knowledge management document

SUBMITTED BY: VISHAKHA
CHOUDHARY
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Question 1) elaborate the framework/ diagrammatic flow between all kinds of knowledge.
Answer1)
 Tacit knowledge is that stored in the brain of a person.
Tacit knowledge is personal. It is stored in the heads of people. It is accumulated through study
and experience. It is developed through the process of interaction with other people. Tacit
knowledge grows through the practice of trial and error and the experience of success and failure.
Tacit knowledge, therefore, is context-specific. It is difficult to formalize, record, or articulate. It
includes subjective insights, intuitions and conjectures. As intuitive knowledge, it is difficult to
communicate and articulate. Since tacit knowledge is highly individualized, the degree and facility
by which it can be shared depends to a great extent on the ability and willingness of the person
possessing it to convey it to others.

The sharing of tacit knowledge is a great challenge to many organizations. Tacit knowledge can
be shared and communicated through various activities and mechanisms. Activities include
conversations, workshops, on-the-job training and the like. Mechanisms include, among others,
the use of information technology tools such as email, groupware, instant messaging and related
technologies.
 Explicit knowledge is that contained in documents or other forms of storage other than the
human brain. Explicit knowledge may therefore be stored or imbedded in facilities,
products, processes, services and systems.
Explicit knowledge is codified. It is stored in documents, databases, websites, emails and the like.
It is knowledge that can be readily made available to others and transmitted or shared in the form
of systematic and formal languages.
Explicit knowledge comprises anything that can be codified, documented and archived. These
include knowledge assets such as reports, memos, business plans, drawings, patents, trademarks,
customer lists, methodologies, and the like. They represent an accumulation of the organization’s
experience kept in a form that can readily be accessed by interested parties and replicated if
desired. In many organizations these knowledge assets are stored with the help of computers and
information technology.
Interaction between types of knowledge:
To tacit knowledge
To explicit knowledge
From tacit knowledge Socialization Externalization
From explicit knowledge Internalization Combination
 Socialization is a process of creating common tacit knowledge through shared
experiences. In socialization, a field of interaction is built where individuals share
experiences and space at the same time. Through this process common unarticulated beliefs
and embodied skills are created and developed. In socialization, the tacit knowledge of one
person is shared and transmitted to another person and it becomes part of the other person’s
tacit knowledge.
 Externalization is a process of articulating tacit knowledge into such explicit knowledge
as concepts and/or diagrams. The process often uses metaphors, analogies, and/or sketches.
This mode is triggered by a dialogue intended to create concepts from tacit knowledge. A
good example of externalization is the process of creating a new product concept or
developing a new production process. Here the tacit knowledge in the brains of experts are

articulated and expressed as concepts or drawings, thus becoming explicit knowledge that
can be further studied and refined.
 Combination is a process of assembling new and existing explicit knowledge into a
systemic knowledge. For example a researcher can assemble an array of previously existing
explicit knowledge in order to prepare a new set of specifications for a prototype of a new
product. Or an engineer can combine available drawings and design specifications to
produce a new process design or equipment. What commonly occurs is the combination of
a newly created concept with existing knowledge to produce something tangible (e.g., a
new product model).
 Internalization is a process of embodying explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge or an
individual’s know-how or operational knowledge. An excellent example of this is “learning
by doing or using.” Explicit knowledge that is available as text, sound, or video facilitates
the internalization process. The use of operating manuals for various machines or
equipment is a quintessential example of explicit knowledge that is used for internalization.
The instructions are learned and become part of the person’s tacit knowledge.
Question 2) Write short notes on:
1. KM myths
2. KM cycle
3. KM audit (process + purpose)
4. KM matrices
Answers: 1. KM Myths: - As knowledge management becomes more widely adopted,
misconceptions about what it is and isn't have also become more widespread.
Knowledge management is a huge financial investment
Undoubtedly money will have to be spent on a KM programme but the amount and pace of that
spend does not have to be daunting or debilitating. A recent survey suggested that the average KM
spend by organizations is less than 2% of revenues, a relatively low percentage in comparison to
the business opportunities it can exploit. Often, KM initiatives fail because they start with sorting
out the IT issues. There are many KM systems on the market to choose from which can deliver
several of the benefits you might be looking for. But most companies who start with the technology
angle fail to implement KM effectively and either end up with systems that no-one will use, no-
one sees the value of or indeed they may abandon KM altogether as an idea that didn’t work.
It’s an IT problem.
KM should be the “problem” of everyone in the organization. It effects everybody and no team
should remain untouched. This does not only apply to functional teams such as Marketing, Human

Resources, Finance, it effects all teams and work groups in the organization. However, the
effectiveness of KM relies entirely on the culture of the organization
It’s either a top down process or bottom up process`
The top down approach cannot work unless the CEO captures the hearts and minds of all the
employees. KM will be seen as another “management speak fad” and will soon fall into disrepute.
The bottom up approach could remain as isolated activities which may not be able to attract
investment or credibility unless they engage the enthusiasm of the people at the top. Good ideas
come from all corners of the organization and a good KM programme will integrate all knowledge
sharing ideas from all teams.
You cannot capture “knowledge” – it’s too intangible.
It isn’t necessary to document every thought. The output or knowledge may not be easy to
document but if it’s known that they are discussing and solving problems, then it a network that
can be tapped into. The knowledge is not just in one head but in the heads of many. If you know
where these experts are, then you know how to find that knowledge. At least you have a starting
point. Many communities of practice share some of their knowledge via corporate intranets or
other communication channels. Making these channels open and easy to use also encourages
people to share this tacit information. A vast amount of information can be captured, put into
databases and searched. The more intangible information can be accessed by knowing who to
speak to.
Knowledge is power, so no-one will want to share their expert knowledge
Sharing knowledge does not diminish expertise, in fact it enhances an individual’s reputation and
gains them credibility. Knowledge is power, but it is much more powerful when it can be used
widely for competitive advantage rather than short term personal gain.
Hording information in a knowledge culture is an unacceptable activity and many knowledge
based organizations have information sharing as one of the core competencies by which people
are measured. This is the case in many consultancy firms. If you do not contribute to the knowledge
pool during the year, then this will affect your compensation and prospects.
KM makes you focus internally; we should be focusing on our customers
It can take time to put together a knowledge strategy and to do that, it is necessary to spend time
analyzing internal business processes. But the world doesn’t have to stop while this is taking place.
KM is an ongoing activity and cannot happen in one big bang. This internal reflection will help to
reveal whether your processes are entirely focused on delivering customer value and if they are
not, then opportunities will be lost. Business processes should constantly be reviewed, so the
internal reflection is not a one off huge project that deflects attention. It is part of everyday
business.
Put an intranet in place and KM will happen

Intranets have become invaluable communication and knowledge sharing tools in many
organizations. In themselves they do not make knowledge management happen but are a key
enabler to connecting people. However, many intranets do fail because they are set up with no
clear objectives in sight or without having carried out an information audit to establish what
information resources and knowledge banks there are within the organization. Long term planning
is necessary to avoid costly mistakes such as a need to constantly upgrade software and servers.
The key reason that intranets fail is because the information they contain is out of date or of little
value. So, if you just build it with no objectives and leave it to anyone to participate, it will decline
rapidly. Intranets need management, updated content and a good structure. They also need
feedback to constantly improve them.
Knowledge management is an end unto itself.
In fact, while creating new knowledge, organizing it so others can use it and passing it on to
succeeding generations is a defining human trait, business organizations should use knowledge
management to build market value and competitive strength.
Knowledge management just means hiring smart people.
While it is true that people are the main sources of knowledge, it's what people do, not just what
they know, that adds value to firms.
Knowledge management means creating huge, unwieldy databases.
It's true that many firms follow the "Grandma's attic" approach to saving any information that
might possibly be useful someday. But these aren't the firms that get business value from their
knowledge. Knowledge yields value when your people know where it is, know how to get at it;
know it will help them; and join in keeping it current, practical and useful.
Knowledge management isn't like other good management practices and processes.
Managing knowledge does not mean reinventing management. The elements of effective financial
management, such as building theoretical knowledge, developing a shared vocabulary and
implementing best practices and processes, also drive effective knowledge management.
Knowledge management is a fad.
The term "knowledge management" might fade away or be replaced. But the enormous
contribution of knowledge management to business value will only grow and the activities that
create value from knowledge will always be vital to success.
Eliminate risks.
Some companies are concerned that employees might somehow share information that they
shouldn’t. However, you should trust the employees you have chosen to hire to use good sense
when it comes to sharing information. It’s also better to encourage things to be shared in a visible
way, so that if somebody does something inappropriate then you can initiate corrective action. If
you drive it underground, it doesn’t work.

2. KM cycle :
Knowledge management cycle is a process of transforming information into knowledge
within an organization. It explains how knowledge is captured, processed, and distributed
in an organization. In this chapter, we will discuss the prominent models of knowledge
management cycle.
Till date, four models have been selected based on their ability to meet the growing demands. The
four models are:
Zack (1996) Bukowitz & Williams
(2000)
WIIG (1993 Mcelroy
(2003)
Acquisition Get Creation Learning
Refinement Use Sourcing Validation
Store Learn Compilation Acquisition
Distribution Contribute Transformation Integration
Presentation Assess Application Completion

The major six steps are as follows:
a. Share and Learn: The sharing of knowledge in order to facilitate learning is the first step
in knowledge management life-cycle. Sharing of knowledge is one in which people
exchange their views and ideas on a particular domain.
b. Create: Knowledge is created by sharing of ideas by people working in an organization.
Better sharing leads to better ideas thereby creating a valuable knowledge repository.
c. Capture and Acquire: Capture and acquisition of knowledge is one in which the
knowledge created is collected in huge numbers and stored in a repository.
d. Organize: Organizing is the next step to capturing of knowledge. The captured content is
organized using a framework or knowledge model. The model reflects the elements of
knowledge and flows that are embedded inherently in the specific processes and culture of
organization.
e. Access, Search and Disseminate: The organized knowledge is put in such a way that it
could be accessed, searched and disseminated by the users working in the organization.
f. Use and Discover: The last step is to make use of the knowledge acquired in solving
problems in real time.
3. KM audit (process + purpose)
Knowledge audits are usually conducted as part of the planning phase to develop and implement
knowledge management initiatives. Within this framework, a completed knowledge audit should
be used to inform decision makers about how/where to proceed and which areas should be
prioritized. A knowledge audit is an ideal tool to use as a blueprint for moving forward in
developing an organizational knowledge management strategy.

A knowledge audit is usually a combination of different methods to gather relevant data:
 Online surveys
 Focus group discussions
 Interviews with key stakeholders, knowledge workers, KM focal points, senior management and
clients
 Workflow and business processes analysis
 Content analysis
 IT systems analysis
Purposes of a Knowledge Audit:
 To identify and prioritize the top knowledge management challenges at your organizations
-- which issues are creating the biggest problems
 To develop a clear picture of how an organization manages its information and knowledge
assets
 Understand how individuals within an organization share knowledge
 Understand motivations and incentives for knowledge exchange
 Identify elements of organizational culture and organizational learning that are tied to
knowledge management
 Identify current successes, best practices, and cultural behaviors that can be built upon
 Identify key areas for bottlenecks, redundancies, missed opportunities and areas of concern
Some of the key benefits of a knowledge audit are as follows:
 It helps the organization clearly identify what knowledge is needed to support overall
organizational goals and individual and team activities.
 It provides evidence of the extent to which knowledge is being effectively managed and
indicates where improvements are required.
 It provides an evidence-based account of the knowledge that exists in an organization, how that
knowledge moves around in, and is used by, that organization.
 It provides a map of what knowledge exists in the organization and where it exists, as well as
revealing gaps.
 It reveals pockets of untapped knowledge.
 It provides a map of knowledge and communication flows and networks.
 It provides an inventory of knowledge assets, giving a clearer understanding of the contribution
of knowledge to organizational performance.

 It provides vital information for the development of effective knowledge management
programmes and initiatives that are directly relevant to the organization’s specific knowledge
needs and current situation
Knowledge management audit process:
a. It starts with in-house knowledge overview and general information audit, including
knowledge resources, people, key organizational knowledge assets – patents, trademarks,
experts; then business processes (innovations, learning, sharing) and knowledge flows, IT
systems, social aspects and culture.
b. The second part comprises tacit dimensions of the company knowledge or assessment of
the individual and group knowledge with questionnaires and surveys among staff.
c. Finally, analyses of the company environment provides a short description of the industry
knowledge (global aspects, demand and supply curves, fluctuations, main players), Porter
analyses (for knowledge possessed and acquired from customers, partners, suppliers,
competitors and substitutes), research achievements (university and research centers. The
environment analysis allows the company to assess how and from where it could supply
valuable new knowledge and faster identify and profit from messages.
d. On the base of the information collected within the initial three steps, the knowledge
strengths and weaknesses and knowledge opportunities and threats are identified and
assessed. Thus, the knowledge audit report will provide sound recommendations for further
KM initiatives assessing the current state-of-the-art and scenarios for future development.
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Knowledge is not appearing from nowhere – and sooner organizations discover it, they
have better chances to adapt and to profit.
e. The knowledge audit report identifies finally organization readiness to adopt a KM
initiative – pointing out the KM enabling factors and persons, what are potential barriers,
suitable KM instruments and initiatives to start with, and finally – implementation
roadmap. The knowledge audit report should become a reference guide of the organization
KM journey, supporting decision-making and allowing better planning and assessment of
the knowledge management strategy
4. KM Matrix
KM matrix is a pathway which defines the KM objectives and analyses its success at various
stages and pushes the radical change for the process. It acts as an “indicator” analyzing the
achievement of KM strategies. KM matrix studies various KM phases and indicates the success
of each phase leading to overall assessment of activities. The use of KM matrix will be vital
for organization to assess the impact of KM process.
Advantages of KM Matrix:
Assessment –“indicator”: the matrix will study and clearly assess and indicates the
achievement the KM process. It will act as the “Result finder” and develop and initiate change
in KM process. It allows assessment outcomes of each activities and result for implementing
KM process.
Matrix act as Line of Control: Being an indication applicable at each activity level clearly
defines objective allowing appropriate design change and implementation. It indicates measure
and control proving the activity benefits. Provide various quantitative measurements indicating
deliverance, change, resolving issues before going wrong.
Tracking the process: Matrix provides direction for the KM activities. It also continuously
highlights the activity deviation from the path. Meanwhile, it spread and analyzes each phase
giving insight and understanding of the application. It can be utilized for change in KM process
for resolving the implementation problems.
KM Implementation process and initiatives are presented in the following tabula:
KM Process KM Initiatives
 Technology
 Tools
 Techniques
 Phase
 Knowledge creation
 Knowledge capture
 Knowledge sharing
 Knowledge transfer / dissemination
 Internal
- Production
- Marketing
- Finance
- IT
- Organizational culture
- Motivation
- Morale

- Belief
- Learning
- Behavior
 External
- Technology
- Suppliers
- Competitor
- Legal/political
- Social/cultural
- Others
M implementation matrix measures the success of KM system opted by the organization from the
initial stages. It often relates with measurement based on the focus on each projects. It is
categorized into two major areas:
1. KM process
2. KM Initiative
KM Process: KM process implementation in an organization will be assessed at all levels at
its various technological levels, implementing KM tools and techniques and phases the KM
process have been used for knowledge creation, capture, sharing and dissemination. Various
forms of knowledge like tacit, explicit as well as implicit knowledge can be used for
competitive advantage. It will also act as assets for the use in the future process of the
organization.
KM Initiative: the major initiative for implementing KM at various organizational levels are:
¨ Internal
¨ External
Organization affected by both internal and external factor can be managed by the effective and
efficient use of KM. Internal factor like production, marketing, finance, IT, organizational cultural
aspects like motivation, beliefs etc. Can be effectively used for active knowledge transfer and
usage. The internal system can be developed into strength for the organization.
External factor with the use of KM can be turned into opportunity. Various factors like
competitors, technological change, socio cultural issues, legal- political issues and other can be
developed to create advantage.
Question 3) Define component of knowledge management and different stages of knowledge
growth.

Answer 3) Good knowledge management is an inherently social process that allows people to
build on each other’s expertise and learn from each other’s experiences. Knowledge management
involves three essential components:
 People generate, capture, share, and apply knowledge, primarily through human
interaction. People can help cultivate an environment that encourages knowledge exchange
and use of knowledge management systems.
 Processes help us capture, curate, and share knowledge. Organizations must embrace and
integrate these formal and informal processes into their daily workflows to be successful.
 Technology, while a valuable tool, merely plays a supporting role to the real star of the
show: knowledge. Information and communication technology that is appropriate to the
context can expedite knowledge storage, retrieval, and exchange.
Question 4) why KM blueprint is important to prepare in KM life cycle?
Answer 4) The KMS blueprint is concerned with the design of the KM architecture and the IT
infrastructure for collecting, sharing and distributing organizational knowledge. The design and
deployment of the KMS is based on this blueprint. The Blueprint aims to:
 Develop the key layers of the KM architecture to meet the organization’s requirements
 Address the architecture’s interoperability and scalability with the existing IT
infrastructure
 Finalize the scope of the KMS, defining measurable outcomes
 Decide on system components such as:
• User interface options

• Repositories
• Tools
Question 5) write short notes on:
1. Knowledge application system
2. Knowledge capture system
3. Knowledge sharing system
4. Knowledge discovery system
Answer 5) 1. Knowledge application system: Knowledge Application Systems support the
process through which some individuals utilize knowledge possessed by other individuals without
actually acquiring, or learning, that knowledge.
Knowledge application technologies, which support direction and routines includes:
 Expert systems
 Decision support systems
 Advisor systems
 Fault diagnosis (or troubleshooting) systems
 Help desk systems.
 An expert systemis software that attempts to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify
uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted.
Expert systems are most common in a specific problem domain, and is a traditional
application and/or subfield of artificial intelligence. A wide variety of methods can be used
to simulate the performance of the expert however common to most or all are
 1) the creation of a knowledge base which uses some knowledge representation formalism
to capture the subject matter expert's knowledge
 2) a process of gathering that knowledge from the subject matter expert's and codifying it
according to the formalism, which is called knowledge engineering.
 Expert systems may or may not have learning components but a third common element is
that once the system is developed it is proven by being placed in the same real world
problem solving situation as the human subject matter expert, typically as an aid to human
workers or a supplement to some information system.
 A Decision Support System (DSS) is a class of information systems (including but not
limited to computerized systems) that support business and organizational decision-making
activities. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to
help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data,
documents, personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and
make decisions. Typical information that a decision support application might gather and
present are:
 Inventories of all of your current information assets (including legacy and relational data
sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts),
 Comparative sales figures between one week and the next,

 Projected revenue figures based on new product sales assumptions.
2. Knowledge capture system: Knowledge Capture Systems support the process of retrieving
either explicit or tacit knowledge that resides within people, artifacts, or organizational entities.
These systems can help capture knowledge that resides within or outside organizational boundaries
including within consultants, competitors, customers, suppliers, and prior employers of the
organization's new employees.
The earliest mechanisms for knowledge capture dates to the anthropological use of stories - the
earliest form of art, education and entertainment.
Storytelling is the mechanism by which early civilizations passed on their values and their wisdom
from one generation to the next.
The importance of using metaphors and stories as a mechanism for capturing and transferring tacit
knowledge is increasingly drawing the attention of organizations.
3. Knowledge sharing system: Knowledge Sharing Systems support the process through which
explicit or tacit knowledge is communicated to other individuals. These systems are also referred
to as knowledge repositories.
The two types of explicit knowledge sharing systems most widely discussed in the KM literature
are:
 Lessons learned and
 Expertise locator systems.
Systems that support tacit knowledge sharing are those typically utilized by communities of
practice.
 Corporate Memory (also known as an organizational memory) is made up of the
aggregate intellectual assets of an organization.
It is the combination of both explicit and tacit knowledge. The loss of Corporate Memory
often results from a lack of appropriate technologies for the organization and exchange of
documents. Another contributing factor to the loss of corporate memory is the departure of
employees because of either turnover or retirement. KM is concerned with developing
applications that will prevent the loss of corporate memory.
Knowledge sharing systems are classified according to their attributes
 Incident report databases
 Alert systems
 Best practices databases
 Lessons-learned systems
 Expertise locator systems

Incident report databases are used to disseminate information related to incidents or
malfunctions. Incident reports typically describe the incident together with explanations of the
incident, although they may not suggest any recommendations.
Alert systems were originally intended to disseminate information about a negative experience
that has occurred or is expected to occur. Alert systems could be used to report problems
experienced with technology, such as an alert system that issues recalls for consumer products.
Best practices databases describe successful efforts, typically from the reengineering of business
processes that could be applicable to organizational processes. Best practices differ from lessons
learned in that they capture only successful events, which may not be derived from experience.
The goal of lessons-learnedsystems is to capture and provide lessons that can benefit employees
who encounter situations that closely resemble a previous experience in a similar situation. LLS
could be pure repositories of lessons or be sometimes intermixed with other sources of information.
Expertise-Locator Systems are knowledge repositories that attempt to organize knowledge by
identifying experts who possess specific knowledge. Expertise locator systems are also known as
expert directories, expertise directories, skill directories, skills catalogues, white pages or yellow
pages.
4 Knowledge discovery system: Knowledge Discovery Systems support the process of
developing new tacit or explicit knowledge from data and information or from the synthesis of
prior knowledge.
Knowledge Discovery Systems support two KM sub processes associated with knowledge
discovery:
Combination: enabling the discovery of new explicit knowledge. Existing explicit knowledge
may be re-contextualized to produce new explicit knowledge;
Socialization: facilitating the synthesis of tacit knowledge and therefore enabling the discovery of
new tacit knowledge through joint activities rather than written or verbal instructions
Socialization as a means of knowledge discovery is a common practice at many organizations,
pursued either by accident or on purpose
Mechanisms for socialization:
 Employee rotation across departments,
 Research conferences,
 Brainstorming sessions,
 Cooperative projects
Knowledge discovery mechanisms and technologies can facilitate socialization and combination
within or across organizations.
Knowledge Creation Systems can be enabled by the use of data mining (DM) technologies.
Technologies to discover knowledge can be very powerful for organizations.

Knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) is the process of finding and interpreting pattern from
data, involving the application of algorithms to interpret the pattern generated by these algorithms
another name for KDD is data mining.
The increasing availability of computing power and integrated DM software tools, which are easier
than ever to use, have contributed to the increasing popularity of DM applications in business
Customer relationship management (CRM) is the mechanisms and technologies used to manage
the interactions between a company and its customers. Database marketers were the early adopters
of CRM software, in order to automate the process of customer interaction.
CRM implementations can be characterized as being
 Operational and/or
 Analytical.
Question 6) differentiate between implicit, explicit and tacit knowledge.
Answer 6)
A) Explicit knowledge B) Tacit knowledge C) Implicit knowledge
Objective, rational, technical
Subjective, cognitive, experiential
learning
Implied in a statement, Intuitive
Structured Personal Procedural
Fixed content Context sensitive/specific
Context independent Dynamically created Knowledge in heads
Externalized Internalized Internalized
Easily documented Difficult to capture and codify Difficult to capture
Easy to codify Difficult to share Uncodified
Easy to share Has high value
Easily transferred/
taught/learned
Hard to document
Hard to document
Exists in high volumes Hard to transfer/teach/learn
Involves a lot of human interpretation
Examples: A) Explicit knowledge: examples of explicit knowledge are manuals, documents,
procedures, and how-to videos. works of art, product design.
B) Tacit knowledge: Sales is a complex social skill that's fairly difficult to teach. Great salespeople
are commonly described as "naturals" because it's difficult to transfer the skill to others.

Complex social skills such as leadership are difficult to teach. There's no process or training that
can be guaranteed to make you a leader. Leadership extends from experience.
C) Implicit knowledge: examples include learning how to ride a bicycle or how to swim or cook.
Question 7) what is codification? Difference between codification and personalization.
Answer 7) knowledge is codified and stored in databases where it can be accessed and re-use over
and over again by an organization.
Converting “tacit knowledge” into “explicit usable form”
Converting “undocumented” information into “documented” information
• Principles of knowledge codification
– Define strategic intent
– Identify existing knowledge
– Evaluate existing knowledge for usefulness
– Determine medium for codification and distribution
Benefits:
 The more codifiable and teachable a capability is, the higher the risk of rapid transfer
 High level of “Technological competition” and fear of losing tech edge speeds transfer of
capabilities.
 Characteristics of the manufacturing capability do not affect hazard rate.
 Imitation and transfer are not identical phenomena
 Key Employee turnover is significantly associated with faster imitation time.
 It allows the modularization of bodies of knowledge, which facilitates specialization and
allows firms to acquire knowledge at a fixed cost, which in turn facilitates the outsourcing
of activities.
 It directly affects knowledge creation, innovation and economic growth, which has the
potential to alter the rate and direction of knowledge generation and distribution
dramatically.

Codification Personalization
People to Documents People to People
Usually high quality, reliable and fast
information systems are needed
Provide creative, analytically rigorous advice on
high level strategic problems by channeling
individual experience
Typically includes databases of information,
previous presentations and reports.
Knowledge workers use each other as resources
through brain-storming sessions, networking,
one-on-one conversations and team projects
where the focus is on individual knowledge and
experience.
The knowledge workers experience are
stored in documents, either on hard or
electronic copies.
This method is particularly used when
information cannot be codified and stored
electronically
Knowledge is not connected to a specific
person and reused for multiple projects
Knowledge is connected to a specific person
Formalization Communication
Specialization Flexibility
Example – Pizza hut, Dell computers Example – a custom car or bicycle , Boeing
Question 8) suggest any 2 KM maturity model and which one fits well in IT industry?
Answer 8) Model 1: The Capability Maturity Model:
The CMM was developed to describe the phases of software development processes, and the
model was subsequently updated to the Capability Maturity Model Integration in 2000. The
Capability Maturity Model for Software (CMM) is a framework that describes the key elements
of an effective software process. The CMM describes an evolutionary improvement path from an
ad hoc, immature process to a mature, disciplined process. The CMM covers practices for
planning, engineering, and managing software development and maintenance. When followed,
these key practices improve the ability of organizations to meet goals for cost, schedule,
functionality, and product quality. CMM was inspired from principles of Total Quality
Management

The Capability Maturity Model describes five evolutionary levels in which an organization
manages its processes. The five stages of the CMM are as follows:-
a) Initial:
a. Knowledge management is a one-time process
b. There are no formal KM practices within the organization
b) Repeatable:
- The significance of KM is recognized
- KM processes are implemented and tested
c) Defined:
- KM is supported by day-to-day activities
- KM roles are created, defined, and filled
d) Managed:
- Basically, this stage includes everything in the "defined" stage, except that
it is more standardized
- Organization-wide KM practices are defined
- The effectiveness of KM is measured regularly
e) Optimized:
- KM is perfected and mastered
- Flexible to external and internal changes

CMM for IT companies
CMM is a better tool for IT firms as CMM is meant for describing software processes, researchers
have suggested that it can be applied to KM maturity modeling. To the extent that software can
be viewed as a knowledge medium, it is held that CMM can be adapted to the KM context. CMM
is proposed to describe and determine the software engineering and management process maturity
of an organization. Its main purpose is to guide software organizations in progressing along an
evolutionary path from ad-hoc and chaotic software process to matured and disciplined software
process. The model has gained considerable acceptance worldwide and has been regarded by
many as the industry standard for defining software process quality. Like many other concepts
that originated from practice, empirical assessment of CMM by researchers lagged its adoption
in organizations. Nevertheless, its widespread adoption has allowed realistic evaluations to be
conducted and many peer reviewed studies of CMM have provided empirical evidence of its
validity in describing and guiding the development of software organizations. Infosys is one such
company which has designed its KM maturity model based on CMM.
Infosys KM Maturity Model:
Infosys Technologies' KM vision is to become "an organization where every action is fully enabled
by the power of knowledge". As a result, they developed a KM maturity model to help them assess
the maturity level of their KM system. Again, 5 maturity levels are defined, and each level is
characterized by the efficiency of the knowledge life cycle, which consists of Knowledge
Acquisition, Knowledge Dissemination, and Knowledge Reuse.
a) Default:
i. The only way to create organizational knowledge is via formal training
ii. There is no management of knowledge
b) Reactive:
i. Knowledge is only shared when the need arises
c) Aware:
i. A basic KM system is developed and meets business needs
ii. Knowledge-sharing activities are actively encouraged
iii. The benefits of KM are beginning to be realized
d) Convinced:
i. Enterprise-wide KM system has been established
ii. Quality and usage of contents are ensured
iii. Knowledge is recused at a project level
e) Sharing:
i. Knowledge sharing becomes an organizational culture
ii. Organizational boundaries are eliminated

iii. Knowledge processes are continuously improved
MODEL 2: Non-CMM-Based KMMM
5iKM3 KM Maturity Model
The model was developed by Tata Consultancy Services. It is based on the belief that in any
organization, the goal of KM is to transform organizational knowledge into business benefits. In
this model, each maturity level is defined based on how people, process, and technology interact
with each other within the organization and are influenced by the corporate culture.
a) Initial:
No formal processes for effectively combining KM with business delivery
b) Intent:
The potential of KM to help realize business benefits is acknowledged
c) Initiative:
The organization has already integrated KM with its business processes
The benefits and impacts of KM are observed
d) Intelligent:

- Collaboration and sharing in all business processes
- Collective and collaborative organizational intelligence
e) Innovative:
- Knowledge becomes the organization's own asset
- The organization is able to use its knowledge to optimize its business processes and gain a
competitive advantage
Question 9) 1. Distinguish between brainstorming and consensus decision making
2. Protocol analysis and Delphi method
3. Repertory guard and nominal group
4. Black boarding and electronic brain storming
Answer 9) 1. Distinguish between brainstorming and consensus decision making
I. BRAINSTORMING:
Brainstorming is a group decision making process in which negative feedback on any suggested
alternative by any group member is forbidden until all members have presented alternatives that
they perceive as valuable.
Brainstorming is carefully designed to encourage all group members to contribute as many viable
decision alternatives as they can think of.
Its premise is that if the evaluation of alternatives starts before all possible alternatives have been
offered, valuable alternatives may be overlooked.
During brainstorming, group members are encouraged to state their ideas, no matter how wild they
may seem, while an appointed group member records all ideas for discussion.
Brainstorming Rules:
Focus on quantity: This rule is a means of enhancing divergent production, aiming to facilitate
problem solving through the maxim quantity breeds quality.
The assumption is that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of
producing a radical and effective solution.
Withhold criticism: In brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated should be put on hold. Instead,
participants should focus on extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later critical
stage of the process. By suspending judgment, participants will feel free to generate unusual ideas.
II. Consensus decision making :

Consensus is another decision-making rule that groups may use when the goal is to gain support
for an idea or plan of action. While consensus tends to require more time, it may make sense when
support is needed to enact the plan. The process works by discussing the issues at hand, generating
a proposal, calling for consensus, and discussing any concerns. If concerns still exist, the proposal
is modified to accommodate them. These steps are repeated until consensus is reached. Thus, this
decision-making rule is inclusive, participatory, cooperative, and democratic.
Basic Consensus Technique: Agreement Seeking: - A consensus decision making process attempts
to help participants reach as much agreement as possible.
Collaborative: - Participants contribute to a shared proposal and shape it into a decision that meets
the concerns of all group members as much as possible.
Cooperative: - Participants in an effective consensus process should strive to reach the best
possible decision for the group and all of its members, rather than competing for personal
preferences.
Basic Consensus: Egalitarian: - All members of a consensus decision-making body should be
afforded, as much as possible, equal input into the process. All members have the opportunity to
present, and amend proposals.
Inclusive: - As many stakeholders as possible should be involved in the consensus decision-
making process.
Participatory: - The consensus process should actively solicit the input and participation of all
decision-makers
2. Protocol analysis and Delphi method
I. Protocol analysis :
A KM Protocol, which defines the system by which knowledge will be managed in the
project. It defines the roles and accountabilities, the technologies (such as lessons
databases) which will be used, and the processes which will be applied and when they will
be applied as part of the project timeline. The KM protocol for the project will need to
conform to corporate KM standards, and it is quite likely that all projects within a single
business will conform to a similar protocol.
 A method by which the knowledge engineer acquires knowledge from the expert.
 A record or documentation of the expert’s step-by-step information- processing and
decision-making behavior.
 Later transcribed for further analysis called protocol and coded by knowledge Engineer.
 Particularly useful in analyzing dynamic reasoning behavior
II. Delphi Technique: This technique is the modification of the nominal group technique
1. The problem is identified and a sample of experts is selected. These experts are asked to provide
potential solutions through a series of carefully designed questionnaires.

2. Each expert completes and returns the initial questionnaire.
3. The results of the questionnaire are compiled at a central location and the central coordinator
prepares a second questionnaire based on the previous answers.
4. Each member receives a copy of the results along with the second questionnaire.
5. Members are asked to review the results and respond to second questionnaire. The results
typically trigger new solutions or cause changes in the original position.
6. The process is repeated until a consensus is reached.
Suppose there is a problem in a municipality regarding informing residents in different districts. If
the Delphi Technique were to be used for this problem, this municipality would initially appoint a
project leader and gather a group of experts involved in this problem statement. With the Delphi
Method, the experts in the field of communication to citizens are systematically used to address
this problem.
3. Reparatory grid and nominal group
I. Repertory grid: The repertory grid is an interviewing technique which
uses nonparametric factor analysis to determine an idiographic measure of personality. It
was devised by George Kelly in around 1955 and is based on his personal construct
theory of personality.
II. Nominal Group Technique is one of the commonly used consensus methods within
healthcare and medical settings. The technique was first developed as an organizational
planning technique by Delbecq et al. In the 1970s.
The Nominal Group Technique normally involves four main phases:
Phase 1: a nominal phase: - during which each individual silently considers the issues under
deliberation;
Phase 2: an item-generation phase: - during which each individual discloses the results of their
deliberation to the group;
Phase 3: a discussion and clarification phase: - during which the group assures itself that it has
understood the items that have been advanced;
Phase 4: a voting phase: - during which the items are evaluated and the issue is decided (e.g. A
ranking exercise).
Nominal Group Technique promotes individual contributions allowing each individual the
opportunity to voice their opinions. Factors that would normally inhibit participation are therefore
avoided and even the more reticent group members are encouraged to participate in all phases

4. Black boarding and electronic brain storming
 Black boarding :
Bringing a group of experts together in a room to solve a problem using the blackboard as their
work-space. The essence of this technique is the independence of expertise in an atmosphere that
discourage compliance or intimidation.
 Electronic Brainstorming:
In the modern area the group meeting is conducted for brainstorming by using the computers on
some point. This improve the communication between the group members all members easily
feedback their ideas.
Question 10) 1. Rule premise and action
2. Slot and facet
3. Decision table and decision tree
Answer 10)
1. The premise is the yes/no, true/false statement that is to be evaluated; the action is
the event that will occur if the premise is true. Therefore, the premises lead to the
action, making up a production rule or a rule.
2. A slot is the specific object being described in a frame. A facet is the value of the
slot. For example, if the slot is airline, the facet may be united.
3. A decision table is a list of conditions with their respective values matched against
a list of conclusions. A decision tree is a hierarchically arranged semantic network
that is closely related to a decision table. It is composed of nodes that represent
goals and links that represent decisions or outcomes.
Question 11) discuss procedural and declarative knowledge.
Answer 11)
Declarative (conceptual) knowledge Procedural knowledge
 Knowledge rich in relationships and
understanding
 Knowledge of formal language or
symbolic representations
 It is a connected web of knowledge, a
network in which the linking
relationships are as prominent as the
discrete bits of information.
 Knowledge of rules , algorithms and
procedures
 Slow (requires interpretation)  Fast (direct execution)
 May require high level data types  Simple data can be used
 Easy to validate  Hard to debug
 Explicit  Obscure
 Data oriented  Process oriented

 Ability to use knowledge in ways that
the system designer did not foresee
 Extensions are dangerous for stability
 E.g. : democracy, rules of basketball  E.g. : reading a map , editing an essay
Question 12) discuss the road map for designing and implementing KM system?
Answer 12) to grasp the bigger picture, let’s look at the four phases that the 10 steps of the road
map comprise:
1. Infrastructural evaluation
2. KM system analysis, design, and development
3. System deployment
4. ROI and performance evaluation
PHASE 1: INFRASTRUCTURAL EVALUATION
The first phase of the 10-step technique involves two steps. In the first step, you analyze your
existing infrastructure, then identify concrete steps that you can take to leverage and build on your
KM platform. In the second step, you perform a strategic analysis to link KM objectives and
business strategy.
PHASE 1: INFRASTRUCTURAL EVALUATION
Step 1: Analyzing existing infrastructure
Step 1: In this first step, you gain an understanding of various components that constitute the KM
strategy and technology framework. By analyzing and accounting for what is already in place in
your company, you can identify critical gaps in the existing infrastructure. Consequently, you will
be able to build on what already exists. Instead of telling you what components to build on, I will
guide you through the process of making those decisions specifically in the context of your
company. Although leveraging existing infrastructure is the logically, scientifically, rationally,
theoretically, common-sensically, and financially right approach, it also stands a better chance of
generating stronger management support for your KM project because of the perception that you
are not completely abandoning the “old” existing investments.

Step 2: Aligning KM and business strategy
STEP 2: Business strategy is usually at a high level. Developing systems is always at a low level:
Specifications and features are needed, not abstractions or visions. The second step in the 10- step
road map allows you to make the connection between these two: Raise KM platform design to the
level of business strategy and pull strategy down to the level of systems design. As a part of the
process of creating this alignment between KM and business strategy, Chapter 6 describes what
you must do.
PHASE 2: KM SYSTEM ANALYSIS, DESIGN, AND DEVELOPMENT
Step 3: Designing the KM architecture, and integrating existing infrastructure
STEP 3: As the third step toward deploying KM, you must select the infrastructural components
that constitute the KM system architecture. KM systems use a seven-layer architecture, and the
technology required to build each layer is readily available. Integrating these components to create
the KM system model requires thinking in terms of an infrastructure, rather than an infrastructure.
Your first big choice is the collaborative platform. We will reason through the choice of the
preferred collaborative platform to decide whether the Web or a proprietary platform is better
suited for your company. You will also identify and understand components of the collaborative
intelligence layer: artificial intelligence, data warehouses, genetic algorithms, neural networks,
expert reasoning systems, rule bases, and case-based reasoning. You will also examine how newer
developments, such as peer-to-peer platforms, hold promise for corporate KM

Step 4: Auditing and analyzing existing knowledge
Step 4: A KM project must begin with what your company already knows. In the fourth step, you
audit and analyze knowledge, but first you must understand why a knowledge audit is needed.
Then you assemble an audit team representing various organizational units, as described in Chapter
8. This team performs a preliminary assessment of knowledge assets within your company to
identify those that are both critical and weak.
Step 5: Designing the KM team
Step 5: In the fifth step on the KM road map, you form the KM team that will design, build,
implement, and deploy your company’s KM system. To design an effective KM team, you must
identify key stakeholders both within and outside your company; identify sources of expertise that
are needed to design, build, and deploy the system successfully while balancing the technical and
managerial requirements. We examine the issues of correctly sizing the KM team, managing
diverse and often divergent stakeholder expectations, and using techniques for both identifying
critical failure points in such teams.
Step 6: Creating the KM blueprint
Step 6: The KM team identified in Step 5 builds on a KM blueprint that provides a plan for building
and incrementally improving a KM system. As you work toward designing a KM architecture, you
must understand its seven layers specifically in the context of your company and determine how
each of these can be optimized for performance and scalability, as well as high levels of
interoperability. You will also see how to position and scope the KM system to a feasible level
where benefits exceed costs. Finally, you will see ways to future-proof the KM system so that it
does not “run out of gas” when the next wave of fancy technology hits the market. This step
integrates work from all preceding steps so that it culminates in a strategically oriented KM system
design.
Step 7: Developing the KM system
Step 7: Once you have created a blueprint for your KM system (Step 6), the next step is that of
actually putting together a working system. We will tackle the issues of integrating a system across
different layers to build a coherent and stable KM platform.
PHASE 3: DEPLOYMENT
The third phase in the 10-step road map involves the process of deploying the KM system that you
built in the preceding stages. This phase involves two steps:
1. Deployment of the system with a results-driven incremental technique, more commonly known
as the RDI methodology. This step also involves the selection and implementation of a pilot project
to precede the introduction of a full-fledged KM system.
2. Cultural change, revised reward structures, and the choice of using (or not using) a CKO to
make KM produce results. This is perhaps the most important complementary step that is critical
to the acceptance of a KM system in any company.

Step 8: Deploying with results-driven incrementalism (RDI) methodology
Step 8: A large-scale project such as a typical KM system must take into account the actual needs
of its users. Although a cross-functional KM team can help uncover many of these needs, a pilot
deployment is the ultimate reality check. In the eighth step on the KM road map, you must decide
how you can select cumulative releases with the highest payoffs first. You will evaluate the need
for a pilot project; if it is needed, select the right, nontrivial, and representative pilot project. You
will also appreciate scope issues and ways to identify and isolate failure points. Finally, you will
evaluate how to use the RDI methodology to deploy the system, using cumulative results-driven
business releases.
Step 9: Leadership issues
Step 9: The most erroneous assumption that many companies make is that the intrinsic value of an
innovation such as a KM system will lead to its enthusiastic adoption and use. Knowledge sharing
cannot be mandated: Your employees are not like troops, they are like volunteers. Encouraging
use and gaining employee support requires new reward structures that motivate employees to use
the system and contribute to its enthusiastic adoption.
PHASE 4: METRICS FOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Step 10: Real-options analysis of returns and performance
Step 10: The tenth step—measuring ROI—must account for both financial and competitive
impacts of KM on your business. This step guides you through the process of selecting an
appropriate set of metrics and arriving at a lean but powerful composite. We will use the Nobel
Prizewinning real-options approach for analysis. We will also evaluate many ways in which real
options data can be tracked. We also see how successful companies have approached metrics, what
errors they have made in the past, and how you can learn from their mistakes. Being able to
measure returns serves two purposes: It arms you with hard data and dollar figures that you can
use to prove the impact of effective KM, and it lets you refine KM design through subsequent
iterations
Question 13) discuss human and cultural factors in implementing KM systems?
Answer 13) KM is what KM does – for business results and for creating an organizational culture
of uninhibited sharing and replication of Knowledge. KM is a tool to achieve business objectives
better and faster through an integrated set of initiatives, systems and behavioral interventions –
aimed at promoting smooth flow and sharing of knowledge relevant to your business, and
elimination of re-invention.
The Cultural framework for implementation depends on the organizational structure and the flow
of decision-making. The degree of involvement, transparency, shared vision and goals are essential
prerequisites for successful implementation of KMS. Management styles create or limit spaces for
participation, provide psychological support to employees, provide training opportunities for the
employees who are in any case the ultimate users. The cultural context is therefore crucial for
KMS. The level of involvement of employees appears to be an important factor in the

implementation of KMS. It becomes more important in relation to other factors such as
psychological preparedness to implement KMS. As Laumann et al (1991) have noted the opposite
of employee participation would be resistance.
 Organization Culture
One of the most important for KM success, belonging to the people dimension, is to have
a favorable Organization Culture which nourishes the development of KM practice. No matter
even if you have the best technology and other resources which support KM implementation, if
the employees are not willing to share their knowledge that puts the whole KM programme in
jeopardy. So, probably the first step to have a successful KM programme is to create a culture of
mutual trust, which enables knowledge sharing and results in organizational learning. The learning
organization principles of Personal Mastery, Mental Models, Shared Vision, Team Learning and
Systems Thinking forms the much needed foundation for a strong culture which enables the
success of the KMS.
It is suggested that to develop a knowledge management system and achieve its objectives in an
organization requires a corporate culture for changing its activities to knowledge-based, and also
its staff become knowledge-based workers, which means creating a culture of knowledge
management that support knowledge sharing and value creation and encourage its use. According
to Ernst &Yong study, 50 percent of experts believe that changing human behavior is one of the
key issues in the KM implementation (Bhatt, 2001).
Due to the positive relationship between knowledge sharing and culture, it can be said that culture
is the key indicator of knowledge sharing and people have to gain common and unique goal which
can only be attained through participative culture. Creation of knowledge culture is a requirement
for knowledge sharing. Cultural values which affect knowledge sharing are: trust, creativity,
coordination and execution. If an organization is willing to improve these values, it can use
knowledge sharing as the positive force for strengthening the organizational performance.
 Human resource
Individuals inside the organization are denoted as social enablers of knowledge management or
main factors of knowledge creation and distribution. Employees build any organization so they are
crucial for its success. Individuals, who are the end users of system and technology, must have
proper skill and sufficiency, task expertise, attitude, positive thought and sound culture for
acceptance. They are significant since any change or newly introduced technology affects labor
within organization. Importance of individuals in the process of knowledge sharing which must be
triggered for involvement in an activity. This process needs additional time and may have risk of
losing power and position. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate organizational culture and
personal preparedness in accepting innovative and new technologies.
Individuals are regarded as personal contributors who have skills and knowledge roles, motivation
and self-reaction, support, learning/ social networks, dialogues, coordination and innovation. They
create knowledge within the organization and a significant part of the organizational knowledge is
saved in their minds, thus small mutation in their task positions can impose a fundamental effect

on its total performance. Considerable effects on this concept have caused a movement in the
market, from severely worker-based industries toward knowledge-based industries, with increased
educational opportunities. Although the concept of knowledge workers is made for long time, few
organizations have rather defined this role. Individuals should have a 50% concentration in time
and budget of knowledge management.
Individuals within organizations must be usually consistent with organizational culture. Change in
the culture of organization requires change in the attitudes and demolition of the old traditions.
Therefore, human affairs must be considered as main factor inside the organizational changes of
knowledge management. These considerations in the organization have put forward the concept
of knowledge workers. Furthermore, in order to execute knowledge management efficiently,
human resources must contribute to form team of knowledge management, undertake plan of
knowledge management, normalize rules of knowledge management, execute activities of
knowledge management and enhance plan of knowledge management has summarized criteria of
human resources factor which have been noticed in the literature.
Question 14) discuss knowledge economy, knowledge cities and knowledge societies.
Answer 14) Knowledge economy: the knowledge economy is a system of consumption and
production that is based on intellectual capital. The knowledge economy typically represents a
large component of all economic activity in developed countries. In a knowledge economy, a
significant part of a company's value may consist of intangible assets such as the value of its
workers' knowledge (intellectual capital). However, generally accepted
accounting principles (GAAP) do not allow companies to include these assets on balance sheets.
Examples of knowledge economy activities include research, technical support and consulting.
The knowledge economy is also seen as the latest stage of development in global economic
restructuring. Thus far, the developed world has transitioned from an agricultural economy
to industrial economy to post-industrial/mass production economy to knowledge economy. This
latest stage has been marked by the upheavals in technological innovations and the globally
competitive need for innovation with new products and processes that develop from the research
community (i.e., R&D factors, universities, labs, educational institutes).
In the knowledge economy, the specialized labor force is characterized as computer literate and
well-trained in handling data, developing algorithms and simulated models, and innovating on
processes and systems.
Characteristics of a knowledge economy
 Knowledge and information key driver of productivity.
 Growth in high technology investment and industries.
 Growth in knowledge intensive service sectors such as education, communications and
information.
 Knowledge is a non-finite resource. Capital gets used up but knowledge is not limited and can be
shared without losing it. In fact, sharing can help boost overall knowledge.
 Growth in demand for higher skilled labor / University degrees.

 Increased importance of tacit knowledge – the skills and ability to implement codified knowledge.
 Innovation is driven by both producers and users (for example, open source platforms/ customer
feedback) rather than top-down linear systems.
Example of a Knowledge Economy
Academic institutions, companies engaging in research and development, programmers
developing new software and search engines for data and health workers who use digital data to
improve treatments are all examples of components of a knowledge economy. These brokers in an
economy pass on their knowledge and services to workers in more traditional fields. For example,
farmers may use apps and digital solutions to manage the crops on their farm.
Knowledge cities : Many cities around the globe have realized that their performance does not
depend just on the city’s size of population, production facilities and physical infrastructure, but
even more on availability and communication of knowledge and their social and intellectual
capital. Smart cities distinguish themselves from their more technology-laden counterparts, by
successful application of knowledge and technology in a consistent framework, benefiting from
the growing importance of ICT, social and environmental capital, and they are becoming also an
important marketing concept and instrument.
The criteria maintain that not every city at a given moment in time qualifies as a city that eventually
can be transformed into a knowledge city. First, the region must fulfill the more fundamental
requirements such as a modern infrastructure and so on, which implies that the middle-step, a well-
developed city, cannot be overlooked in the progress towards a successful knowledge city. Only
then there is room for further development into such a city, with the following important traits:
research excellence; a provision of access to new communication technologies; an ability to
efficiently generate, attract as well as retain skilled citizens; the existence of civic center that are
open to diversity; and finally, provision of instruments to make knowledge accessible to citizens
Knowledge society: it generates, shares and makes available to all members of
the society knowledge that may be used to improve the human condition. A knowledge society
differs from an information society in that the former serves to transform information into
resources that allow society to take effective action while the latter only creates and disseminates
the raw data. The capacity to gather and analyze information has existed throughout human
history. However, the idea of the present-day knowledge society is based on the vast increase in
data creation and information dissemination that results from the innovation of information
technologies.
Question 15) differentiate between knowledge and information. Discuss the benefits of each.
Answer 15)

BASIS FOR
COMPARISON
INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE
Meaning When the facts obtained are
systematically presented in a given
context it is known as information.
Knowledge refers to the relevant
and objective information gained
through experience.
What is it? Refined data Useful information
Combination of Data and context Information, experience and
intuition
Processing Improves representation Increases consciousness
Outcome Comprehension Understanding
Transfer Easily transferable Requires learning
Reproducibility Can be reproduced. Identical reproduction is not
possible.
Prediction Information alone is not sufficient to
make predictions
Prediction is possible if one possess
required knowledge.
One in other All information need not be
knowledge.
All knowledge is information
Example The price of crude oil has risen from
$70 to $80 per barrel
When crude oil prices go up by $10
per barrel, it's likely that petrol
prices will rise by 2p per liter
Benefits of information:
Benefits of knowledge:
 Improved organizational agility
 Better and faster decision making
 Quicker problem-solving
 Increased rate of innovation
 Supported employee growth and development
 Sharing of specialist expertise
 Better communication
 Improved business processes

Question 16) differentiate between:
1. Fact and rule
2. Knowledge and common sense
3. Experience and heuristics
4. Verification and validation
5. Knowledge developer and system analyst
6. Pupil user and tutor user
7. Projection and avoidance
Answer 16)
1. Fact and rule :
 A fact muststart witha predicate (whichisanatom) and endwitha full stop.The predicate may
be followedbyone ormore argumentswhichare enclosedbyparentheses.The argumentscan
be atoms (inthiscase,these atomsare treatedas constants),numbers,variablesorlists.
Argumentsare separatedbycommas.
 A rule can be viewedasanextensionof afact withaddedconditionsthatalsohave tobe
satisfiedforittobe true.It consistsof two parts.The firstpart issimilartoa fact (a predicate
witharguments).The secondpartconsistsof otherclauses(factsor ruleswhichare separated
by commas) whichmustall be true forthe rule itself tobe true.These twoparts are separated
by ":-".You mayinterpretthisoperatoras"if"in English.
2. Knowledge and common sense :
Common sense is sound and prudent judgment based on a simple perception of the situation or
facts.
Knowledge, defined, is information, understanding, or skill that you get from experience or
education.
BASIS FOR
COMPARISON
KNOWLEDGE COMMON SENSE
Meaning The collection of information and facts about
something or someone by learning and
experience is knowledge.
It is the ability to judge and
make right choices in life.
What is it? Organized information Applied knowledge
Nature Selective Comprehensive
Process Deterministic Non-deterministic
Outcome Understanding Judgement
Approach Theoretical Spiritual

Acquisition It is obtained or learned. It is developed.
Associated with Mind Soul
3. Experience and heuristics :
Experience Heuristics
Experience is the knowledge or mastery of
an event or subject gained through
involvement in or exposure to it.
Heuristic is an adjective for experience-
based techniques that help in problem
solving, learning and discovery. A
heuristic method is used to rapidly come
to a solution that is hoped to be close to the
best possible answer, or 'optimal solution'.
Heuristics are "rules of thumb", educated
guesses, intuitive judgments or simply
common sense.
A person with considerable experience in a
specific field can gain a reputation as
an expert. The concept of experience
generally refers to know-how or procedural
knowledge, rather than propositional
knowledge: on-the-job training rather than
book-learning.
In more precise terms, heuristics stand for
strategies using readily accessible, though
loosely applicable, information to control
problem solving in human beings and
machines
For example, Participants in activities such
as tourism, extreme sports and recreational
drug-use also tend to stress the importance
of experience.
For example, heuristic knowledge can
assist in engine problem diagnosis task
involving a car. In this situation, the
experienced mechanic would rely on his
heuristic knowledge gained through
experience servicing and repairing cars
over the years to perform the diagnosis
4. Verification and validation :
Verification Validation
Verification is the process of evaluating
products of a development phase to find out
whether they meet the specified requirements.
Validation is the process of evaluating software
at the end of the development process to
determine whether software meets the
customer expectations and requirements.

The objective of Verification is to make sure
that the product being develop is as per the
requirements and design specifications.
The objective of Validation is to make sure that
the product actually meet up the user’s
requirements, and check whether the
specifications were correct in the first place.
Following activities are involved
in Verification: Reviews, Meetings and
Inspections.
Following activities are involved in Validation:
Testing like black box testing, white box
testing, gray box testing etc.
Verification is carried out by QA team to
check whether implementation software is as
per specification document or not.
Validation is carried out by testing team.
Verification process explains whether the
outputs are according to inputs or not.
Validation process describes whether the
software is accepted by the user or not.
Verification is carried out before the
Validation.
Validation activity is carried out just after the
Verification.
Following items are evaluated
during Verification: Plans, Requirement
Specifications, Design Specifications, Code,
Test Cases etc.,
Following item is evaluated during Validation:
Actual product or Software under test.
Cost of errors caught in Verification is less
than errors found in Validation.
Cost of errors caught in Validation is more than
errors found in Verification.
It is basically manually checking the of
documents and files like requirement
specifications etc.
It is basically checking of developed program
based on the requirement specifications
documents & files.
5. Knowledge developer and system analyst:
 Knowledge developer :-
Knowledge developer deals with knowledge captured from the people with known
knowledge in the firm’s specific know how of the company to produce future cash flows.
Role of a Knowledge Developer
 The architect of the system
 Job requires excellent communication skills, knowledge capture tools, conceptual thinking,
and a personality that motivates people
 Close contacts with the champion
 Rapport with top management for ongoing support

 System analyst :-
System analyst deals with data and information from the user who in turn relies heavily on
the system analyst for the solution under the conventional information system.
Role of a System Analyst
 Identifying how technology can improve business processes
 Designing the new business processes
 Designing the information system
 Ensuring that the system conforms to information systems standards
6. Pupil user and tutor user :
 A pupil-user is an unskilled worker trying to learn or gain some understanding of
the captured knowledge.
 A tutor-user is a user with a working knowledge of the knowledge management
system and is responsible for system maintenance.
7. Projection and avoidance:
 Projection is resistance to knowledge management system development through
employee display of hostility toward peers.
 Avoidance is resistance to a knowledge management system through employee
withdrawal from the job or scene.
Question 17) what is rapid prototyping and how is it useful in knowledge management?
Answer 17) Rapid prototyping is the spontaneous, on-the-spot, interactive building of a KM
system. It is useful in building the system, because the initial prototype from the knowledge
developer is shown to the expert, expecting the expert to add new ideas or rules. Together, on-
the-spot review and update of the prototype continues until the final system is completed to the
satisfaction of the expert.
Question 18) difference between
1. Transport layer and application layer
2. Usability and portability
3. Profiling and repository
4. Scalability and portability
5. Fault tolerance and integrity
6. Expert system and case based system
Answer 18) differentiate between:

1. Transport layer and application layer
 Transport layer :
 Transport Layer is the third layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of
the Transport layer is between Application layer and Internet layer. The purpose
of Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and destination hosts to carry on
a conversation. Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection
used when transporting data.
 The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 Application layer :
 It is the top most layer of four layer TCP/IP model. Application layer is present on the
top of the Transport layer. Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and
how host programs interface with Transport layer services to use the network.
 Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming
System), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), Telnet, SSH, FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network
Management Protocol).
2. Usability and portability
 Portability: Ability to transport data and insights in and out of the system. Portability
is the ability for your application to run on numerous platforms. This is can include
actual application hosting, viewing, or data portability. Some questions in portability
a) Can the data be migrated to other systems?
b) For web applications, which browsers does your web app support?
c) Which operating systems does your program run on?
 Usability: Ability to use the system to hypothesize, collaborate, analyze, and ultimately
to derive insights from data. Software usability can be described as how effectively end
users can use, learn, or control the system. Some questions to consider in usability.
a) Is there a UI metaphor that I am using to help users adapt? (for example, the ‘desktop’
is a metaphor)
b) Are the most common operations streamlined to be performed quickly?
c) Can new users quickly adapt to the software without help? (Is it intuitive?)
d) Do validation and error messages make sense?
3. Profiling and repository :
 Profiling :

 A user profile is a visual display of personal data associated with a specific user, or
a customized desktop environment. A profile refers therefore to the explicit digital
representation of a person's identity. A user profile can also be considered as the
computer representation of a user model.
 A profile can be used to store the description of the characteristics of person. This
information can be exploited by systems taking into account the persons'
characteristics and preferences.
 Profiling is the process that refers to construction of a profile via the extraction from a
set of data.
 Repository :
 Repository: a facility where things can be deposited for storage or safekeeping.
Synonyms for repository : warehouse ,depository , archive ,vault , magazine ,depot
 Knowledge repository: A knowledge repository is a computerized system that
systematically captures, organizes and categorizes an organization's knowledge. The
repository can be searched and data can be quickly retrieved.
 Knowledge repositories help organizations connect people with information and
expertise globally via online searchable libraries, discussion forums and other
elements.
 They provide a central location to collect, contribute and share digital learning
resources for use in instructional design and content development for both traditional
and non-traditional learning environments.
 The effective knowledge repositories include factual, conceptual, procedural and
meta-cognitive techniques. The key features of knowledge repositories include
communication forums.
4. Scalability and portability :
 Scalability - ability of a system to increase the workload on its current hardware
resources (scale up)
 Portability: Ability to transport data and insights in and out of the system. Portability
is the ability for your application to run on numerous platforms. This is can include
actual application hosting, viewing, or data portability.
5. Fault tolerance and integrity:
 Fault tolerance is the property that enables a system to continue operating properly in
the event of the failure (or one or more faults within) some of its components. If its
operating quality decreases at all, the decrease is proportional to the severity of the
failure, as compared to a naively designed system in which even a small failure can

cause total breakdown. Fault tolerance is particularly sought after in high-
availability or life-critical systems. The ability of maintaining functionality when
portions of a system break down is referred to as graceful degradation.
6. Expert system and case based system
 Expert system
 It is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human
expert Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning through
bodies of knowledge, represented mainly as if–then rules rather than through
conventional procedural code. The first expert systems were created in the 1970s and
then proliferated in the 1980s.Expert systems were among the first truly successful
forms of artificial intelligence
 An expert system is divided into two subsystems: the inference engine and
the knowledge base. The knowledge base represents facts and rules. The inference
engine applies the rules to the known facts to deduce new facts. Inference engines can
also include explanation and debugging abilities
 Case based system
 CBR is a computer technique, which combines the knowledge-based support philosophy
with a simulation of human reasoning when past experience is used, i.e. mentally
searching for similar situations happened in the past and reusing the experience gained
in those situations. The concept of case based reasoning is founded on the idea of using
explicit, documented experiences to solve new problems. The decision-maker uses
previous explicit experiences, called cases, to help him solve a present problem.

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