
  government	
  that	
  give	
  relevant	
  information	
  about	
  traffic	
  using	
  open	
  data.	
  
Giving	
   road	
   users	
   tailored	
   driving	
   recommendations	
   can	
   contribute	
   towards	
   a	
  
better	
  flow	
  of	
  traffic,	
  and	
  road	
  users	
  will	
  also	
  be	
  prepared	
  to	
  adjust	
  their	
  driving	
  
style	
  on	
  the	
  basis	
  of	
  those	
  recommendations.	
  Soon	
  the	
  receiver	
  will	
  get	
  real-­‐time	
  
information	
   about	
   the	
   shipment	
   and	
   its	
   expected	
   arrival	
   time	
   and	
   can	
   even	
  
change	
  the	
  delivery	
  address	
  while	
  the	
  shipment	
  is	
  already	
  under	
  way.	
  	
  
	
  
A	
  trend	
  in	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  ICT	
  is	
  the	
  advent	
  of	
  location-­‐based	
  applications,	
  
agent-­‐based	
   software,	
   and	
   systems	
   for	
   the	
   exchange	
   of	
   freight	
   between	
  
companies	
   (and	
   increasingly	
   also	
   between	
   private	
   individuals).	
   Well-­‐known	
  
applications	
  include	
  Uber	
  and	
  GoGoVan.	
  	
  
	
  
Logistics	
  organization	
  
In	
  terms	
  of	
  the	
  logistics	
  organization,	
  it	
  concerns	
  the	
  way	
  in	
  which	
  the	
  tasks	
  for	
  
the	
  planning	
  and	
  control	
  of	
  the	
  transport	
  flows	
  are	
  anchored	
  in	
  the	
  organization,	
  
the	
   competencies	
   of	
   the	
   employees	
   involved,	
   and	
   how	
   parties	
   in	
   the	
   logistics	
  
chain	
  work	
  together.	
  	
  
	
  
Local	
  government	
  policy	
  
Local	
   government	
   policy	
   determines	
   the	
   playing	
   field	
   by	
   means	
   of	
   delivery	
  
windows,	
   vehicle	
   restrictions,	
   the	
   arrangement	
   of	
   public	
   spaces	
   (including	
  
loading	
   and	
   unloading	
   bays),	
   late	
   night	
   and	
   early	
   morning	
   distribution,	
   low-­‐
emission	
  zones,	
  the	
  amount	
  of	
  space	
  that	
  is	
  available	
  for	
  logistics	
  consolidation	
  
centers,	
  the	
  available	
  charging	
  infrastructure	
  for	
  electric	
  vehicles,	
  the	
  number	
  of	
  
quays	
  that	
  are	
  available	
  for	
  the	
  loading	
  and	
  unloading	
  of	
  boats,	
  and	
  the	
  open	
  data	
  
that	
  is	
  made	
  available	
  for	
  local	
  traffic	
  control	
  and	
  dynamic	
  traffic	
  management	
  
aimed	
  at	
  improving	
  the	
  flow.	
  
	
  
Supralocal	
  government	
  policy	
  
Among	
  other	
  things,	
  supralocal	
  government	
  policy	
  determines	
  hours-­‐of-­‐service	
  
regulations,	
  vehicle	
  specifications,	
  and	
  the	
  availability	
  of	
  open	
  data	
  for	
  dynamic	
  
traffic	
  management.	
  
	
  
An	
   integrated	
   approach	
   to	
   city	
   logistics	
   also	
   requires	
   a	
   careful	
  
consideration	
   of	
   the	
   business	
   model.	
   There	
   is	
   no	
   future	
   for	
  
solutions	
  based	
  entirely	
  on	
  subsidies.	
  
	
  
Earning	
  money	
  with	
  city	
  logistics	
  
One	
  of	
  the	
  problems	
  in	
  the	
  implementation	
  of	
  new	
  concepts	
  for	
  city	
  logistics	
  is	
  
the	
  lack	
  of	
  a	
  business	
  model:	
  they	
  don’t	
  earn	
  any	
  money.	
  As	
  Quak	
  &	
  Balm	
  (2014)	
  
put	
  it:	
  	
  
  25	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Small	
  scale,	
  local	
  demonstrations	
  of	
  which	
  the	
  outcomes	
  are	
  considered	
  to	
  be	
  only	
  
appropriate	
  within	
  a	
  specific	
  context	
  occur	
  quite	
  often	
  in	
  the	
  field	
  of	
  city	
  logistics.	
  
Various	
   local	
   demonstrations	
   usually	
   show	
   a	
   solution’s	
   technical	
   and	
   operational	
  
feasibility.	
  These	
  often	
  subsidized	
  demonstrations	
  do	
  not	
  have	
  long-­‐term	
  potential	
  
due	
  to	
  the	
  lack	
  of	
  thought	
  on	
  their	
  business	
  models,	
  i.e.	
  the	
  financial	
  feasibility.	
  To	
  
make	
  a	
  solution	
  really	
  work	
  in	
  practice	
  a	
  viable	
  business	
  model	
  is	
  required.	
  
	
  
The	
   use	
   of	
   business	
   models	
   such	
   as	
   Canvas	
   (Osterwalder	
   &	
   Pigneur,	
   2010;	
  
Turblog,	
  2011;	
  Pauli,	
  2014)	
  can	
  support	
  the	
  development	
  of	
  a	
  business	
  model.	
  
The	
   Business	
   Model	
   Canvas	
   is	
   a	
   powerful	
   instrument	
   to	
   identify	
   the	
   business	
  
model	
   in	
   a	
   transparent	
   and	
   comprehensible	
   way	
   (see	
   Fig.	
   2).	
   In	
   city	
   logistics,	
  
these	
   business	
   models	
   also	
   often	
   have	
   characteristics	
   of	
   public-­‐private	
  
partnerships.	
  	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Figure	
  2.	
  Business	
  Model	
  Canvas	
  (Quak	
  &	
  Balm,	
  2014).	
  
	
  
  26	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
Checklist	
  for	
  the	
  Business	
  Model	
  Canvas	
  
	
  
1.	
  Customer	
  Segments	
  
What	
  specific	
  customer	
  groups	
  does	
  the	
  company	
  want	
  to	
  serve?	
  What	
  are	
  the	
  
needs	
  of	
  those	
  customer	
  groups?	
  
	
  
2.	
  Value	
  Proposition	
  
What	
   distinctive	
   value	
   does	
   the	
   company	
   offer?	
   What	
   problems	
   does	
   the	
  
company	
  help	
  to	
  solve?	
  Those	
  can	
  be	
  both	
  the	
  current	
  and	
  the	
  future	
  needs.	
  Why	
  
should	
  these	
  customers	
  do	
  business	
  with	
  the	
  company	
  (and	
  not	
  with	
  someone	
  
else)?	
  This	
  is	
  the	
  value	
  proposition.	
  
	
  
3.	
  Customer	
  Relationships	
  
How	
  does	
  the	
  company	
  maintain	
  contact	
  with	
  the	
  various	
  customer	
  segments?	
  
How	
   does	
   each	
   aspecific	
   customer	
   segment	
   want	
   the	
   company	
   to	
   maintain	
  
contact	
   with	
   them?	
   Which	
   type	
   of	
   contact	
   is	
   the	
   right	
   one	
   and	
   the	
   most	
   cost-­‐
effective	
  for	
  each	
  segment?	
  
	
  
4.	
  Channels	
  
How	
   are	
   (groups	
   of)	
   customers	
   kept	
   abreast	
   of	
   the	
   range	
   of	
   services	
   offered?	
  
How	
  do	
  they	
  best	
  experience	
  the	
  value	
  proposition?	
  How	
  can	
  they	
  buy	
  and	
  get	
  
the	
  range	
  of	
  services	
  offered?	
  
	
  
5.	
  Revenue	
  Streams	
  
How	
   does	
   the	
   company	
   earn	
   money?	
   And	
   in	
   the	
   future?	
   How	
   can	
   it	
   develop	
  
supplementary	
  sources	
  of	
  income?	
  
	
  
6.	
  Key	
  Resources	
  
Which	
   resources	
   are	
   essential	
   to	
   create	
   the	
   value	
   proposition?	
   To	
   maintain	
  
customer	
  relationships?	
  To	
  get	
  new	
  customers?	
  
	
  
7.	
  Key	
  Activities	
  
Which	
  core	
  activities	
  are	
  essential	
  to	
  create	
  or	
  strengthen	
  the	
  value	
  proposition?	
  
To	
  maintain	
  customer	
  relationships?	
  To	
  get	
  new	
  customers?	
  
	
  
8.	
  Partners	
  
Which	
   private	
   and	
   public	
   partnerships	
   are	
   essential	
   to	
   make	
   or	
   co-­‐create	
   the	
  
offer	
  ?	
  Which	
  partners	
  are	
  crucial	
  to	
  ensure	
  even	
  more	
  success?	
  
	
  
9.	
  Cost	
  Structure	
  
Which	
  costs	
  are	
  essential	
  to	
  ensure	
  that	
  the	
  business	
  model	
  will	
  work?	
  Which	
  
resources	
   and	
   core	
   activities	
   are	
   the	
   most	
   costly?	
   Which	
   costs	
   are	
   fixed,	
   and	
  
which	
  are	
  variable?	
  
	
  
	
  
	
  
  27	
  
	
  
7.	
   Applied	
  research	
  
	
  
	
  
The	
   Faculty	
   of	
   Technology	
   at	
   the	
   Amsterdam	
   University	
   of	
   Applied	
   Sciences	
  
(HvA)	
   has	
   a	
   research	
   program	
   that	
   extends	
   beyond	
   the	
   faculty	
   itself:	
   Urban	
  
Technology.	
   As	
   one	
   of	
   the	
   spearhead	
   programs	
   of	
   the	
   HvA,	
   Urban	
   Technology	
  
focuses	
   on	
   researching,	
   designing,	
   and	
   realizing	
   smart	
   solutions	
   for	
   the	
  
challenges	
   that	
   major	
   cities	
   will	
   face	
   in	
   the	
   future.	
   In	
   this	
   broad	
   research	
  
program,	
  the	
  Faculty	
  of	
  Technology	
  works	
  together	
  with	
  two	
  other	
  faculties	
  at	
  
the	
  HvA:	
  Economics	
  and	
  Management	
  and	
  Digital	
  Media	
  and	
  Creative	
  Industries.	
  
	
  
The	
  broader	
  Logistics	
  research	
  program	
  focuses	
  on	
  two	
  themes	
  that	
  are	
  closely	
  
connected	
  with	
  Metropoolregio	
  Amsterdam	
  (MRA),	
  the	
  umbrella	
  organization	
  of	
  
municipalities	
  that	
  form	
  the	
  Amsterdam	
  metropolitan	
  area:	
  Mainport	
  Logistics	
  
and	
   City	
   Logistics.	
   The	
   Logistics	
   research	
   program	
   at	
   the	
   HvA	
   is	
   closely	
  
connected	
  to	
  the	
  national	
  Centre	
  of	
  Expertise	
  Logistiek	
  (“Center	
  of	
  Expertise	
  for	
  
Logistics”),	
  of	
  which	
  the	
  HvA	
  fulfills	
  the	
  role	
  of	
  secretary,	
  and	
  with	
  the	
  regional	
  
KennisDC	
  (“Knowledge	
  Distribution	
  Center”)	
  in	
  Amsterdam.	
  	
  	
  
	
  
Within	
   the	
   Urban	
   Technology	
   research	
   program,	
   the	
   City	
   Logistics	
   research	
  
program	
  is	
  linked	
  to	
  the	
  research	
  theme	
  of	
  Smart	
  Mobility	
  &	
  Logistics.	
  The	
  focus	
  
lies	
  on	
  designing	
  technological	
  solutions	
  for	
  sustainable	
  mobility	
  to	
  ensure	
  the	
  
city	
  remains	
  accessible	
  and	
  connected.	
  The	
  research	
  program	
  is	
  also	
  linked	
  to	
  
the	
  showcase	
  project	
  E-­‐mobility	
  and	
  City	
  Logistics,	
  in	
  which	
  researchers	
  in	
  the	
  
Smart	
   Mobility	
   &	
   Logistics	
   and	
   Smart	
   Energy	
   Systems	
   programs	
   are	
   working	
  
together	
   on	
   the	
   smart	
   use	
   of	
   electric	
   vehicles	
   for	
   urban	
   distribution	
   in	
   the	
  
Amsterdam	
  metropolitan	
  area.	
  	
  
	
  
Applied	
  research	
  within	
  the	
  Faculty	
  of	
  Technology	
  
Technology	
  helps	
  to	
  create	
  the	
  world	
  of	
  tomorrow.	
  That	
  will	
  require	
  research	
  
that	
   is	
   related	
   to	
   practical	
   applications	
   and	
   problems	
   in	
   practice.	
   Applied	
  
research	
  contributes	
  to	
  the	
  improvement	
  and	
  innovation	
  of	
  professional	
  practice,	
  
to	
   the	
   quality	
   of	
   professional	
   education,	
   and	
   to	
   the	
   quality	
   of	
   teachers	
   and	
  
students.	
  In	
  addition	
  to	
  preparing	
  students	
  to	
  be	
  knowledgeable	
  professionals,	
  
conducting	
   applied	
   research	
   is	
   one	
   of	
   the	
   core	
   activities	
   through	
   which	
   the	
  
Faculty	
  of	
  Technology	
  at	
  the	
  HvA	
  is	
  helping	
  to	
  create	
  the	
  world	
  of	
  tomorrow.	
  	
  
	
  
Applied	
  research	
  differs	
  from	
  classic	
  theoretical	
  research	
  in	
  that	
  it	
  investigates	
  
practical	
   issues	
   from	
   the	
   field	
   and	
   involves	
   a	
   close	
   cooperation	
   with	
   the	
  
professional	
  practice.	
  The	
  research	
  is	
  nevertheless	
  methodologically	
  sound	
  and	
  
in	
   line	
   with	
   academic	
   knowledge.	
   Indeed,	
   the	
   added	
   value	
   of	
   applied	
   research	
  
lies	
  in	
  the	
  fact	
  that	
  bridges	
  the	
  gap	
  between	
  theoretical	
  knowledge	
  and	
  day-­‐to-­‐
day	
  professional	
  practice.	
  	
  
  28	
  
	
  
	
  
Applied	
  research	
  has	
  four	
  characteristics:	
  
	
  
1. It	
  is	
  rooted	
  in	
  professional	
  practice	
  
The	
  strength	
  of	
  applied	
  research	
  lies	
  in	
  large	
  part	
  in	
  the	
  way	
  it	
  is	
  set	
  
up	
  and	
  carried	
  out:	
  in	
  close	
  cooperation	
  with	
  professional	
  practice	
  via	
  
networks	
  and	
  collaborative	
  relationships.	
  The	
  research	
  being	
  done	
  at	
  
the	
   Amsterdam	
   University	
   of	
   Applied	
   Sciences	
   (HvA)	
   has	
   a	
   clearly	
  
recognizable	
  regional	
  dimension	
  thanks	
  to	
  its	
  connection	
  with	
  MRA’s	
  
Kennis-­	
  en	
  Innovatieagenda	
  (“Knowledge	
  and	
  Innovation	
  Agenda”).	
  
	
  
2. It	
  forms	
  a	
  bridge	
  between	
  science	
  and	
  professional	
  practice	
  
One	
   of	
   the	
   objectives	
   of	
   applied	
   research	
   is	
   to	
   translate	
   scientific	
  
knowledge	
  into	
  professional	
  practice.	
  It	
  is	
  through	
  research	
  that	
  the	
  
practical	
  applicability	
  of	
  scientific	
  insights	
  is	
  put	
  to	
  the	
  test	
  and	
  made	
  
concrete.	
   As	
   such,	
   applied	
   research	
   plays	
   an	
   important	
   role	
   in	
  
increasing	
   the	
   readiness	
   of	
   new	
   technologies	
   with	
   an	
   eye	
   to	
   their	
  
market	
  introduction.	
  In	
  the	
  process,	
  applied	
  research	
  not	
  only	
  draws	
  
from	
  the	
  body	
  of	
  knowledge	
  but	
  also	
  adds	
  new	
  knowledge	
  to	
  that.	
  	
  
	
  
3. It	
  is	
  methodologically	
  sound	
  
Applied	
   research	
   uses	
   sound	
   methods	
   and	
   meets	
   the	
   current	
  
standards	
   in	
   terms	
   of	
   validity	
   and	
   reliability.	
   In	
   addition,	
   it	
   tries	
   to	
  
make	
   the	
   results	
   generalizable	
   as	
   much	
   as	
   possible.	
   Part	
   of	
   the	
  
research	
  takes	
  place	
  in	
  collaboration	
  with	
  research	
  universities,	
  other	
  
universities	
   of	
   applied	
   sciences,	
   and	
   knowledge	
   institutions	
   such	
   as	
  
the	
  Netherlands	
  Organisation	
  for	
  Applied	
  Scientific	
  Research	
  (TNO).	
  
	
  
4. It	
  has	
  an	
  impact	
  on	
  society	
  
Applied	
  research	
  contributes	
  to	
  the	
  professionalization	
  and	
  innovative	
  
force	
  of	
  industry	
  and	
  government	
  bodies.	
  This	
  active	
  contribution	
  has	
  
a	
  visible	
  impact	
  that	
  underscores	
  the	
  social	
  engagement	
  of	
  the	
  Faculty	
  
of	
  Technology	
  at	
  the	
  HvA.	
  	
  
	
  
Research	
  also	
  takes	
  place	
  in	
  the	
  classroom	
  setting.	
  
In	
  the	
  Faculty	
  of	
  Technology,	
  research	
  is	
  carried	
  out	
  by	
  professors,	
  teachers	
  with	
  
a	
  research	
  task,	
  doctoral	
  candidates,	
  and	
  students,	
  in	
  collaboration	
  with	
  and	
  at	
  
the	
  request	
  of	
  professionals	
  in	
  the	
  field.	
  	
  
	
  
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
Citylogistics: working on livable cities
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Citylogistics: working on livable cities

  • 1.   1         City  Logistics     Working  on  livable  cities  through   sustainable  city  logistics           Walther  Ploos  van  Amstel     Professor  of  City  Logistics   at  the  Amsterdam  University  of  Applied  Sciences  (HvA)   Faculty  of  Technology   Urban  Technology  research  program   September  2015  
  • 2.   2       Content         1.   Urban  mobility   2.     Measures  for  city  logistics     3.     International  research   4.   Supply  chain  perspective   5.   City  logistics  as  we  head  towards  2050   6.   An  integrated  approach   7.   Applied  research   8.   The  future  of  sustainable  city  logistics                   Copyright   Walther  Ploos  van  Amstel   Amsterdam,  2015             This  relatively  new  discipline  has  several  different  names  in  English,  including  urban  freight   transport  (UTF),  urban  distribution,  city  distribution,  urban  logistics,  and  city  logistics.     I  prefer  the  term  "city  logistics”  and  use  that  in  this  lecture  and  otherwise  in  my  work.  
  • 3.   3     Clean  and  sustainable  cities  are  appealing  places  to  live,  to  work,   to  enjoy  life,  and  –  not  least  –  to  invest  in.     I  live  right  in  the  very  center  of  Amsterdam  and  look  out  over  the  bustling  square  in   front  of  Central  Station.  Every  day,  around  the  clock,  trucks  and  delivery  vans  drive   past  my  door  to  deliver  shoes  and  put  fresh  fish  on  the  table;  they  deliver  packages   from  web  stores,  they  arrive  with  construction  materials,  and  they  pick  up  lots  and   lots  of  garbage.  It’s  a  wonderful  sight  if  you  enjoy  transport  as  much  as  I  do.     My  neighbors  aren’t  quite  as  excited  about  transport,  however.  They  complain   about  the  poor  air  quality,  the  lack  of  safety,  and  the  inaccessibility  of  the   neighborhood.  Irritation  is  also  growing  among  the  local  business  owners   themselves.  Their  customers  are  complaining...  It’s  really  not  much  fun  trying  to   enjoy  a  cold  beer  at  an  outdoor  café  with  all  those  trucks  and  touring  cars   chugging  by.     Good  city  logistics  is  important  for  the  economic  vitality  and  the  appeal  of  cities.  It   ensures  that  restaurants  can  serve  their  guests,  that  stores  can  offer  the  very  latest   product  range  and  that  buildings  can  be  renovated  without  delays.     Urbanization  puts  new  demands  on  urban  mobility.  As  customer  demands  evolve,   city  logistics  is  becoming  more  and  more  finely  meshed  and  more  often  just-­in-­time.   If  no  adjustments  are  made  to  current  policy,  city  logistics  will  continue  to  grow.   City  logistics  needs  to  become  smarter,  cleaner,  quieter,  and  safer,  with  faster  flows.       The  City  Logistics  research  program  will  be  conducting  applied  research  on  ways   to  improve  city  logistics.  In  my  inaugural  lecture  I  will  start  by  giving  an   impression  of  the  challenges  in  relation  to  city  logistics  in  Amsterdam  and  other   cities.  I  will  then  give  an  overview  of  the  themes  for  future  research.  In  developing  a   base  of  practical  knowledge,  we  will  be  making  use  of  an  integrated  approach  on   the  basis  of  a  city  logistics  concept  and  the  Business  Model  Canvas.  Finally,  I  will   conclude  by  presenting  the  themes  of  this  new  research  program.     Walther  Ploos  Amstel   Amsterdam,  September  2015  
  • 4.   4     1.   Urban  mobility       All  around  the  globe,  urban  populations  are  growing.  In  the  Netherlands,  too,  the   process   of   urbanization   is   taking   place   in   many   large,   medium-­‐size,   and   small   cities  and  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  The  most  highly  urbanized  region  of  the   Netherlands   is   commonly   referred   to   there   as   the   Randstad.   Encircling   the   country’s  rural  “Green  Heart”,  the  Randstad  includes  the  country’s  four  largest   cities:   Amsterdam,   Rotterdam,   Utrecht,   and   The   Hague   (PBL,   2015).   In   an   interview  in  the  Dutch  daily  newspaper  Trouw,  Amsterdam  urban  planner  and   social  geographer  Zef  Hemel  predicted  that  Amsterdam’s  population  will  reach   two  million  inhabitants  by  2040  (Hemel,  2015).  As  a  consequence  of  such  growth,   more  and  more  people  will  need  to  share  the  same  space  in  the  city  (Groen  Links   Amsterdam,  2011).     Policy-­‐makers   around   the   world   are   facing   the   challenge   of   keeping   their   growing  cities  livable.  Freight  traffic  plays  an  important  role  in  that  connection,   in  both  a  positive  and  a  negative  sense.  ALICE/ERTRAC  (2015)  estimates  that   between  10  and  15%  of  all  vehicle  mileage  driven  in  cities  involves  freight  traffic.   Research  in  the  US  has  shown  a  disproportionately  strong  increase  in  the  share   of  truck  mileage  driven  within  cities  in  the  past  50  years,  particularly  by  smaller   trucks:  from  40%  in  1966  to  60%  in  2013.  The  increase  has  been  particularly   steep   in   the   past   few   years   as   consumers   purchase   more   and   more   online   (Brookings,  2015)     Urbanization  is  placing  new  demands  on  urban  mobility:     between   10   and   15%   of   all   vehicle   mileage   driven   in   cities   involves  freight  traffic.     Mobility  in  Amsterdam   In   the   Uitvoeringsagenda   Mobiliteit   voor   Amsterdam   (“Implementation   Agenda   for   Mobility   in   Amsterdam”)   from   April   2015,   city   alderman   Pieter   Litjens   (Gemeente  Amsterdam,  2015b)  wrote  (in  Dutch):       Throughout  the  centuries,  Amsterdam  has  held  a  special  attraction  for  many  people.   The   city’s   appeal   has   brought   us   many   new   Amsterdammers,   unprecedented   dynamism,  and  economic  and  cultural  prosperity.  Its  success  is  astonishing:  each   year   more   and   more   people   come   to   live,   work,   and   study   in   Amsterdam.   And   especially   since   the   recent   reopening   of   the   city’s   greatest   museums,   more   and   more  tourists  are  finding  their  way  to  our  nation’s  capital.       With  each  new  day,  Amsterdam  is  only  getting  busier  and  busier  –  but  that  also  has   a  downside.  Cars,  bicyclists,  and  pedestrians  increasingly  find  themselves  in  each   other’s   way,   and   the   scarce   public   spaces   in   or   near   the   city   center   are   nearly   always  full  of  people.  Both  the  accessibility  and  the  public  spaces  of  Amsterdam  are   under   increasing   pressure.   To   keep   the   city   safe   and   easy   to   reach,   and   to   keep   public  spaces  accessible  and  appealing,  we  are  going  to  need  to  make  some  choices.   It   is   no   longer   workable   to   have   cars   and   bikes   and   pedestrians   and   public   transport   going   everywhere   at   the   same   time.   We   need   to   accommodate   the  
  • 5.   5   increasing   mobility   in   a   heavily   urbanized   area   such   as   Amsterdam   primarily   by   giving  more  room  to  pedestrians,  bicyclists,  and  public  transportation.         This  Uitvoeringsagenda  lists  a  number  of  measures  aimed  at  creating  more  room   for  loading  and  unloading  and  for  optimizing  regulations  and  enforcing  those.  It   mentions   a   Supply   Committee   (an   initiative   of   the   trade   organizations   MKB   Amsterdam,  VNO-­‐NCW,  EVO,  and  TLN)  that  will  make  proposals  for  improving   accessibility  and  ensuring  a  better  flow  in  the  transport  of  goods.  Topics  that  the   City  of  Amsterdam  would  like  to  gain  more  insight  into  include:  slow  traffic  flows   (pedestrians   and   bicyclists),   urban   distribution   and   logistics,   electric   mobility,   automated  transport,  and  mobility  behavior.  The  City  of  Amsterdam  is  studying   these   themes   in   collaboration   with   the   following   knowledge   institutions:   the   Amsterdam   Institute   for   Advanced   Metropolitan   Solutions,   the   University   of   Amsterdam   (UvA),   Vrije   Universiteit   Amsterdam   (VU),   and   the   Amsterdam   University  of  Applied  Sciences  (HvA).     In   its   Agenda   Duurzaamheid   (“Sustainability   Agenda”),   the   City   of   Amsterdam   states   its   intention   to   improve   the   city’s   air   quality   by   stimulating   the   use   of   zero-­‐emission   vehicles   and   introducing   low-­‐emission   zones   (Gemeente   Amsterdam,  2015a).  A  more  regional  focus  in  the  distribution  of  products  or  an   expansion  of  the  separate  collection  of  waste  streams  will  mean  more  mileage   for  trucks.  But  that  would  come  at  the  expense  of  greater  accessibility  and  better   air   quality,   and   it   will   call   for   new   forms   of   urban   distribution   and   the   consolidation  of  waste  collection  trips  in  the  city.  Agreements  will  be  made  with   trade  organizations  about  ways  to  achieve  zero-­‐emission  mobility.  The  subsidies   that  are  intended  to  stimulate  zero-­‐emission  mobility  will  be  continued  to  make   it  possible  to  meet  the  air-­‐quality  standards.     The   Stad   in   Balans   (“City   in   Balance”)   memorandum   (Gemeente   Amsterdam,   2015c)  has  also  made  the  case  for  paying  closer  attention  to  city  logistics.  It  calls   for  smart,  small-­‐scale,  and  zero-­‐emission  urban  distribution,  including  a  greater   use  of  waterways.      
  • 6.   6     Freight  traffic  is  only  one  of  the  transport  flows  in  the  city,  of  course.  It  shares   the  infrastructure  with  pedestrians,  bicyclists  and  other  two-­‐wheeled  vehicles,   private  cars,  taxis,  and  public  transportation,  and  it  shares  the  water  with  canal   excursion  boats  and  pleasure  craft.     Recent   traffic   surveys   held   on   Amsterdam’s   Ferdinand   Bolstraat   (Hogeschool   van   Amsterdam,   2015a)   show   that   some   80%   of   the   freight   traffic   consists   of   delivery  vans  (the  remaining  20%  concerns  larger  trucks  and  garbage  trucks).   The  main  categories  are  (in  order  of  importance)  construction  and  installation,   hospitality   and   food   service,   and   waste.   There   are   also   many   parcel   and   store   deliveries.  In  addition  there  are  the  combined  flows  of  people  and  material  such   as   service   technicians,   builders,   and   installers   (Hogeschool   van   Amsterdam,   2015a).  In  Amsterdam’s  bustling  Haarlemmerstraat  neighborhood,  freight  traffic   account  for  as  much  as  40%  of  rush-­‐hour  traffic,  both  in  the  mornings  and  in  the   evenings  (Hogeschool  van  Amsterdam,  2015f).     Most  of  the  deliveries  in  the  city  are  still  made  using  carriers  on  own  account  or   dedicated   outsourcing.   City   logistics,   whereby   a   logistics   service   provider   consolidates  freight  flows  from  multiple  shippers,  is  limited.  The  carriers  on  own   account   enters   the   city   from   relatively   short   distances:   about   25   miles   on   average.   In   contrast,   professional   freight   transport   takes   place   over   longer   distances:   an   average   of   56   miles   according   to   the   transport   statistics   of   CBS.   Studies   on   public   procurement   confirm   these   figures   (Hogeschool   van   Amsterdam,  2014,  2015c;  Balm  et  al.,  2015).     Amsterdam  and  innovations  in  mobility   Since  July  2014,  the  City  of  Amsterdam  has  had  a  chief  technology  officer  (CTO).   As  an  advisor  and  facilitator,  the  CTO  has  a  flywheel  effect,  helping  the  city  to   comprehend  complex  urban  issues,  to  choose  a  focus,  to  connect  different  parties,   and  to  formulate  an  approach  and  strategies  in  the  area  of  smart  mobility,  among   others.       Cities  are  under  increasing  pressure.  People  are  migrating  to  the  cities,  where   they  are  eager  to  live,  work,  and  enjoy  themselves.    This  growth  means  added   pressure   on   the   traffic   and   transport   both   within   and   to   and   from   the   city.   Amsterdam  will  continue  to  grow  in  the  coming  years,  and  so  will  the  traffic  and   transport  there.  As  CTO  Ger  Baron  puts  it:  “The  big  challenge  is:  how  do  we  keep   Amsterdam   accessible,   ensure   good   air   quality,   and   keep   the   public   spaces   attractive,   so   that   the   quality   of   life   in   the   city   and   the   draw   of   the   city   will   improve?”  (translated  from  the  Dutch;  source:  Gemeente  Amsterdam,  2015d).   As  the  most  important  trends,  the  CTO  sees:  the  Internet  of  Things,  the  rise  of   connected   vehicles   and   smart   infrastructure,   capacity   sharing,   using   real   time   (open)  data  for  precision-­‐guided  logistics  alternative  fuels.   The  CTO  matches  urban  mobility  issues  with  the  knowledge  already  present  in   the   city   in   projects   such   as   the   urban   mobility   lab   (AMS   Institute),   ALLEGRO,   SELF  STAD  self-­‐driving  cars  and  bicycles.  The  Amsterdam  University  of  Applied   Sciences  (HvA)  is  involved  in  a  number  of  these  studies  as  a  knowledge  partner.    
  • 7.   7   European  perspective   The   future   of   city   logistics   is   being   carefully   considered   at   the   European   level   (ALICE/ERTRAC,  2015).  Europe  is  a  largely  urban  continent;  some  359  million   people  (72%  of  the  total  EU  population)  currently  live  in  urbanized  areas.  The   share  of  the  population  that  lives  in  cities  continues  to  grow  and  will  reach  as   much  as  80%  by  2020.  Cities  are  not  only  the  places  where  goods  are  delivered,   but  also  where  shipments  originate.  Outgoing  transport  represents  between  20   and  25%  of  the  transport  mileage  in  urban  areas,  incoming  freight  amounts  to   between  40  and  50%,  and  the  rest  both  originates  in  and  is  delivered  to  locations   within   the   city   itself   (ALICE/ERTRAC,   2015).   Waste   transport   also   forms   a   significant  share  of  city  logistics.       The  transport  of  freight  in  cities  leads  to  congestion,  poorer  air   quality,  problems  with  noise  and  a  lack  of  safety.           The   transport   of   freight   in   cities   with   trucks   and   delivery   vans   leads   to   congestion.   Other   problems   include:   poorer   air   quality,   noise   pollution,   and   a   lack   of   safety   (MDS   Transmodal,   2012;   Taniguchi   et   al.,   2015).   In   Europe,   city   logistics  is  responsible  for  25%  of  the  transport-­‐related  CO2  emissions  and  30  to   50%  of  the  remaining  transport-­‐related  air  pollution  (PM,  NOx,  etc.)  Within  the   OECD,  the  transport  sector  is  the  largest  consumer  of  energy  in  general  and  of  oil   in  particular  (OECD,  2015).     Even  though  the  number  of  freight  vehicles  is  limited,  they  are  relatively  more   often   involved   in   accidents   with   pedestrians   and   bicyclists.   As   city   logistics   is   responsible   for   a   significant   share   of   the   ambient   noise   in   cities,   it   also  
  • 8.   8   inconveniences   residents   during   the   night.   The   utilization   rate   of   city   logistics   vehicles  is  low.  According  to  Transport  for  London,  for  example,  delivery  vans  in   that   city   have   an   average   utilization   rate   of   about   38%.     These   negative   consequences  of  city  logistics  have  a  direct  impact  on  the  appeal  and  livability  of   cities  (ALICE/ERTRAC,  2015).       Smart  and  zero-­emission  city  logistics  should  contribute  to  more   livable   and   appealing   cities   with   cleaner   vehicles   that   better   match  the  size  of  the  city,  but  also  to  the  consolidation  of  freight   flows   and   the   use   of   waterways   for   transporting   goods   to   and   from  the  city.     A  more  finely  meshed  network   The  urgency  to  promote  smart  and  zero-­‐emission  city  logistics  is  growing.  City   logistics  is  becoming  more  finely  meshed  and  more  frequent  (Taniguchi  et  al.,   2015).   And   that,   in   turn,   is   putting   increasing   pressure   on   the   city:   there   are   more  shipments,  involving  more  vehicles.  A  more  finely  meshed  network  is  the   result  of  developments  such  as  the  following:     • The   growth   of   omnichannel   retailing,   with   home   delivery   and   pick-­‐up   points,  the  increase  in  sales  transacted  between  consumers  themselves,   and  the  sharing  economy  (Weltevreden  &  Rotem-­‐Mindali,  2009;  Visser  et   al.,   2014).   Consumers   who   also   want   shorter   delivery   times   and   more   delivery  options.   • The  growth  of  e-­‐commerce  in  B2B  markets  (Forrester,  2015).   • The  return  of  stores  from  the  outskirts  of  town  to  inside  the  city.  Among   others,  IKEA  and  Praxis  are  opening  stores  in  the  city  (NOS,  2015).   • The   faster   exchanges   of   collections   in   retail   stores,   especially   in   the   fashion  branch  (Barnes  &  Lea-­‐Greenwood,  2010).   • The   rise   of   nano   stores   such   as   Albert   Heijn   To   Go   (Blanco   &   Fransoo,   2013).   • The  growth  of  the  inner-­‐city  renovation  market  in  the  construction  sector   (RESIDE,  2015).   • The  linking  of  return  flows  from  the  city  with  the  circular  economy  (Soto   et  al.,  2015).   • The   servicification   of   products,   which   leads   to   more   service   provision.   (Eckerdal,  2012).   • The  growth  of  3D  printing,  which  leads  to  local  production,  which  in  turn   needs  raw  materials  in  small  amounts  (Janssen,  2014;  Taniguchi,  2015).   • The  growing  number  of  urban  seniors  who  need  home  care  (Hogeschool   van  Amsterdam,  2015b).    
  • 9.   9     2.     Measures  for  city  logistics         Local   and   national   authorities   play   an   active   role   in   regulating,   coordinating,   facilitating,   and   stimulating   city   logistics   (MDS   Transmodal,   2012;   Vlaamse   Ministerie  van  Mobiliteit  en  Openbare  Werken,  2013;  Quak  et  al.,  2014b).  Table  1   shows  the  measures  that  such  authorities  can  take.  Research  is  being  done  at  the   European   level   on   the   effectiveness   of   measures   for   the   various   different   stakeholders  (MDS  Transmodal,  2015).       Measures   Examples   Regulation   Delivery  windows   Vehicle  restrictions   Low-­‐emission  zones   Market  forces   Internalization  of  external  costs:   -­‐ pricing   -­‐ mobility  points   -­‐ time-­‐based  charges  (vignettes)   Subsidies  for  zero-­‐emission  vehicles,  bicycle  couriers,  and   transport  by  water  or  rail   Fiscal  policy   Spatial  planning   Redevelopment  of  (new)  areas   Creation  of  pick-­‐up  points  for  e-­‐commerce  shipments   Loading  and  unloading  facilities   Access  for  transport  by  water  and  rail   Facilitating  urban  consolidation  centers   Charging  infrastructure  for  electric  vehicles   Infrastructure   Loading  and  unloading  facilities  on  the  street   Loading  and  unloading  facilities  on  the  water  or  the  rails   Parking  locations  for  heavy  construction  traffic   Technology   Intelligent  transport  systems   Dynamic  traffic  management   Green  wave  traffic  signaling  for  heavy  traffic   Virtual  loading  and  unloading  bays   Open  data  and  local  traffic  control  data   Other   Granting  of  privileges   Enforcement   Consolidation  of  demand  via  urban  consolidation  centers  and   coordinated  (public)  procurement   Certification  of  carriers   Management  of  construction  logistics  using  the  accessibility,   livability,  safety,  and  communications  (ALSC)  framework   Subsidies  for  urban  consolidation  centers   Early-­‐morning  and  late-­‐night  deliveries  and  stimulating  silent   vehicles     Preferred  routes  for  heavy  freight  traffic   Incentives  for  research  programs,  expertise  development,  and   business  networks   Public-­‐private  partnerships     Table  1.  Government  measures  with  regard  to  city  logistics  
  • 10.   10   Stakeholders   The   following   are   all   stakeholders   in   sustainable   city   logistics   (Macharis   &   Bernardini,  2015):     • residents,  who  want  to  have  clean  air,  safety,  and  no  undue  noise   • visitors,   who   come   to   the   cities   for   recreation   and   do   not   want   to   find   streets  filled  with  freight  traffic   • companies,   which   depend   on   smooth   logistics   in   order   to   run   their   businesses   • shippers   and   transport   companies,   who   bring   goods   into   the   cities   day   after  day,  preferably  at  the  lowest  possible  cost   • the   government,   which   is   responsible   for   the   making   sure   the   carries   responsibility  for  the  draw  of  the  city   • real  estate  owners,  project  developers  and  investors,  who  want  to  receive   a  decent  return  on  their  investments  in  homes  and  commercial  properties   • politicians,  who  want  to  be  re-­‐elected  every  four  years.     City  logistics  in  a  historical  perspective   The  first  plans  for  urban  distribution  centers  in  the  Netherlands  were  developed   in  the  early  1990s.  The  consulting  firm  Coopers  &  Lybrand  (Coopers  &  Lybrand,   1991;   Van   Aken   et   al.,   1993)   did   research   on   urban   distribution   centers   in   Maastricht,   Amsterdam,   and   Alkmaar,   among   other   locations.   In   subsequent   years,  those  studies  were  followed  by  stacks  of  reports  on  other  municipalities,   including   Breda,   Oosterhout,   Utrecht,   and   Amersfoort,   on   the   Stadsbox   (“City   box”)  initiative  (Groothedde  &  Rustenburg,  2003),  on  a  cargo  tram,  beer  boats,   and  freight  transport  by  canal  in  Amsterdam,  on  the  work  of  Binnenstadservice   (a   city   logistics   service   center)   in   various   municipalities,   and   on   subsidies   for   electric  vehicles.       Quak’s  dissertation  (2008)  provides  an  overview  of  the  most  important  Dutch   initiatives  and  literature  in  this  regard.  He  concludes  (in  Dutch):       The   extent   to   which   initiatives   will   be   successful   in   practice   depends   on   the   relationship   between   the   initiators,   the   incentive   to   participate   in   initiatives,   and   the  dominant  actors.  If  the  initiator  is  not  the  most  dominant  actor,  an  initiative  can   only  be  implemented  successfully  in  practice  if  the  actor  who  is  supposed  to  change   his  behavior  actually  stands  to  benefit  from  it.  Another  option  is  to  legally  oblige   that   actor   to   adapt   his   behavior.   Among   local   authorities,   there   is   only   limited   knowledge  of  the  logistics  operations  of  transporters.  In  the  same  way,  transporters   know  little  about  the  issues  regarding  sustainability  in  cities.  Moreover,  the  near   lack  of  any  communication  between  transporters  and  local  authorities  means  that   these   public   and   private   actors   rarely   ever   get   any   real   insight   into   each   other’s   problems.   An   initiative   is   doomed   to   fail   if   its   initiator   is   unable   to   estimate   the   consequences  of  the  initiative  beyond  the  scope  that  he  defined  for  it.  Higher  levels   of  government  are  hardly  ever  involved  in  initiatives  for  a  sustainable  distribution   of  goods.  The  initiatives  described  in  the  academic  literature  have  not  always  been   successful  in  practice.       Cargohopper  Amsterdam  
  • 11.   11   In   its   first   nine   months,   the   four   electric   delivery   trucks   of   Cargohopper   Amsterdam  managed  to  deliver  more  than  a  million  kilograms  of  freight,  saving   the  company  7,000  liters  of  diesel  fuel.     “We   are   very   happy   with   this   result,”   says   Ron   Klein   Tiessink,   director   of   Cargohopper,   on   the   website   of   trade   journal   Truck   &   Transportmanagement.   Since   the   delivery   service   began   using   electric   trucks   in   March   2014,   the   company   has   made   nearly   34,000   deliveries.   In   the   process,   the   concept   has   more  than  proved  itself,  according  to  Klein  Tiessink.     The  electric  urban  distribution  has  prevented  the  emission  of  18,400  kilograms   of   CO2.   At   the   same   time,   the   emissions   of   particulate   matter   and   nitrogen   compounds   (NOx)   have   been   reduced.   Since   Cargohopper   consolidates   its   shipments   in   a   smart   way,   the   company   also   manages   to   reduce   the   average   distance  driven  for  each  individual  delivery.  That  means  that  the  actual  savings   in  terms  of  fuel  consumption  and  emissions  are  even  higher.     Klein   Tiessink   thinks   it’s   a   shame   that   there   are   still   only   seven   of   the   Cargohopper   trucks   he   developed   being   used   in   Amsterdam,   Enschede,   and   Utrecht.  He  is  pleased  with  all  the  attention  it  has  received,  but  he  would  prefer   to  see  the  market  speed  up  its  development.  “Zero-­‐emission  urban  distribution  is   only  going  to  work  when  it  stops  being  something  out  of  the  ordinary.  The  latest   generation  of  heavier  electric  vehicles  should  be  available  for  purchase  from  a   dealer.”     If  the  market  would  have  a  need  for  700  trucks,  it  would  already  be  possible  to   scale   up   to   series   production,   says   Klein   Tiessink.   That   is   an   absolute   prerequisite.   Only   then   can   the   price   come   down   far   enough   that   companies   would  be  able  to  buy  such  a  truck  without  a  subsidy.     The   Cargohopper   director   hopes   that   cities   both   in   the   Netherlands   and   internationally   will   begin   pursuing   a   common   policy.   “Only   then   will   there   be   sufficient   demand   for   the   right   heavier   electric   trucks,   which   would   make   it   interesting  for  the  industry  to  develop  those.     Source:  Truck  &  Transportmanagement,  January  23,  2015    
  • 12.   12     3.     International  research       On  the  European  level,  research  is  being  conducted  in  programs  such  as  Bestuffs,   Bestfact,   Straightsol,   Sugar,   Smartfusion,   Citylog,   Civitas,   Frevue   (on   electric   transport),   CoE-­‐SUFS,   Lamilo,   ALICE/ERTRAC   and   Smartset.   Also   elsewhere   around  the  world  there  are  comprehensive  research  programs.     With   regard   to   the   evaluation   of   European   pilot   projects,   Balm   et   al.   (2014)   conclude:       The  number  of  initiatives  that  aim  to  improve  urban  freight  transport  grow  (sic)   rapidly.  To  make  sure  that  the  obtained  results  grow  (sic)  as  fast  as  well,  we  should   make  sure  that  we  do  the  right  things  and  that  we  know  how  (sic).  To  avoid  wasting   money,   effort,   and   time   on   implementing   measures   and   initiatives   that   will   not   (likely)   be   successful   in   the   future,   knowledge   transfer   across   cities   is   very   important.  The  knowledge  should  be  based  on  a  transparent  evaluation,  identifying   the  relevant  impacts  and  measurable  indicators  that  represent  the  key  objectives  of   all   stakeholders.   As   there   is   not   one   problem   owner   of   urban   freight   transport   issues  (sic),  such  a  thorough  evaluation  is  often  lacking.     On  the  evaluation  of  projects,  Quak  et  al.  (2014)  claim:       Small  scale,  local  demonstrations  of  which  the  outcomes  are  considered  to  be  only   appropriate  within  a  specific  context  occur  quite  often  in  the  field  of  city  logistics.   Various   local   demonstrations   usually   show   a   solution’s   technical   and   operational   feasibility.  These  often  subsidized  demonstrations  do  not  have  long-­‐term  potential   due  to  the  lack  of  thought  on  (sic)  their  business  models,  i.e.  the  financial  feasibility.   To  make  a  solution  really  work  in  practice  a  viable  business  model  is  required.     Vahrenkamp  et  al.  (2013)  conclude:     As  a  main  result  of  the  city  logistic  (sic)  projects  over  the  past  25  years  one  has  to   state   that   traffic   reduction   and   economic   gains   of   consolidation   were   only   small   (sic).  The  gains  do  not  cover  the  costs  the  projects  impose.  To  make  the  projects   economic  (sic)  feasible  the  cities  had  to  carry  a  share  of  the  cost.  This  was  the  case   for  all  Urban  Consolidation  Centre  (UCC)  solutions  in  the  UK,  France,  Netherlands   and   Italy.   The   weak   position   of   UCC   became   evident   when   public   money   was   canceled  and  the  UCC  had  to  stop.     Many   initiatives   for   city   logistics   started   out   with   government   subsidies.   When   the   government   funding   dried   up,   that   would   often  mean  the  end  of  the  initiative  as  well.  
  • 13.   13       Many  projects  failed   Unfortunately,   most   of   city   logistics   projects   have   been   unsuccessful   and   have   ended   up   dying   a   premature,   quiet   death.   Generally   speaking,   there   are   five   reasons  for  this:     1. They  were  developed  on  the  basis  of  the  wrong  data  about  city  logistics.   Many  initiatives  focused  on  retail  distribution,  which  accounts  for  only  a   small  share  of  city  logistics  and  often  already  involves  consolidation.  Until   a  few  years  ago,  the  major  flows  such  as  construction  materials,  waste,   and   catering   supplies   remained   out   of   the   picture,   which   essentially   meant   that   no   visible   results   were   achieved   in   terms   of   improving   city   logistics.     2. The  proposed  solutions  were  unattractive  for  the  customers.  As  a  result  of   logistics   consolidation   centers   (such   as   urban   distribution   centers)   the   delivery  ended  up  taking  longer.     3. The  city  logistics  solution  ended  up  being  more  expensive  for  the  shippers   than  the  existing  solution.  The  entire  chain  –  from  the  distribution  center   all  the  way  to  the  delivery  in  the  city  –  was  not  well  thought  out.  Solutions   were  often  only  developed  for  the  last  mile  on  entering  the  city.   4. The   business   model   for   city   logistics   was   not   sound.   And   because   the   business  model  was  not  sound,  a  critical  mass  was  never  achieved.   5. The  local  political  situation  proved  volatile,  which  meant  the  local  playing   field  for  city  logistics  changed  every  four  years.     This   brief   analysis   of   the   bottlenecks   for   city   logistics   also   indicates   the   conditions  for  successful  future  solutions:     1. Focus  solutions  on  the  major  flows  of  goods  within  cities.   2. The  receiving  party  should  never  be  worse  off  in  any  case.   3. The  solution  should  not  be  more  expensive  for  the  chain.   4. There   needs   to   be   a   sound   business   model   for   city   logistics   service   providers.   5. There  needs  to  be  continuity  in  local  and  national  policy  in  terms  of  city   logistics.     European  vision  for  2050   On  the  one  hand,  Europe  needs  to  provide  for  the  still-­‐growing  need  for  mobility   and  freight  transport,  but  on  the  one  hand,  it  also  needs  to  ensure  a  substantial   reduction  in  greenhouse  gases  and  other  harmful  emissions  as  well  as  in  noise   pollution   (European   Commission,   2011).   The   dependence   on   oil   must   be   decreased,  while  at  the  same  time  maintaining  a  high  level  of  efficiency  in  the   transport  system.  This  calls  for  radical  changes  in  the  system,  based  on  smarter,   cleaner,  and  safer  transport  solutions.     ERTRAC   (European   Road   Transport   Research   Advisory   Council)   and   ALICE   (Alliance   for   Logistics   Innovation   through   Collaboration   in   Europe)   have   put   together   a   roadmap   for   research   on   city   logistics   (ALICE/ERTRAC,   2015).   The  
  • 14.   14   aim  of  this  roadmap  is  to  set  the  research  priorities  in  relation  to  city  logistics.  In   the   logistics   vision   of   ALICE,   which   covers   the   period   until   2050,   the   main   ambition   is   the   development   of   the   so-­‐called   Physical   Internet   (Ballot   et   al.,   2014).  To  achieve  that  ambition,  two  proposed  lines  of  research  form  the  basis   for  the  logistics  projects  within  the  EU  Horizon  2020  research  program.  These   are:  a)  sustainable  and  safe  supply  chains,  and  b)  coordination  and  collaboration   in   global   supply   networks.   The   research   will   focus   on   corridors,   hubs   and   synchromodality,  city  logistics,  and  information  systems  for  connecting  logistics   systems   within   the   chain.   The   participants   in   ALICE   are   companies,   research   institutes,   national   governments,   and   innovation   partners.   The   roadmap   (ALICE/ERTRAC,  2015)  has  four  objectives:     1. Decarbonization:   energy   efficiency   can   be   achieved   by   making   city   logistics  more  efficient  (for  example  by  consolidation  deliveries)  and  by   using  zero-­‐emission  and  energy-­‐efficient  vehicle  technology  (Stanislaw  et   al.,   2014).   One   condition   for   the   introduction   of   electric   vehicles   is   the   implementation  of  a  charging  infrastructure  with  rapid  charging  points.   Smart  city  logistics  concepts  can  compensate  for  the  extra  costs  of  using   electric  vehicles  for  the  transportation  of  goods  by  raising  the  utilization   rate,  by  reducing  the  number  of  miles  driven  and  the  number  of  empty   runs  made,  and  by  preventing  hours  from  being  lost.     2. Livability  and  the  quality  of  the  environment:  the  research  is  expected  to   help  improve  the  air  quality  in  European  cities  and  to  reduce  noise  levels.   The  factors  contributing  to  local  air  pollution  can  differ  significantly  from   city  to  city,  just  as  the  relative  share  of  transport  as  a  cause  of  urban  air   pollution  also  varies  from  place  to  place.  The  goal  is  to  reduce  particulate   matter  by  80%  and  NOx  by  90%  in  the  period  from  2010  until  2030.  It  is   possible  to  improve  air  quality  by  reducing  the  emissions  of  the  vehicles   themselves   by   applying   higher   emission   standards,   by   using   smart   city   logistics  concepts,  and  by  local  traffic  management.  The  reduction  of  noise   emissions  in  connection  with  city  logistics  is  important  due  to  its  impact   on   the   health   of   the   citizens.   Quieter   vehicles   will   make   it   possible   to   make   deliveries   at   night.   This   will   require   not   only   a   reduction   of   the   noise   level   of   the   vehicles   themselves,   but   also   of   the   noise   from   the   loading  and  unloading  of  goods.     3. Reliability:  city  logistics  is  only  effective  when  the  goods  are  delivered  to   the   expected   delivery   point   and   at   the   expected   delivery   time.   With   regard   to   business-­‐to-­‐business   (B2B),   the   percentage   of   effective   deliveries   is   already   around   95%.   For   business-­‐to-­‐consumer   (B2C)   deliveries  in  the  urban  environment,  that  is  currently  only  70%  to  75%.   The  reliability  will  need  to  improve  substantially  with  an  eye  to  the  fast   growth  of  e-­‐commerce  (Van  Duin  et  al.,  2015;  EY,  2015).   4. Safety:   there   is   growing   concern   about   the   number   of   injuries   and   fatalities  involving  trucks  and  more  vulnerable  road  users  in  the  urban   environment.   The   European   Union   has   ambitious   goals   in   relation   to   traffic  safety.  Some  cities  have  already  adopted  Vision  Zero  as  their  policy   objective.  The  roadmap  focuses  research  on  infrastructure,  vehicles,  and   human   behavior.   Besides   traffic   safety,   there   is   also   attention   for   safe   deliveries  with  less  theft  and  damage.    
  • 15.   15   4.   Supply  chain  perspective       In  the  effort  to  realize  these  objectives,  city  logistics  should  be  seen  as  a  link  in   the  logistics  chain,  with  the  end  user  as  the  primary  end  point  (which,  based  on   the   notion   of   circularity,   is   also   a   potential   new   starting   point).   A   holistic   approach  should  be  followed  in  order  to  understand  what  can  be  done  upstream   to  optimize  the  logistics  chain  and  to  have  it  link  up  with  city  logistics.       City  logistics  lies  at  the  end  of  an  integrated  logistics  chain:  from   field  to  fork.     Three   technological   developments   in   transport   and   distribution   are   going   to   fundamentally   change   the   existing   distribution   networks:   the   Trans-­‐European   Transport  Networks  (TEN-­‐T),  the  autonomous  trucks  that  will  carry  goods  safely   and  reliably  across  the  TEN-­‐T,  and  the  innovations  in  warehouse  automation.     1. TEN-­‐T:  international  transport  links.       In  the  framework  of  the  TEN-­‐T  program,  the  European  Commission  has   designated  ten  international  transport  links  –  the  “core  network  corridors”   –  that  are  to  be  fully  built  up  and  improved  with  EU  funding  through  2030.   These  concern  innovative  transport  links  on  water,  rails,  and  roads.       The  aim  is  to  further  strengthen  the  European  transport  infrastructure  –   and   the   intelligent   transport   and   traffic   management   systems   that   go   along  with  that  –  and  to  lower  transport  costs  in  the  process.  On  these   safe   and   robust   core   network   corridors,   goods   can   find   their   way   –   uninterrupted,   but   especially   also   reliably   –   between   Europe’s   major   production  and  consumption  areas.  This  is  the  preferred  network  of  the   future.     2. Platooning:  autonomous  driving.       Unmanned   trucks   are   getting   closer   and   closer.   The   use   of   wireless   technology  to  connect  to  a  road  train  –  a  manually  steered  lead  truck  with   a  column  of  vehicles  behind  it  –  is  already  technically  possible.  These  road   trains  are  going  to  need  to  have  sufficient  volume  and  frequency.  That  will   require  enormous  distribution  centers  where  logistics  service  providers   can   consolidate   transport   flows   from   different   sectors   of   industry   to   deliver   –   with   a   high   frequency   and   great   reliability   –   to   distribution   centers   downstream   in   the   chain,   closer   to   major   consumption   centers:   urban   consolidation   centers.   Those   DCs   will   need   to   be   strategically   connected  with  these  nodes  of  the  TEN-­‐T  network.     3. Dark  stores:  robots  in  warehouses.       Faster,   more   frequent   and   more   finely   meshed   delivery   calls   for   the   mechanization   of   order-­‐picking   activities   in   distribution   centers:   dark   stores.  With  new  technology  such  as  Amazon’s  picking  robots,  automatic   case  picking,  RFID,  GS1  standards  for  things  like  pallet  labels,  dock-­‐and-­‐
  • 16.   16   roll,   and   pick-­‐by-­‐voice,   the   productivity   in   distribution   centers   is   increasing   in   leaps   and   bounds.   Distribution   centers   where   employees   gather  900  to  1,200  order  lines  an  hour  are  no  longer  exceptions.  Those   investments   can   only   be   earned   back   in   distribution   centers   with   sufficient  scale.     Ten  years  ago,  experts  still  thought  that  distribution  centers  couldn’t  be   any  larger  than  50,000  square  meters.  Warehouses  larger  than  that  were   thought   to   be   less   efficient.   In   the   meantime,   recent   examples   from   Zalando,   Action,   Nike,   and   Zara   have   shown   that   efficient   distribution   centers  can  easily  be  as  big  as  150,000  to  300,000  square  meters.         The  distribution  centers  of  the  future  will  be  located  at  strategic  points  within   the  TEN-­‐T  network.  They  will  consolidate  freight  flows  from  many  shippers  and   have   fully   mechanized   internal   processes.   The   distribution   centers   will   be   interconnected  with  advanced  systems  for  the  minute-­‐by-­‐minute  planning  and   steering   of   the   operational   processes   with   transport   management,   warehouse   management,  and  traffic  management:  sense  and  respond.  Control  towers  will   see   to   the   tactical   coordination   of   the   flows   of   goods   and   capacities   in   the   distribution  network:  predict  and  prepare.       These  developments  will  have  consequences  for  the  city  logistics  at  the  end  of   the  logistics  chain  and  thus  also  for  local  spatial  planning  (Dablanc,  2014).  More   and  more  often,  urban  consolidation  centers  on  the  edges  of  cities  will  be  the   points  where  slow  mobility,  aimed  at  efficiently  consolidated  freight  flows,  turns   into  valuable  personalized  mobility,  aimed  at  the  needs  of  the  receiver.       The  pressure  to  improve  the  air  quality  in  urban  areas  is  an  important  incentive   for   the   use   of   electric   vehicles.   That   means   that   more   shipments   are   being   transferred  to  these  electric  vehicles  at  consolidation  centers  within  or  around   the  city.       An  urban  consolidation  centers  functions  as  a  lynch  pin  and  pivot  point  in  the   logistics  chain  for  physical,  information,  and  financial  flows,  but  that  only  works   properly  with  a  corresponding  organizational  structure.  Important  ingredients   for   the   organization   model   are   the   neutral   director’s   role   that   can   serve   the  
  • 17.   17   interests  of  every  shipper,  transporter,  distributor,  and  receiver,  and  the  national   coverage   of   uniform   services   combined   with   local   situation   (Guis,   2014). This   transfer-­‐of-­‐goods   function   needs   to   be   integrated   into   the   logistics   chain   with   multiple  parties.  Different  business  models,  new  processes,  and  technologies  will   need   to   be   investigated   and   implemented.   The   city   logistics   systems   are   becoming   more   and   more   integrated   with   both   horizontal   and   vertical   collaboration  between  parties.  Such  a  development  needs  to  have  attention  for   intermodal  and  multimodal  solutions  for  city  logistics  (for  example  the  shipping   of  products  via  inland  waterways  to  the  edges  of  the  city).     More  and  more  vehicles  are  connected  with  each  other  and  with  road  authorities,   for   example   via   cooperative   intelligent   transportation   systems   (ITS-­‐C).   With   traffic  management,  this  can  result  in  better  freight  traffic  flows.       Finally  one  should  not  forget  that  the  freight  traffic  in  cities  is  the  result  of  the   behavior   of   customers   in   those   cities.   The   development   of   the   city   and   the   lifestyle  of  the  people  who  live  there  both  have  a  major  impact  on  city  logistics.   Factors  such  as  the  development  of  teleworking,  an  aging  population,  housing,   and  the  growth  of  omnichannel  retail  have  major  consequences  for  city  logistics   (ALICE/ERTRAC,   2015).   Digitization   may   also   offer   opportunities   to   put   the   client   behind   the   steering   wheel   in   organizing   city   logistics   more   efficiently.   AH.nl   allows   customers   to   choose   a   delivery   time   themselves.   By   charging   different  prices  for  the  different  delivery  times  (ranging  from  €4.95  to  €12.95),   AH.nl  leads  its  customers  by  the  hand  through  the  logistics  process.  And  in  doing   so,   AH.nl   is   managing   to   optimize   its   own   home-­‐delivery   process   quietly   and   dynamically.        
  • 18.   18     5.   City  logistics  as  we  head  towards  2050       The  ALICE/ERTRAC  (2015)  report  contains  12  roadmaps  that  were  developed   for  the  research  themes  for  the  coming  decades:     1. Identifying  and  assessing  opportunities  in  urban  freight.   2. Towards   a   more   efficient   integration   of   urban   freight   in   the   urban   transport  system.   3. Understanding  the  impact  of  land  use  on  urban  freight  activities.   4. Enabling  more  efficient  movements  of  goods  through  the  management  of   the  infrastructure.   5. Improving   the   interaction   between   long   distance   freight   transport   and   urban  freight.   6. Better  adapting  the  vehicles  to  innovative  urban  freight  delivery  systems.   7. Value  creation  logistics  services  and  more  efficient  operations.   8. E-­‐commerce   implications:   Direct   to   consumer   deliveries   and   functional   logistics  services.   9. Reverse  logistics  and  transport  of  waste  and  recycling  material.   10. Designing  and  operating  urban  freight  delivery  infrastructures.   11. Safety  and  security  in  urban  freight.   12. Cleaner  and  more  efficient  vehicles.     Netherlands  2020–2025:  Green  Deal  Zero  Emission  Urban  Logistics   The   Top   Sector   Logistics’   2016–2020   multiyear   program   (Topsector   Logistiek,   2015)   also   gives   attention   to   city   logistics.   The   collaboration   between   all   the   different   parties   involved   in   city   logistics   is   currently   most   evident   within   the   Green   Deal   Zero   Emission   Urban   Logistics   (GDZES)   program.   The   basis   of   the   GDZES  lies  in  the  Agreement  on  Energy  for  Sustainable  Growth.    That   Agreement   states  (in  Dutch):  “In  2014,  parties  intend  [...]  to  conclude  a  Green  Deal  about   zero-­‐emission   city   logistics   that   will   facilitate   and   give   direction   to   regional   pilots.”   In   this   context,   zero-­‐emission   city   logistics   refers   in   any   case   to   the   reduction  of  CO2  emissions  resulting  from  city  logistics  to  zero,  but  preferably   also  to  the  reduction  of  NOx,  particulate  matter,  and  noise  emissions  in  the  city   centers  resulting  from  city  logistics  to  practically  zero.     Parties  to  the  GDZES  have  the  goal  of  achieving  emission-­‐free  deliveries  in  city   centers   by   2025.   These   parties   include   the   Dutch   national   government,   municipalities,  industry  associations,  knowledge  institutions,  shippers,  transport   and  distribution  companies,  fuel  suppliers,  and  vehicle  producers.    By  means  of   Living  Labs,  parties  are  working  together  to  come  up  with  workable  operational   solutions.  The  projects  have  to  do  with  vehicle  technology,  the  use  and  loading  of   trucks,  and  the  initiation  of  innovative  city  logistics  projects.     With  its  action  line  for  city  logistics,  the  Top  Sector  Logistics  wants  to  connect   with  this  Green  Deal.  Considering  that  city  logistics  has  a  major  impact  on  the   accessibility  and  the  broader  quality  of  life  in  the  city,  both  of  which  form  the  
  • 19.   19   focus   of   the   current   Dutch   government’s   Agenda   Stad   (“Urban   Agenda”),   the   action  line  for  city  logistics  will  form  a  link  to  that  agenda.       While  there  has  been  no  large-­‐scale  production  of  zero-­‐emission  vehicles  to  date,   electric  delivery  vans  are  already  available  and  the  first  heavier,  custom-­‐made   zero-­‐emission   trucks   are   already   in   use.   In   addition,   prototypes   of   hybrid   vehicles  are  being  developed  that  can  use  conventional  fuels  on  the  motorways   but   travel   emission-­‐free   for   the   “last   mile”   within   the   city.   Despite   the   great   diversity  in  load  types  and  the  resulting  diversity  of  technical  specifications  for   vehicles,  relevant  developments  are  currently  under  way  for  all  types  of  supply   vehicles  that  are  being  used  on  a  large  scale,  each  one  proceeding  at  its  own  pace.   As   logistics   concepts   are   scaled   up   further,   the   parties   to   the   GDZES   want   to   boost  the  development,  availability,  reliability,  and  affordability  of  zero-­‐emission   vehicles.  By  now  there  are  many  opportunities  for  electric  vehicles  in  connection   with   city   logistics   (Stanislaw   et   al.,   2014)   and   their   use   is   being   monitored   (Nesterova  et  al.,  2013;  Pelletier  et  al.,  2014;  Hogeschool  van  Amsterdam,  2015d).     Besides  the  use  of  zero-­‐emission  vehicles,  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  vehicles   needed  to  bring  supplies  to  the  city  is  another  important  objective.  Some  goods   already  enter  the  city  in  efficient  ways.  That  is  especially  the  case  where  logistics   professionals  and  companies  have  organized  the  (consolidation  of)  freight  flows   with  transport  on  their  own  account,  as  with  the  stocking  of  supermarkets  and   chain  stores.  Also  the  distribution  of  e-­‐commerce  shipments  is  continually  being   optimized  by  the  larger  logistics  parties,  thanks  in  part  to  the  sound  agreements   that  are  being  made  with  receivers  (Van  Duin  et  al.,  2015).     In  contrast  to  the  efficient  flows,  by  far  most  transport  movements  are  known  to   work  with  a  low  utilization  rate  or  only  enter  the  city  to  deliver  small  shipments.   New   city   logistics   concepts   and   more   extensive   consolidation   make   the   use   of   zero-­‐emission  vehicles  and/or  the  use  of  clean  vehicles  with  a  high  utilization   rate  in  lieu  of  low  emissions  for  those  transport  movements  potentially  feasible   and  are  therefore  in  line  with  the  GDZES  objectives.  Amsterdam  has  it’s  own  deal   with  local  business  organization  and  research  institutions  called  ‘Slim  en  Schoon’.      
  • 20.   20     The  action  line  for  city  logistics  aims  to  reduce  CO2  emissions  by  5,000  kilotons   of  CO2  per  year.  Achieving  zero-­‐emission  city  logistics  through  a  combination  of   better   technology   and   more   efficient   logistics   will   require   organizational,   technological,  social,  financial,  and  legal  adjustments.  This  variety  of  factors  to  be   overcome,   in   combination   with   the   many   different   interests   of   stakeholders,   demands  an  innovative  approach.       The  first  phase  will  start  the  moment  the  Green  Deal  enters  into  force  and  run   until  2020.  In  this  initial  phase,  the  Green  Deal  will  focus  on  demonstrating  or  at   least   making   plausible,   via   Living   Labs,   that   zero-­‐emission   city   logistics   is   feasible,  from  a  technical,  economic,  and  enforcement  perspective,  for  a  specific   logistics  flow.  In  the  second  phase,  which  runs  until  2025,  the  Green  Deal  will   focus  on  scaling  up  the  demonstrated  concepts.       There  are  also  links  with  other  part  of  the  Top  Sector  such  as  the  application  of   knowledge   from   the   4C   roadmap   (for   cross   chain   control   centers),   the   development   of   new   business   models,   and   the   implementation   of   digital   exchanges   of   logistics   information   with   the   Neutral   Logistic   Information   Platform  or  NLIP  (Topsector  Logistiek,  2015).      
  • 21.   21     6.   An  integrated  approach       Considering   the   Dutch   and   European   ambitions,   a   lot   of   innovation   will   be   required   of   shippers,   receivers,   logistics   service   providers,   and   governments   when   it   comes   to   city   logistics.   In   practice,   the   integrated   logistics   concept   is   often  used  in  dealing  with  such  innovative  logistics  issues  (Van  Goor  et  al.,  2014).   Local  and  supralocal  government  policy  is  another  key  factor  in  city  logistics.  For   that  reason,  government  policy  has  been  added  to  the  integrated  approach  of  city   logistics  (see  Fig.  1).       Figure  1:  Integrated  approach  to  city  logistics  (based  on  Van  Goor  et  al.,  2014).     External  and  internal  objectives   In   terms   of   the   external   objectives,   it   concerns   linking   up   with   the   logistical   needs   of   the   receiving   party   during   the   customer-­‐experience   cycle   (pre-­‐sales,   sales,  and  aftersales).  In  terms  of  the  internal  objectives,  it  concerns  the  costs   and  the  working  capital  that  are  involved  in  supplying  the  customers  in  the  chain.   These  are  the  framework  conditions  for  setting  up  a  distribution  network.       Especially   as   a   result   of   the   digitization   of   customers   and   the   changes   in   customer   behavior,   these   external   objectives   are   changing   (Shopping2020,   2014).   Consumers   are   buying   more   online.   With   the   advent   of   nano   stores   (Blanco   &   Fransoo,   2013),   shops   are   receiving   smaller   and   smaller   shipments   more  and  more  often.  To  be  able  to  compete  with  web  stores,  fashion  retailers   are  presenting  new  collections  more  and  more  often.    E-­‐commerce  in  the  B2B   market  is  only  now  really  starting  to  develop.  As  construction  sites  in  cities  get  
  • 22.   22   smaller   and   smaller,   supplies   need   to   be   brought   in   more   often   and   delivered   right   on   time.   In   the   future,   seniors   who   want   to   keep   living   at   home   will   get   customized  healthcare  logistics  at  home.     Processes   For   deliveries   to   customers   in   cities,   there   are   several   types   of   possible   distribution  networks:       • Directly  from  the  shippers  to  the  customer(s)   • Consolidation  of  freight  flows  of  shippers  upstream  in  the  logistics  chain.   • Consolidation   of   freight   flows   of   multiple   shippers   and   logistics   service   providers  downstream  through  urban  consolidation  centers   • Consolidation   of   freight   flows   of   multiple   shippers   and   logistics   service   providers  downstream  through  urban  consolidation  centers   • Consolidation  of  freight  flows  of  multiple  shippers  via  stores  or  pick-­‐up   points  within  an  urban  area.     As   an   example,   the   possibilities   for   construction   logistics   are   given   in   Table   2   (Quak  et  al.,  2011).     Logistics   concept   Load  characteristics   Transport   characteristics   Solutions   FTL   thick  flows   Initial  phase  of   construction  projects   Sand,  gravel,  prefab   Direct  delivery;   Out  full,  empty   back   Preferred  network  for   construction  traffic;   Consolidation  of  extra-­‐ urban  traffic;   Multimodal   Integrated  distribution   network   LTL   thin  flows   Pallets  (load  carrier)   Trucks  not  fully   loaded  (low   utilization  rate)   Innovative  construction;   Consolidation  at  the   source;   Consolidation  at  an  urban   consolidation  center;   Outsourcing  of   construction  logistics   Parcels   Parcels   Trucks  not  fully   loaded  (low   utilization  rate)   Consolidation  at  the   source;   Consolidation  at  an  urban   consolidation  center;   Outsourcing  of   construction  logistics;   Mobile  storage  container   (construction  finishing   box)   Rush  orders   Parcels   Ad  hoc,  rush   (very  low   utilization  rate)   Outsourcing  to  courier;   Collection  points   Returns   Clay,  rubble,   construction  waste   Out  empty,  back   full   Preferred  network  for   construction  traffic;   Consolidation  of  extra-­‐ urban  traffic;  
  • 23.   23   Multimodal   Integrated  distribution   network;   Combicontainer  for   moving  things  to  and   from  the  site.     Table  2.  Distribution  networks  for  construction  logistics  (Quak  et  al.,  2011).     Then  there  is  the  question  of  which  modality  or  modalities  are  used  for  transport   within  the  distribution  network  (e.g.  cargo  tricycle,  delivery  van,  truck,  or  boat)   and  which  fuel  technology  is  used.         Important   factors   in   setting   up   a   distribution   network   include:   the   company’s   strategy,   the   customer   demands   that   the   company   wants   to   respond   to,   the   desired  degree  of  flexibility,  the  margin  on  products,  the  production  cycle,  and   the   product   characteristics   such   as   value   density   and   packing   density   that   determine  the  distribution  costs  (Van  Goor  et  al.,  2014).     Planning  and  control   Tactical  and  operational  planning  and  control  ensure  that  the  shipments  reach   the   receiver   on   time   and   with   the   appropriate   use   of   resources.   Planning   and   control   concerns   decisions   about   the   deployment   of   personnel   and   the   scheduling  of  vehicles  and  warehouse  processes,  but  also  about  the  charging  of   electric  vehicles.  In  terms  of  city  logistics,  this  planning  and  control  covers  the   entire  chain,  often  involving  multiple  parties  that  work  together.  Data  alignment   in  logistics  chains  is  a  condition  for  the  sharing  of  planning  data.     Information  and  communications  technology   The   tactical   and   operational   planning   and   control   requires   data   about   the   shipments,   the   available   capacities,   and   the   routes:   transport   management  
  • 24.   24   systems  (TMS).  These  systems  are  increasingly  linked  with  local  traffic  systems   of  the  government  that  give  relevant  information  about  traffic  using  open  data.   Giving   road   users   tailored   driving   recommendations   can   contribute   towards   a   better  flow  of  traffic,  and  road  users  will  also  be  prepared  to  adjust  their  driving   style  on  the  basis  of  those  recommendations.  Soon  the  receiver  will  get  real-­‐time   information   about   the   shipment   and   its   expected   arrival   time   and   can   even   change  the  delivery  address  while  the  shipment  is  already  under  way.       A  trend  in  the  development  of  ICT  is  the  advent  of  location-­‐based  applications,   agent-­‐based   software,   and   systems   for   the   exchange   of   freight   between   companies   (and   increasingly   also   between   private   individuals).   Well-­‐known   applications  include  Uber  and  GoGoVan.       Logistics  organization   In  terms  of  the  logistics  organization,  it  concerns  the  way  in  which  the  tasks  for   the  planning  and  control  of  the  transport  flows  are  anchored  in  the  organization,   the   competencies   of   the   employees   involved,   and   how   parties   in   the   logistics   chain  work  together.       Local  government  policy   Local   government   policy   determines   the   playing   field   by   means   of   delivery   windows,   vehicle   restrictions,   the   arrangement   of   public   spaces   (including   loading   and   unloading   bays),   late   night   and   early   morning   distribution,   low-­‐ emission  zones,  the  amount  of  space  that  is  available  for  logistics  consolidation   centers,  the  available  charging  infrastructure  for  electric  vehicles,  the  number  of   quays  that  are  available  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of  boats,  and  the  open  data   that  is  made  available  for  local  traffic  control  and  dynamic  traffic  management   aimed  at  improving  the  flow.     Supralocal  government  policy   Among  other  things,  supralocal  government  policy  determines  hours-­‐of-­‐service   regulations,  vehicle  specifications,  and  the  availability  of  open  data  for  dynamic   traffic  management.     An   integrated   approach   to   city   logistics   also   requires   a   careful   consideration   of   the   business   model.   There   is   no   future   for   solutions  based  entirely  on  subsidies.     Earning  money  with  city  logistics   One  of  the  problems  in  the  implementation  of  new  concepts  for  city  logistics  is   the  lack  of  a  business  model:  they  don’t  earn  any  money.  As  Quak  &  Balm  (2014)   put  it:    
  • 25.   25         Small  scale,  local  demonstrations  of  which  the  outcomes  are  considered  to  be  only   appropriate  within  a  specific  context  occur  quite  often  in  the  field  of  city  logistics.   Various   local   demonstrations   usually   show   a   solution’s   technical   and   operational   feasibility.  These  often  subsidized  demonstrations  do  not  have  long-­‐term  potential   due  to  the  lack  of  thought  on  their  business  models,  i.e.  the  financial  feasibility.  To   make  a  solution  really  work  in  practice  a  viable  business  model  is  required.     The   use   of   business   models   such   as   Canvas   (Osterwalder   &   Pigneur,   2010;   Turblog,  2011;  Pauli,  2014)  can  support  the  development  of  a  business  model.   The   Business   Model   Canvas   is   a   powerful   instrument   to   identify   the   business   model   in   a   transparent   and   comprehensible   way   (see   Fig.   2).   In   city   logistics,   these   business   models   also   often   have   characteristics   of   public-­‐private   partnerships.           Figure  2.  Business  Model  Canvas  (Quak  &  Balm,  2014).    
  • 26.   26         Checklist  for  the  Business  Model  Canvas     1.  Customer  Segments   What  specific  customer  groups  does  the  company  want  to  serve?  What  are  the   needs  of  those  customer  groups?     2.  Value  Proposition   What   distinctive   value   does   the   company   offer?   What   problems   does   the   company  help  to  solve?  Those  can  be  both  the  current  and  the  future  needs.  Why   should  these  customers  do  business  with  the  company  (and  not  with  someone   else)?  This  is  the  value  proposition.     3.  Customer  Relationships   How  does  the  company  maintain  contact  with  the  various  customer  segments?   How   does   each   aspecific   customer   segment   want   the   company   to   maintain   contact   with   them?   Which   type   of   contact   is   the   right   one   and   the   most   cost-­‐ effective  for  each  segment?     4.  Channels   How   are   (groups   of)   customers   kept   abreast   of   the   range   of   services   offered?   How  do  they  best  experience  the  value  proposition?  How  can  they  buy  and  get   the  range  of  services  offered?     5.  Revenue  Streams   How   does   the   company   earn   money?   And   in   the   future?   How   can   it   develop   supplementary  sources  of  income?     6.  Key  Resources   Which   resources   are   essential   to   create   the   value   proposition?   To   maintain   customer  relationships?  To  get  new  customers?     7.  Key  Activities   Which  core  activities  are  essential  to  create  or  strengthen  the  value  proposition?   To  maintain  customer  relationships?  To  get  new  customers?     8.  Partners   Which   private   and   public   partnerships   are   essential   to   make   or   co-­‐create   the   offer  ?  Which  partners  are  crucial  to  ensure  even  more  success?     9.  Cost  Structure   Which  costs  are  essential  to  ensure  that  the  business  model  will  work?  Which   resources   and   core   activities   are   the   most   costly?   Which   costs   are   fixed,   and   which  are  variable?        
  • 27.   27     7.   Applied  research       The   Faculty   of   Technology   at   the   Amsterdam   University   of   Applied   Sciences   (HvA)   has   a   research   program   that   extends   beyond   the   faculty   itself:   Urban   Technology.   As   one   of   the   spearhead   programs   of   the   HvA,   Urban   Technology   focuses   on   researching,   designing,   and   realizing   smart   solutions   for   the   challenges   that   major   cities   will   face   in   the   future.   In   this   broad   research   program,  the  Faculty  of  Technology  works  together  with  two  other  faculties  at   the  HvA:  Economics  and  Management  and  Digital  Media  and  Creative  Industries.     The  broader  Logistics  research  program  focuses  on  two  themes  that  are  closely   connected  with  Metropoolregio  Amsterdam  (MRA),  the  umbrella  organization  of   municipalities  that  form  the  Amsterdam  metropolitan  area:  Mainport  Logistics   and   City   Logistics.   The   Logistics   research   program   at   the   HvA   is   closely   connected  to  the  national  Centre  of  Expertise  Logistiek  (“Center  of  Expertise  for   Logistics”),  of  which  the  HvA  fulfills  the  role  of  secretary,  and  with  the  regional   KennisDC  (“Knowledge  Distribution  Center”)  in  Amsterdam.         Within   the   Urban   Technology   research   program,   the   City   Logistics   research   program  is  linked  to  the  research  theme  of  Smart  Mobility  &  Logistics.  The  focus   lies  on  designing  technological  solutions  for  sustainable  mobility  to  ensure  the   city  remains  accessible  and  connected.  The  research  program  is  also  linked  to   the  showcase  project  E-­‐mobility  and  City  Logistics,  in  which  researchers  in  the   Smart   Mobility   &   Logistics   and   Smart   Energy   Systems   programs   are   working   together   on   the   smart   use   of   electric   vehicles   for   urban   distribution   in   the   Amsterdam  metropolitan  area.       Applied  research  within  the  Faculty  of  Technology   Technology  helps  to  create  the  world  of  tomorrow.  That  will  require  research   that   is   related   to   practical   applications   and   problems   in   practice.   Applied   research  contributes  to  the  improvement  and  innovation  of  professional  practice,   to   the   quality   of   professional   education,   and   to   the   quality   of   teachers   and   students.  In  addition  to  preparing  students  to  be  knowledgeable  professionals,   conducting   applied   research   is   one   of   the   core   activities   through   which   the   Faculty  of  Technology  at  the  HvA  is  helping  to  create  the  world  of  tomorrow.       Applied  research  differs  from  classic  theoretical  research  in  that  it  investigates   practical   issues   from   the   field   and   involves   a   close   cooperation   with   the   professional  practice.  The  research  is  nevertheless  methodologically  sound  and   in   line   with   academic   knowledge.   Indeed,   the   added   value   of   applied   research   lies  in  the  fact  that  bridges  the  gap  between  theoretical  knowledge  and  day-­‐to-­‐ day  professional  practice.    
  • 28.   28       Applied  research  has  four  characteristics:     1. It  is  rooted  in  professional  practice   The  strength  of  applied  research  lies  in  large  part  in  the  way  it  is  set   up  and  carried  out:  in  close  cooperation  with  professional  practice  via   networks  and  collaborative  relationships.  The  research  being  done  at   the   Amsterdam   University   of   Applied   Sciences   (HvA)   has   a   clearly   recognizable  regional  dimension  thanks  to  its  connection  with  MRA’s   Kennis-­  en  Innovatieagenda  (“Knowledge  and  Innovation  Agenda”).     2. It  forms  a  bridge  between  science  and  professional  practice   One   of   the   objectives   of   applied   research   is   to   translate   scientific   knowledge  into  professional  practice.  It  is  through  research  that  the   practical  applicability  of  scientific  insights  is  put  to  the  test  and  made   concrete.   As   such,   applied   research   plays   an   important   role   in   increasing   the   readiness   of   new   technologies   with   an   eye   to   their   market  introduction.  In  the  process,  applied  research  not  only  draws   from  the  body  of  knowledge  but  also  adds  new  knowledge  to  that.       3. It  is  methodologically  sound   Applied   research   uses   sound   methods   and   meets   the   current   standards   in   terms   of   validity   and   reliability.   In   addition,   it   tries   to   make   the   results   generalizable   as   much   as   possible.   Part   of   the   research  takes  place  in  collaboration  with  research  universities,  other   universities   of   applied   sciences,   and   knowledge   institutions   such   as   the  Netherlands  Organisation  for  Applied  Scientific  Research  (TNO).     4. It  has  an  impact  on  society   Applied  research  contributes  to  the  professionalization  and  innovative   force  of  industry  and  government  bodies.  This  active  contribution  has   a  visible  impact  that  underscores  the  social  engagement  of  the  Faculty   of  Technology  at  the  HvA.       Research  also  takes  place  in  the  classroom  setting.   In  the  Faculty  of  Technology,  research  is  carried  out  by  professors,  teachers  with   a  research  task,  doctoral  candidates,  and  students,  in  collaboration  with  and  at   the  request  of  professionals  in  the  field.