Basic psychological process, Perception, Factors influencing perception, Characteristics of Perceiver, Attribution theory, Specific applications in organizations, Learning, Theories of learning, using learning concepts for self-management, implications for performance and satisfaction, Remembering, Basic motivational concepts, Theories of motivation, Implications for performance and satisfaction, Operant Conditioning Theory, Cognitive Learning Theory, Social Learning Theory, Types of Memory, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory, Two factor theory, Alderfer’s ERG Theory, McClelland’s Need Theory, Theory X and Process Theories of Motivation, Equity Theory, Expectancy theory, Porter And Lawler Model Of Motivation,Calicut university OB

1. Basic Psychological Process

2. Perception
“The process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environments.”
S. P. Robbins
Meaning
 Perception is the organization, identification, and interpretation of
sensory information in order to represent and understand the
environment.
 It is the process by which an organism detects and interprets
information from the external world by means of the sensory
receptors.

3. Factors Influencing Perception
 Characteristics of Perceiver
 Characteristics of Target
 Characteristics of the Situation

4. Characteristics of Perceiver
• Needs and Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong
influence on their perception. When people are not able to satisfy their needs they are engaged
in wishful thinking which is a way to satisfy their needs not in the real world but imaginary world.
In such cases, people will perceive only those items which suit their wishful thinking.
• Self Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers’ self-concept. An
individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In
contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another
person.
• Attitudes: The attitude and aptitude of employees influence perception formation. If they have
positive attitudes towards the management, they directly perceive the stimuli given by
management. In the case of negative attitudes, the employees suspect the management’s
approach.
• Interests: The interest of individuals draws more attention and recognition to stimuli. Less
attention and recognition lowers the impact of stimuli or objects on behaviour. If employees lack
interest, behaviour pattern will be less effective, and the perception will be weak.

5. • Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking,
also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical
traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to
focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions.
• Expectations: Expectations distort perceptions. People see what they
expect to see. If they see the object and the situation differently from their
expectations, they get frustrated. They are unable to modify their
behaviour. The employees may expect more pay and so they perceive the
management from that angle.
• Experiences: Individuals experiences also influence in molding ones
perception. The experience of employees results in different levels of
perception. A young employee takes time to understand the object and
situation. Experienced employees generally understand objects quickly and
correctly.

6. Characteristics of the Situation
The context at which the incident is occurring can influence the perceptual
process. The physical, social, organizational settings, time etc. can influence
how we interpret the stimuli.
Time: This refers to a person’s subjective experience of the passage of time,
or the perceived duration of events, which can differ significantly between
different individuals and/or in different circumstances.
Work setting: Organisational setting also affects the behaviour of the people.
An organisation setting where people are given an opportunity to interact in
a friendly and sociable work situation, they become more trustworthy and
less defensive.
Social setting: It is that part of perception that allows people to understand
others in their social world.

7. Characteristics of Target
Novelty: Novel or something unique is likely to attract everyone than a familiar one.
Motion: The motion principle says that the people pay more attention toa moving object than the stationary
ones.
Sounds: The louder and frequent is the sound, the greater is the chance of getting attention
Background: What a person observes is dependent on how a central figure is being separated from its
background. This implies that the perceived object or person or event stands out distinct from its background
and occupies the cognitive space of the individual.
Size: The larger the size, the more is the probability that it is perceived. Size attracts the attention of the
individual.
Proximity: People tend to perceive things, which are nearer to each other, as together as group rather than
separately. If four or five members are standing together, we tend to assume that they are belonging to same
group rather than as separately.
Similarity: Persons, objects or events that are similar to each other also tend to be grouped together.
Closure: In many situation, the information what we intend to get may be in bits and pieces and not fully
complete in all respects. However, we tend to fill up the gaps in the missing parts and making it as meaningful
whole. Such mental process of filling up the missing element is called as closure.

8. Attribution Theory
Attribution theory is a psychological construct that deals with individual’s
interpretation of events and how this in turn effects their behaviour,
perception and thinking. A person trying to figure out why another person
acted in a certain manner may attribute one or more causes to that
behaviour.
The attribution theory was first propounded by Heider and then perfected by
Weiner. According to Heider a person can make two attributions:
• Internal attribution, the inference that a person is behaving in a certain
way as a result of his personality
• External attribution, the inference that a person is behaving a certain way
because of the situation in which she is or because the situation demands
it.

9. Specific Applications In Organizations
Employment Interview-During an interview the interviewers make a
perceptual judgement and draw early impressions. As a result information
obtained early in the interview carries greater weight than information
obtained later.
Performance expectation-A manager’s expectation will have a significant
impact on the performance of an employee. If a manager expects a very
good performance from his subordinate and conveys such expectations to
him, that employee will more effort in his work and fulfil the expectation of
his manager.
Performance evaluation-The evaluator forms a general impression of an
employee's work. To the degree that managers use subjective measures in
appraising employees, what the evaluator perceives to be good or bad
employee characteristics or behaviours will significantly influence the
outcome of the appraisal.

10. Employee effort-The level of an employees effort is given high
importance in the organization. An assessment of an individual's effort
is a subjective judgment according to perceptual distortions and bias.
Employee loyalty-Another important judgment that managers make
about employees is whether or not they are loyal to the organization.
The assessment of an employee's loyalty or commitment is highly
judgmental.

11. Learning
Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to
direct and indirect experience. It means change in behavior, attitude
due to education and training, practice and experience. It is completed
by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively permanent.
Factors Affecting Learning
Motivation
Practice
Environment
Mental group

12. Learning Theories in OB
Classical Conditioning theory
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist developed classical conditioning theory.
Classical conditioning can be defined as a process in which a formerly neutral stimulus when paired
with an unconditional stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.
(Luthans 1995)
Unconditioned stimulus/UCS:A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response.
Unconditioned response/UCR: An involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned
stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus/CS: Stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being
paired with the original unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned means learned.
A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response/CR: Learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.

13. • When Pavlov presented one dog with a piece of meat, the dog exhibited a
noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat
and merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate.
• Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the ringing of the bell. After
repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as
soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of
the bell, even if no food was offered.
• In classical conditioning, learning involves a conditioned stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus. Here, the meat was unconditioned stimulus; it invariably
caused the dog to react in a specific way.
• The reaction that took place whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred was
called the unconditioned response. Here, the bell was a conditioned stimulus.
• When the bell was paired with the meat, it eventually produced a response when
presented alone. This is a conditioned response.

14. Operant Conditioning Theory
Operant conditioning theory or model is developed by the psychologist
B.F. Skinner.
Operant Conditioning is concerned primarily with learning as a
consequence of behaviour Response-Stimulus (R-S). In Operant
Conditioning particular response occurs as a consequence of many
stimulus situations.
Operant conditioning argues that one’s behavior will depend on
different situations. People will repeatedly behave in a specific way
from where they will get benefits.
On the other hand, they will try to avoid a behavior from where they
will get nothing.

15. • Skinner trained rats to press a lever to get food. In this experiment, a
hungry rat placed in a box containing a lever attached to some
concealed food.
• At first, the rat ran around the box randomly.
• In this process, it happened to press the lever, and the food dropped
into the box. The dropping of food-reinforced the response of
pressing the lever.
• After repeating the process of pressing the lever followed by dropping
off food many times, the rat learned to press the lever for food.

16. Cognitive Learning Theory
Cognitive mapping theory was established by Edward Tolman (1886-
1959), an American psychologist.
Cognition is the process of acquiring knowledge. Cognitive is the
individual's thought, knowledge, level of understanding and
interpretation of any event, object or person.
This theory states that learning involves a relationship between
cognitive cues (hints about how to choose the right way) and
expectations. Learning is the outcome of thinking and knowing.

17. Tolman conducted an experiment with white rat. He first trained rats to
run in ‘T’maze without providing rewards (food). After trained them, he
served food as rewards.
One day after providing food, the rats are found running faster in this
maze. This showed that rats learnt that there will be food at the end of
race and they used this knowledge in different ways.
This proves that animals have ability to learn things which they can use
later in different ways. This connects cognitive maps in rats.

18. Social Learning Theory
The Social Learning Theory is proposed by Albert Bandura, who believed
that individual learns behavior by observing the others.
Simply, by observing the other person’s behavior, attitude, and the outcome
of that behavior, an individual learns how to behave in a given situation,
depending on the consequences observed.
For example children can easily copy the dancing steps observing their
teacher dancing. This model is more applicable in teaching-learning process
in school and colleges, training and development in organization, etc. This is
popularly known as vicarious learning

19. • According to this model, the individual learning process consists of following
steps:
• Attentional process: Individual need to pay adequate attention to recognize and
understand critical features to learn. Greater the attention on subject matter or
event or person, greater chance of learning is observed.
• Retention process: Retention process is the act of remembering or retaining
information or prior knowledge in learning process. The intensity of retention
affects on learning process.
• Motor reproduction process: Motor reproduction is the process of further
practicing learned behavior. Motor reproduction strengthens and advances the
skills through practice.
• Reinforcement process: Positive rewards reinforce for the positive behavior.
Greater the reinforcement, the reinforced behavior will get more attention,
learned better and performed more frequently.

20. Learning concepts for self management
• Self management means the methods, skills, and strategies by which individuals
can effectively direct their own activities towards the achievement of objectives
and include goal setting, decision making, focusing, planning, scheduling, task
tracking, self evaluation, self intervention and self development.
• Self management may also refer to a form of workplace decision making in which
the employees themselves agree on choices instead of the supervisor telling
workers what to do, how to do it and where to do it, in the traditional way.
• The concept of learning can be used to allow individuals to manage their own
behaviour. In such cases the need for managerial control can be reduced. This is
called self management.
• Self management requires an individual deliberately manipulate stimuli internal
processes and responses to achieve personal behaviour outcomes, the basic
process involve on serving one’s own behaviour, compare the behaviour with the
standard and regarding oneself if the behaviour meets the standard,

21. Implications for performance and satisfaction
• In many organisations, performance management is based on principles of self
management.
• In such situations employees themselves set personal goal of performance and
identify performance measurement techniques. In such a way, they learn how to
self monitor their performance to establish whether individual and organisational
goals is being achieved.
• Individuals are self managing when they accept a high degree of responsibility
for their work and for making decisions on their won. Employees are encouraged
to do this on the assumption that if selection and training has been appropriate,
individuals know best how to perform their jobs and are qualified to make
decisions about how those jobs are performed.
• Self management models encourage training and development of employees
who act as their own bosses by individually and independently solving their own
problems.

22. • Job satisfaction has been identified as a positive outcome of self-managing
activity because it gratifies demands for interesting and challenging work
and the desire for self-control.
• Promoting individual self management will enrich employees' job
situations and offer them many opportunities for growth and satisfaction.
• Self managing activities reduce obstacles by empowering individuals with
greater decision-making authority. Individuals who are rated high on self
management will likely perceive bureaucracy, lack of authority and lack of
support as small problems than those lower on self management.
• In an organisation promoting self management would also generate
opportunities for upward mobility and less resistance to change.
• self management can substantially benefit team performance, teamwork
effectiveness and employee attitudes.

23. Remembering/Memory
Memory is the ability to encode, store and recall information.
Stages of Memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

24. Encoding: When information comes into our memory system (from
sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can
cope with, so that it can be stored. This process of receiving,
processing, and combining information is called encoding.
Storage: The creation of a permanent record of the encoded
information. Storage is the second memory stage or process in which
we maintain information over periods of time.
Retrieval: This refers to getting information out storage. Retrieval is the
reproduction of the encoded message as and when required using the
process of remembering.

25. Types of Memory
• Sensory memory: Sensory memory processes information from the
environment and holds it for a brief period of time, generally for no longer
than a second. This memory retains impressions of sensory information
after the original stimulus has stopped.
• Short-term memory:It is also known as working memory. Information in
short term memory is not stored permanently. It holds only a few items
(research shows a range of 7 +/- 2 items) and only lasts for about 20-40
seconds.
• Long-term memory: Long-term memories are all the memories we hold for
longer periods . Long-term memory has an incredibly vast storage capacity,
and some memories can last from the time they are created until we die.

26. Motivation
“Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do their work
through the possibility of gain or reward”. Edwin B. Flippo
Motivation can also be defined as "The processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward achieving a
goal”.
Key elements of motivation
Intensity: How hard a person tries
Direction: Toward a beneficial goal
Persistence: How long a person tries

27. Concepts of Motivation
• Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest
or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather
than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic motivation can be
long-lasting and self-sustaining. For example self generated factors
(responsibility, freedom to act, scope to use and develop skills and
abilities, interesting and challenging work, opportunities for
advancement)
• Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common
extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and grades, coercion
and threat of punishment. Competition is in general extrinsic because
it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the
intrinsic rewards of the activity.

28. Theories of Motivation
1.Content theories of Motivation
The content approach to motivation focuses on the assumption that
individuals are motivated by the desire to fulfil inner needs. Content
theories focus on the needs that motivate people.
a) Maslow’s need hierarchy theory
This theory was propounded by Abraham Harold Maslow. In this
regard, Abraham Maslow developed a model in which basic, low-level
needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied
before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. In this
hierarchical model, when a need is mostly satisfied it no longer
motivates and the next higher need takes its place.

29. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-
Actualization
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs

30. Hierarchy of Needs
• Physiological -includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs
• Safety-includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm
• Social-includes affection, belongingness acceptance, and friendship
• Esteem-includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy,
and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition,
and attention
• Self-actualization-the drive to become what one is capable of becoming;
includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment

31. Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory/Two
factor theory
Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory or
the motivator-hygiene theory.
According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction
while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction.
Herzberg says the opposite of Satisfaction is No satisfaction and the opposite
of Dissatisfaction is No Dissatisfaction.
The two factors are:
Motivators – factors that really motivate people, also called satisfiers,
provide intrinsic motivation.
Hygiene factors – dissatisfiers; their absence would demotivate people, but
their presence not necessarily improves motivation; essentially describe the
environment, little effect on positive job attitudes

32. Herzberg’s Motivational And Hygiene Factors
Hygiene: Job Dissatisfaction Motivators: Job Satisfaction
Company policy&Administration Achievement
Supervision Recognition
Interpersonal Relations Work itself
Working Conditions Responsibility
Salary Advancement
Status Growth
Security

33. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
ERG theory condenses Maslow's five human needs into three categories:
Existence, Relatedness and Growth.
1. Existence Needs: Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food,
water, air, clothing, safety, physical love and affection). Maslow's first two
levels.
2. Relatedness Needs: Encompass social and external esteem; relationships
with significant others like family, friends, co-workers and employers. This
also means to be recognized and feel secure as part of a group or family.
Maslow's third and fourth levels.
3. Growth Needs :Internal esteem and self actualization; these impel a
person to make creative or productive effects on himself and the
environment.
Here more than one level of needs can be relevant at the same time.

34. McClelland’s Need Theory
David McClelland built on this work in his 1961 book, "The Achieving Society" .
He identified three motivators that he believed we all have: a need for
achievement, a need for affiliation, and a need for power. People will have different
characteristics depending on their dominant motivator.
• Need for achievement (n-ach) - need to achieve something, people have the
need to prove something, to overtake others, and they seek recognition
• Need for power (authority) (n-pow) - need for power, these people have a need
to dominate, influence others and have power over them
• Need for affiliation (n-affil) - need to belong to somewhere, people have a need
to be part of something or some social group and want to develop relationships
and desire a friendship
• Everyone has all three needs. It only depends on his internal priorities, which
need prevails.

35. Theory X and Theory Y
The Theory X and Theory Y are the theories of motivation given by Douglas McGregor in 1960’s. These theories
are based on the premise that management has to assemble all the factors of production, including human
beings, to get the work done.
Theory X: Theory X relies on the authoritarian style of management, where the managers are required to give
instructions and keep a close check on each employee. As it is assumed, the employees are not motivated, and
they dislike working. This theory is based on the following assumptions:
• The employee is lazy and dislikes work.
• He is not ambitious and dislikes responsibility and therefore prefers to be led.
• The employee is self-centered and indifferent towards the organizational interest.
• Management is responsible for assembling all the factors of production, Viz. Money, material, equipment,
people.
• The managers are required to control his employees, manage their efforts, motivate them, modify their
behavior to comply with the organizational needs.
• The management must intervene to keep the employees working towards the economic ends. The
employees must be persuaded, rewarded, motivated, punished, controlled to get the work completed

36. • Theory Y: Theory Y relies on the participative style of management, where the managers
assume that the employees are self-directed and self- motivated to accomplish the
organizational objectives. Thus, here the management attempts to get the maximum
output with least efforts on their part. Following are the assumptions of Theory Y:
• The average human being does not inherently dislike work, they are creative and self-
motivated and likes to work with greater responsibilities.
• Employees are self-directed and self-controlled and therefore the threat of punishment
is not only the means for getting the desired results.
• The extent to which an employee is committed to objectives is determined by the
rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant rewards in this context
could be the satisfaction of the ego and the fulfillment of self-actualization needs.
• The average human being is ambitious and is ready to take responsibilities. He likes to
lead rather than to be led by others.
• The employees exercise a relatively high degree of imagination and creativity in solving
the complex organizational problems.

37. Process Theories of Motivation
Whereas the content theories concentrate on the question of 'what'
motivates, the process theories address more the issues relating to
how the process works and sustains itself over time, such as factors
that determine the degree of effort, the continuation of effort, the
modification of effort, etc.
As with content theory, there are a number of process theories. These
include:
1.Equity theory
2.Expectancy theory
3.The Porter-Lawler Model

38. Equity Theory
John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioural psychologist, put forward the
Equity Theory.
Equity theory is based on a principle that peoples' actions and motivations are
guided by fairness and that discrepancies in this fairness in the workplace will spur
them to try and redress it.
Adams suggested that employees try to maintain a balance between what they give
to an organisation against what they receive, and base satisfaction with their own
balance on perceptions of the same balance in colleagues.
The 'inputs,' or what the employee gives to an organisation, can be broken down to
many metrics including time, loyalty, effort, tolerance, flexibility, enthusiasm,
personal sacrifice, skill and trust in superiors. Outcomes include 'hard' factors, such
as salary, job security and employee benefits, but extend to less tangible aspects
such as praise, sense of achievement, praise and reputation.

39. Expectancy theory
The expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom of Yale School of
Management in 1964. Vroom stresses and focuses on outcomes. The
theory states that the intensity of a tendency to perform in a particular
manner is dependent on the intensity of an expectation that the
performance will be followed by a definite outcome and on the appeal
of the outcome to the individual.
The Expectancy theory states that employee’s motivation is an
outcome of how much an individual wants a reward (Valence), the
assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected
performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead
to reward (Instrumentality).

40. Porter And Lawler Model Of Motivation
Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a comprehensive theory of
motivation, combining the various aspects. Porter and Lawler's model is a more
complete model of motivation. This model has been practically applied also in their
study of managers. This is a multivariate model which explains the relationship that
exists between job attitudes and job performance.
This model is based on four basic assumptions about human behaviour :
(i) As mentioned above, it is a multivariate model. According to this model,
individual behaviour is determined by a combination of factors in the individual and
in the environment.
(ii) Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who make conscious
decisions about their behaviour in the organizations.
(iii) Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.
(iv) On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide between alternative
behaviours and such decided behaviour will read to a desired outcome.

41. Various Elements of Porter and Lawler Model
1. Effort : Effort refers to the amount of energy an employee exerts on a given
task. How much effort an employee will put in a task is determined by two
factors: (i) value of reward and (ii) perception of effort-reward probability.
2. 2. Performance : One's effort leads to his/her performance. Both may be equal
or may not be. However, the amount of performance is determined by the
amount of labour and the ability and role perception of the employee. Thus, if
an employee possesses less ability and/or makes wrong role perception,
his/her performance may be low in spite of his great efforts.
3. Satisfaction : Performance leads to satisfaction. The level of satisfaction
depends upon the amount of rewards achieved. If the amount of actual
rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the employee will feel
satisfied. On the contrary, if actual rewards fall short of perceived ones, he/she
will be dissatisfied.

42. Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by B.F. Skinner and
his associates. It states that individual’s behavior is a function of its
consequences.
It is based on “law of effect”-this law of effect is the idea that behaviors
are selected by their consequences, i.e., individual’s behavior with
positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s behavior
with negative consequences tends not to be repeated.
This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for
individual’s behavior. However, it does not focus on the causes of
individual’s behavior.