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Studies in Continuing Education
ISSN: 0158-037X (Print) 1470-126X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/csce20
An online critical thinking course reduces
misconceptions in the knowledge of personal
trainers
Daniel Jolley, Melissa Davis, Andrew P. Lavender & Lynne Roberts
To cite this article: Daniel Jolley, Melissa Davis, Andrew P. Lavender & Lynne Roberts (2020):
An online critical thinking course reduces misconceptions in the knowledge of personal trainers,
Studies in Continuing Education, DOI: 10.1080/0158037X.2020.1738373
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2020.1738373
Published online: 25 Mar 2020.
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2. An online critical thinking course reduces misconceptions in
the knowledge of personal trainers
Daniel Jolley a
, Melissa Davisb
, Andrew P. Lavenderc
and Lynne Roberts a
*
a
School of Psychology, Curtin University, Perth, Australia; b
School of Arts and Humanities, Edith Cowan
University, Perth, Australia; c
School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
ABSTRACT
Personal trainers are a popular source of exercise guidance for the
public but have been shown to have fundamental errors in their
knowledge, and hold misconceptions about some exercise and
nutritional concepts. Critical thinking skills have been found to
relate inversely to misconceptions in other populations but this
has not been examined in personal trainers. This study assessed
the impact of an online, domain-specific, critical thinking course
on the misconceptions and critical thinking ability (CTA) of
personal trainers. One hundred and twenty-five participants were
recruited into a randomised control trial. Participants completed
measures of knowledge, misconceptions, CTA, and their use and
perceived trustworthiness of sources of information about
exercise and nutrition, then were allocated to either an
intervention or control group. The intervention group completed
the course over six weeks, while the control group waited six
weeks before being surveyed again. Participants showed reduced
endorsement of misconceptions and increased trust in reliable
sources after completing the intervention. CTA improved in both
the intervention and control groups. These results provide
evidence that targeting critical thinking skills tailored to relevant
content may contribute positively to the professional
development of personal trainers.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 25 July 2019
Accepted 1 March 2020
KEYWORDS
personal trainers; critical
thinking; knowledge;
professional development
Introduction
Personal trainers are a readily accessible source of exercise advice and guidance for the
Australian public. There are more than 27 000 people working as fitness professionals
(Fitness Australia 2016), and approximately 15 000 graduates of vocational fitness qualifi-
cations annually (Australian Industry & Skills Committee 2019). And while significant
benefits can be derived from employing the services of a personal trainer, such as
higher exercise intensities during training sessions (Ratamess et al. 2008), and improved
exercise adherence (Jeffery et al. 1998) personal trainers have been shown to lack funda-
mental knowledge of exercise and nutrition (Malek et al. 2002; Zenko and Ekkekakis
2015), and have limited critical thinking skills to be able to identify gaps in their knowl-
edge, and correct persistent misconceptions (Jolley, Davis and Lavender in press). In this
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
CONTACT Melissa Davis melissa.davis@ecu.edu.au 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, Western Australia, 6027
*An online critical thinking course reduces misconceptions in the knowledge of personal trainers
STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2020.1738373

3. paper we examine whether domain-specific, online instruction in critical thinking has an
impact on the knowledge, misconceptions, or critical thinking ability of personal trainers.
We begin by examining the knowledge and professional practice of personal trainers, then
the potential for misconceptions to exist. We then explore previous research in the correc-
tion of misconceptions, before presenting new research, which is the first known attempt
to improve critical thinking skills in personal trainers.
In addition to providing exercise advice and supervision for low risk clients, personal
trainers are qualified to provide basic nutrition advice consistent with nationally endorsed
guidelines, and assistance in goal setting and maintaining motivation to exercise (Fitness
Australia 2014). However, it has been repeatedly identified that personal trainers do not
limit their practice to the scope of their qualification. Gavin (1996) identified that many
trainers perceive their role to be more holistic than just physical activity, involving signifi-
cant psychological aspects. De Lyon and Cushion (2013) identified that personal trainers
did not feel restricted by the content of their education and may practice in a way that is
different to the competencies they were assessed on during training. While a scope of prac-
tice (Fitness Australia 2014) attempts to clearly define the role of personal trainers,
McKean et al. (2015) identified that the majority of personal trainers exceeded this
scope of practice in the provision of nutritional advice.
Additionally, De Lyon and Cushion (2013) identified that personal trainers considered
on-the-job training and industry experience very important, but thought that formal qua-
lifications were of limited relevance. Personal trainers have been found to participate in
varied (but typically minimal) amounts of continuing professional development after
attaining their qualification (Kruseman, Misarez, and Kayser 2008; McKean et al. 2015),
and the industry experience relied on as a substitute for formal learning is not a reliable
indicator of the knowledge of personal trainers (Malek et al. 2002). Given evidence that
personal trainers do not value continuing education highly, and may not feel bound by
their scope of practice in restricting their advice to clients, there is the potential for the
knowledge required for their professional practice to be incomplete.
Further to this, the knowledge of personal trainers has been found to be lacking in some
key areas. Both Malek et al. (2002) and Zenko and Ekkekakis (2015) found that US per-
sonal trainers scored poorly when assessed on their exercise knowledge, and McKean et al.
(2019) found that Australian personal trainers did not have greater knowledge than the
general public when assessed on dietary guidelines, healthy food choices, or diet-disease
relationships. Personal trainers are, however, typically confident in their ability to
provide advice (Barnes, Desbrow, and Ball 2016; Zenko and Ekkekakis 2015).
Given the body of evidence showing the limitations of the knowledge of personal trai-
ners, combined with high levels of professional confidence and low perceived value of
formal training and professional development, there is the potential for misconceptions
to exist in this body of knowledge. Misconceptions are persistent, incorrect explanations
for a topic not consistent with established science, that could potentially resist correction
(Badenhorst et al. 2015). They are usually naïve alternative explanations, either lacking
detail, or explaining a complex system using an incorrect process (Chi 2005). Educators
have proposed that misconceptions may develop when students rely on an overly simplis-
tic explanation of complex phenomena (Jolley, Davis, and Lavender 2019; Badenhorst
et al. 2015; Michael 2007).
2 D. JOLLEY ET AL.

4. Misconceptions in students and exercise professionals
Jolley, Davis, and Lavender (2019) found that lecturers in both university and vocational
education (VET) observed misconceptions in their students, and proposed that these came
from popular media sources prior to entering their course. Other research has confirmed
that misconceptions are common in university exercise science students (Morton, Doran,
and Maclaren 2008; Richardson, Fister, and Ramlo 2015), and that they resist correction.
For example, Richardson, Fister, and Ramlo (2015) identified that students maintained a
reluctance to accept surgical weight loss interventions, despite course content and research
evidence demonstrating their effectiveness.
These misconceptions could persist into professional practice. Jolley et al. (in press)
identified that while misconceptions in VET students preparing to be personal trainers
were reduced as a result of their course, practicing personal trainers did not differ from
graduating students in the number of misconceptions they possessed. This suggests that
time spent in professional practice is not useful in reducing misconceptions, consistent
with previous research showing that length of practice also does not lead to greater knowl-
edge (Malek et al. 2002; Zenko and Ekkekakis 2015).
In the absence of formal, ongoing education, choices of professional development
courses, and self-directed learning, become more important. While personal trainers inter-
viewed by De Lyon and Cushion (2013) considered themselves capable of judging the
quality of information, Stacey et al. (2010) identified that personal trainers expressed
difficulty in this. And consistent with difficulties in these judgements, Bennie et al.
(2017) identified that only half of personal trainers used high quality sources of infor-
mation. It is possible that without exposure to reliable sources, misunderstood information
can lead to an incorrect mental model persisting to become a misconception. These have
the potential to be passed on to other trainers and clients, leading to poorer exercise and
nutrition choices, influencing health outcomes that result from these choices.
Correcting misconceptions
Research is yet to examine how to correct misconceptions in personal trainers, and
improve the decisions that personal trainers make around sources of information. As
the direct correction of a person’s knowledge has been shown to be ineffective in other
contexts (Lewandowsky et al. 2012), it is necessary to explore other approaches.
It has been shown that active learning approaches are effective in learning physiology,
and specifically in correcting misconceptions. Success has also been demonstrated using
problem-based learning approaches in medical students (Ahopelto et al. 2011), and in
designing and conducting laboratory tasks in exercise physiology students (Nybo and
May 2015). However, these approaches may not be practicable in professional develop-
ment settings, with time and equipment limitations.
A key component of these active learning tasks is critical thinking skills, including the
ability to present evidence in support of ideas, engage in critical discussion with others on
these ideas, and modify opinions as evidence changes or counterarguments are presented
(Pithers and Soden 2000). This can extend to ‘inquiry strategies’ (Kuhn 1999), which may
include searching for, and assessing the quality of, new information, and it’s possible that
these skills can be taught explicitly in order to correct misconceptions.
STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 3

5. Employers in a range of industries are increasingly looking for these critical thinking
skills in new employees, as part of a suite of generic ‘soft’ skills (Jackson and Chapman
2012). These soft skills have previously been identified as desired by employers in the
fitness industry (Lloyd 2008), but recent evidence is lacking. While Fong et al. (2017)
identified in a meta-analysis on the topic that critical thinking ability was associated
with academic success in US community college students, it appears as if these skills
are not improved during the course of a vocational education (Jolley et al., in press).
Although a stated goal of qualifications within the Australian Qualifications Framework
(AQF) is to prepare students for further learning (AQF Council 2013), lower qualification
levels do not require students to demonstrate critical thinking skills. As VET in Australia is
competency-based, students are assessed against industry specific outcomes (Gonczi and
Hager 2010), thus it is theirability tocompletea seriesof tasks,rather thantheir understand-
ing of key concepts, that is assessed. It is unsurprising, therefore, that critical thinking ability
has been shown to not change during a vocational fitness qualification (Jolley et al., in press),
though other research which assesses critical thinking ability in these students is lacking.
Further challenges exist in preparing VET trainers to teach critical thinking skills.
Tiruneh, Verburgh, and Elen (2014) identified that instructors need to be skilled in critical
thinking in order to improve student outcomes in critical thinking. As the majority of VET
trainers are themselves vocationally trained, and have usually spent significant time in
industry (Robertson 2008), it cannot be assumed they have spent significant time in
higher education, where these skills have been shown to develop (e.g. Hughes et al.
2015). Offering this type of professional development directly to personal trainers may
be a more effective approach.
Sufficient content knowledge is required to analyse an argument adequately, so critical
thinking is usually considered to be a context specific skill (Abrami et al. 2008). For that
reason, content specific to the domain of learning has been shown to be effective (Abrami
et al. 2015; Tiruneh, Verburgh, and Elen 2014). Additionally, explicit instruction is more
effective than implicit instruction in critical thinking (Marin and Halpern 2011). It is poss-
ible therefore that an explicit, domain-specific approach to teaching critical thinking skills
will be effective in improving these skills in personal trainers.
Objectives
Given the demonstrated shortcomings in the knowledge of personal trainers, and the lack
of adequate ongoing, formal education to support their professional development, explicit
instruction in critical thinking may allow personal trainers to make better choices of
sources of information and continuing professional development activities. This may
result in personal trainers holding fewer misconceptions, improving evidence-based prac-
tice, and disseminating more accurate information to clients.
The aim of this study was therefore to assess the impact of an online, domain specific,
critical thinking intervention on the presence of misconceptions, knowledge, and critical
thinking ability of personal trainers. An additional aim was to assess any changes in the
sources of exercise and nutrition information used to inform professional practice, and
the trust of these sources, as a result of this intervention.
It is hypothesised that personal trainers who complete an online, domain-specific criti-
cal thinking course will possess fewer misconceptions than a control group that does not
4 D. JOLLEY ET AL.

6. complete the course. It is further hypothesised that their critical thinking ability will
improve, as will their trust in reliable sources of information, while trust in unreliable
sources of information will decrease.
Materials and methods
Design
This was a randomised control trial assessing the effectiveness of an online, domain-
specific intervention for improving critical thinking skills. Participants were allocated to
either an Intervention (INT) or Control (CON) group, in order to allow for comparison
of the critical thinking intervention to the effect of time.
Participants
Personal trainers with a minimum qualification of a Certificate IV were recruited via a
promotional campaign by the peak body (Fitness Australia). Three hundred and
seventy-eight inquiries were received, with 180 participants recruited to participate. Par-
ticipants completing all aspects of the intervention received a completion certificate and
five Continuing Education Credits (CECs), which is 25% of their required professional
development in a two-year registration period. All participants were volunteers and
accessed the intervention free of charge.
The flow of participants through the study is displayed in Figure 1. Ninety participants
were allocated to each group. Due to attrition only 81 participants from the intervention
group commenced the intervention, with 45 completing the intervention and post-inter-
vention survey.
The demographic characteristics of those who completed the requirements of each
group are shown in Table 1. Independent samples t-tests revealed that there were no
differences between groups in age (t(123) = 1.02, 95% CI [−2.10, 6.58], p = .31), highest
educational achievement (t(123) = 1.13, 95% CI [−0.29, 1.06], p = .26), exercise education
level (t(123) = −0.52, 95% CI [−0.47, 0.27], p = .60), or years of industry experience (t
(123) = 0.82, 95% CI [−1.66, 4.00], p = .42). Women were over-represented in both
groups, with this over-representation consistent with participants in previous fitness
industry research (Barnes, Desbrow, and Ball 2016), and with fitness industry demo-
graphic information provided by the peak body (Fitness Australia 2016).
Power analyses using G*Power 3.1 (Faul et al. 2007) determined that sample sizes of 41
and 42 were required to yield an actual power of .8 for a paired samples t-test to assess
differences in the participant group pre- and post-intervention, and an independent
samples t-test to assess differences between the intervention and control groups respect-
ively. This was based on estimated effected sizes of 0.45 and 0.92 reported by Blessing
and Blessing (2010).
Materials
The Exercise Science Knowledge Survey (ESKS; Jolley et al., in press) was used to assess
participants’ knowledge of basic exercise and nutrition concepts, and their endorsement
STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 5

7. of common misconceptions. This survey consists of 20 statements related to exercise and
nutrition, 10 of which are misconceptions, and 10 are factual statements identifying the
correct understanding of each topic. An example misconception is ‘if a part of your
body is exercised hard, you will lose body fat from that area. For example, stomach
crunches will help to flatten your stomach.’ However, body fat metabolism is a global,
rather than a local process, and responds to energy demands, rather than any specific exer-
cise (Whitney et al. 2011). Therefore the corresponding factual statement is ‘fat metab-
olism is not a local process. You can’t pick where you lose body fat from by exercising
specific parts of the body.’
The ESKS produces a Knowledge (KNOW), and a Misconceptions (MISC) score, which is
the sum of the number of items participants agreed with in each subscale (scores range
Figure 1. Attrition of participants in the intervention and control groups.
Table 1. Mean (SD) group demographic characteristics, for intervention (n = 45) and control (n = 80)
groups.
Intervention Control
Gender Male 9 (20%) 28 (35%)
Female 36 (80%) 52 (65%)
Age in years 41.69 (11.75) 39.45 (11.79)
Highest educational achievement (AQF level) 6.07 (1.75) 5.68 (1.86)
Industry experience (years) 8.78 (9.28) 7.61 (6.62)
Exercise AQF level 4.40 (0.99) 4.43 (1.03)
6 D. JOLLEY ET AL.

8. between 0 and 10). A higher score in each represented better knowledge (KNOW), or the
endorsement of more misconceptions (MISC). The reliability of these subscales is not
reported,asthisisnotconsideredappropriatewhenknowledgeisbeingassessed(Taber2018).
Critical thinking ability was assessed using Frederick’s (2005) three-item Cognitive
Reflection Test (CRT). These items are mental arithmetic tasks that have deliberative,
accurate answers that are usually obtained only after first considering an incorrect, intui-
tive answer. An example of these items is ‘A bat and a ball cost $1.10. The bat costs $1.00
more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?’, with the correct answer being 5 cents,
rather than the intuitive response of 10 cents. Responses are coded as either correct (1) or
incorrect (0), and a total score out of three recorded, with higher scores representing
higher critical thinking ability. A moderate Cronbach’s reliability was observed in the
present sample (α = .70), consistent with previous use of this measure (e.g. Liberali et al.
2012). This test has previously been shown to predict performance in tests of bias and
heuristics (Toplak, West, and Stanovich 2011), and a range of other cognitive skills
(Oechssler, Roider, and Schmitz 2009; Pennycook et al. 2012) which make up critical
thinking ability. The ubiquity of the items in the CRT mean some participants may
have prior exposure to these items, though this has been shown to have minimal effect
on test scores (Meyer, Zhou, and Frederick 2018).
Demographic information, including age, gender, highest prior educational achieve-
ment (AQF level), length of time worked in the fitness industry, and highest exercise qua-
lification (exercise AQF level) were also collected.
Participants also identified what sources of exercise or nutrition information they had
accessed in the previous 12 months, from a list of source of varying reliability (such as text-
books, exercise professionals as examples of reliable sources, and friends, family, and social
media considered unreliable). They then rated the trustworthiness of each source (regard-
less of whether or not they accessed this source) on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = not
at all trustworthy, 5 = very trustworthy).
Procedure
Ethics approval was granted by the Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee,
and informed consent to participate in the research was obtained from all participants.
Once informed consent was gained, participants were provided a link to complete the
initial survey. After completing the initial survey participants were assigned to either
the intervention, or control group, using block randomisation. Participants were not
given feedback about their survey performance.
Participants in the intervention group were given access to the intervention and had six
weeks to complete all activities. At the conclusion of the intervention, a post-intervention
survey was completed. Following this a completion certificate was issued to each partici-
pant and five CECs awarded. Participants in the control group were not given access to the
intervention and repeated the survey after a six-week delay.
Critical thinking intervention
The intervention was designed by the first author to provide explicit, domain-specific criti-
cal thinking instruction to personal trainers. It consisted of eight modules, each taking an
STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 7

9. average of 90 min to complete. Consistent with best practice for e-learning instructional
design (Crawford-Ferre and Wiest 2012; Newlin and Wang 2002; Walker 2006),
content was presented in a range of formats, including written resources, videos, and
links to extra reading. There was also a discussion forum provided, and interaction
between students was encouraged. The course instructor (the first author) was highly
active in the course, answering questions and providing feedback on work within 24 h
in most cases.
Modules covered argument structure, counter arguments and fallacious arguments,
cognitive biases, confidence and expertise, the scientific method, and how to find and
identify evidence-based information. Each module also included activities to reinforce
learning. Modules concluded with a reflection activity designed to enhance critical think-
ing skills (modified from Dietz-Uhler and Lanter 2009), requiring participants to identify
the key points of each module, how they could apply these to their professional practice,
and identify areas for future learning. Each module was released after participants satisfac-
torily completed activities in the prior module, and demonstrated adequate understanding
in the reflection activity. Participants were provided with feedback before having a second
attempt at activities they did not complete adequately on the first attempt.
Data analysis
Differences in Knowledge, Misconceptions, and critical thinking ability from initial to
post-intervention, and initial to post-delay, were examined using paired samples t-tests.
Differences between groups were examined using independent samples t-tests. Cohen’s
d effect sizes were calculated to assess practical significance of t-test results.
Sources of information were combined into four categories for analysis consistent with
previous research (Jolley et al., in press; Bennie et al. 2017). These categories were reliable
sources (e.g. textbooks, and public health promotion campaigns), sources of mixed and
unknown reliability (e.g. friends, social media, and alternative health practitioners), exer-
cise and nutrition professionals (e.g. degree qualified professionals, personal trainers, and
physiotherapists), and other health professionals (e.g. general practitioners, and pharma-
cists). Chi-square tests for independence was used to examine differences between the
intervention and control groups in the sources of information used. Cramér’s V was
used to measure the strength of the association between participants’ group, and the
use of sources. McNemar’s test was used to assess changes in the use of sources within
groups. Differences between groups in trust measurements were examined using indepen-
dent samples t-test, and within groups using a paired samples t-test.
Significance for all tests was accepted at p < .05, except where stated.
Results
Of the 90 participants allocated to the control group, 80 completed the post-delay survey.
Forty-five participants completed the intervention. Initial survey results were examined to
explore differences between those who completed the study, and those who did not. Par-
ticipants who completed the intervention were older than those that did not (42.06 ± 12.03
compared to 38.27 ± 11.61, t(178) = 2.15, 95% CI [0.31, 7.28], p = .03), and had achieved
higher AQF levels (6.19 ± 1.90 compared to 5.34 ± 1.6, t(156.84) = 3.19, 95% CI [0.32,
8 D. JOLLEY ET AL.

10. 1.37], p = .002). There were no differences in Knowledge, Misconceptions, or critical
thinking ability.
For those completing the intervention critical thinking ability, Knowledge and Miscon-
ceptions scores, and the use and trust of sources of information are shown in Table 2.
There were no initial differences between groups on any of these measures.
Critical thinking, misconceptions, and knowledge
Critical thinking ability, and Knowledge and Misconception scores for both groups pre-
and post-intervention are shown in Table 3. Following the intervention, critical thinking
ability significantly increased, and Misconceptions significantly decreased, with small
effect sizes for both. There was no significant change in Knowledge scores. There was a
small increase in critical thinking ability demonstrated in the control group.
A mixed-model ANOVA was used to assess the impact of participants’ group on the
change in critical thinking ability. A significant main effect for time was observed (F (1,
123) = 12.94, p = .00, partial η2
= 0.10), though no significant interaction of group and
time was observed (F (1, 123) = 0.65, p = .42, partial η2
= 0.01), and there was no effect
of group (F (1, 123) = 2.02, p = .16, partial η2
= 0.02).
Sources of information
The use of each category of sources is presented in Table 4. Differences from initial to post-
intervention survey were assessed using McNemar’s test. There was a significant increase
in the use of exercise and nutrition professionals and reliable sources in the intervention
group. There were no significant changes in the control group.
The trust participants expressed in categories of sources is shown in Table 5. There was
a significant increase in the trust of other health professionals, and reliable sources, with
moderate effect sizes for both. Trust in sources of mixed and unknown reliability
decreased significantly in the intervention group, though with a smaller effect size.
There was no significant change in any trust scores in the control group.
Table 2. Mean (SD) comparison of intervention (n = 45) and control (n = 80) groups in critical thinking
ability, Exercise Science Knowledge Survey (ESKS) scores, and the use, and trust, of sources of
information.
Intervention Control
Critical thinking ability 1.36 (1.14) 1.14 (1.15)
ESKS Scores Knowledge 8.80 (1.22) 8.85 (1.20)
Misconceptions 2.78 (1.52) 2.75 (1.63)
Use of sources of information PRO 40% 52.5%
OTH 6.1% 6.9%
REL 24.4% 29.8%
MIX 13.3% 21.2%
Trust of sources of information PRO 3.89 (0.49) 3.81 (0.49)
OTH 3.42 (0.76) 3.56 (0.67)
REL 3.81 (0.55) 3.88 (0.50)
MIX 2.68 (0.33) 2.69 (0.41)
Note: exercise and nutrition professionals (PRO), other health professionals (OTH), reliable sources (REL), sources of mixed
and unknown reliability (MIX).
STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 9

11. Discussion
The aim of this study was to assess the impact of an online, domain-specific critical think-
ing intervention on the presence of misconceptions, knowledge, and critical thinking
ability of personal trainers, in a randomised control trial. There was an increase in critical
thinking ability scores, and a decrease in Misconceptions scores, from pre- to post-inter-
vention. Given there was no significant change in Misconception scores in the control
group, it can be concluded that the intervention was effective in reducing the presence
of misconceptions.
However, there was no difference between groups in the increase in critical thinking
ability, so it cannot be concluded that critical thinking ability improved. This change in
the control group contrasts with previous research (Meyer, Zhou, and Frederick 2018),
which has shown no effect from repeated exposure to items in the Cognitive Reflection
Test. While previous research has demonstrated the effectiveness of explicit critical think-
ing interventions using domain-specific content (Abrami et al. 2015; Tiruneh, Verburgh,
Table 3. Mean (SD) critical thinking ability, Knowledge, and Misconception scores, and paired samples
t-test results comparing before and after the intervention (INT) and control period (CON).
Before After t df 95% CI p d
Critical thinking ability INT 1.36 (1.15) 1.71 (1.22) −2.70 44 [−0.62, −0.09] .01 0.29
CON 1.14 (1.14) 1.36 (1.13) −2.35 79 [−0.42, −0.34] 0.02 0.19
Knowledge INT 8.80 (1.22) 8.80 (1.75) 0.007 44 [−0.53, 0.53] 1.00 0.00
CON 8.85 (1.20) 8.71 (1.39) 1.04 79 [−0.12, 0.40] .30 0.11
Misconceptions INT 2.78 (1.52) 1.98 (1.63) 3.35 44 [0.32, 1.28] .002 0.51
CON 2.75 (1.63) 2.84 (1.51) −0.52 79 [−0.43, 0.25] .61 0.06
Table 4. Percentage of particpants who reported accessing each category of sources, and the
significance of the change before and after the intervention (INT) and control period (CON).
Before After p
Exercise & nutrition professionals INT 40% 71.1% .003
CON 52.5% 53.8% 1.00
Other health professionals INT 6.1% 2.9% 1.00
CON 0% 1.2% 1.00
Reliable sources INT 24.4% 46.7% .006
CON 29.8% 37.5% .17
Mixed/unknown reliability INT 13.3% 22.2% .29
CON 21.2% 20% 1.00
Table 5. Mean (SD) trust in categories of sources of information and comparing before and after the
intervention (INT) and control period (CON).
Before After t df 95% CI p d
Exercise & nutrition professionals INT 3.89 (0.49) 3.91 (0.48) −0.31 44 [−0.17, 0.12] .76 0.04
CON 3.81 (0.49) 3.81 (0.51) −0.01 79 [−0.98, 0.98] .99 0.00
Other health professionals INT 3.42 (0.76) 3.97 (0.71) −4.71 44 [−0.76, −0.32] < .001 0.72
CON 3.56 (0.67) 3.56 (0.72) 0.00 79 [−0.13, 0.13] 1.00 0.00
Reliable sources INT 3.81 (0.55) 4.19 (0.54) −4.62 44 [−0.54, −0.29] < .001 0.70
CON 3.88 (0.50) 3.87 (0.54) 0.18 79 [−0.08, 0.09] .86 0.02
Mixed/unknown reliability INT 2.68 (0.40) 2.50 (0.48) 2.82 44 [0.05, 0.32] .01 0.44
CON 2.69 (0.41) 2.69 (0.47) 0.04 79 [−0.70, 0.72] .97 0.00
10 D. JOLLEY ET AL.

12. and Elen 2014), this is the first instance of this approach being used to improve these skills
in personal trainers, and in participants who are largely vocationally trained.
But despite the change in critical thinking ability not being confined to the intervention
group, there was improvement in other variables which are indicative of critical thinking
ability in the intervention group alone, such as the increased trust, and use, of trustworthy
sources of information. There was also a decrease in the trust of sources of mixed or
unknown reliability, although no corresponding change in the use of these sources. As per-
sonal trainers are varied in their use of high-quality information (Bennie et al. 2017;
McKean et al. 2015), this suggests that some personal trainers using unreliable sources
could be doing so with caution. But whether this means they are rejecting poor infor-
mation, or information which conflicts with their biases, is not clear. Regardless the
improvement here demonstrates that providing instruction in critical thinking to personal
trainers may be effective.
Additionally, the potential application of critical thinking skills is seen by the
reduction in the number of misconceptions endorsed. While other research has ident-
ified the poor sources of information used by personal trainers (Bennie et al. 2017),
an inability to discern the quality of sources (Stacey et al. 2010), and a lack of inhibition
by their scope of practice (McKean et al. 2015), the present study is the first attempt to
correct some of these issues. Additionally, the correction of misconceptions in other
areas has focussed on pedagogical issues around presenting information (Badenhorst
et al. 2015; Michael 2007). Bennie et al. (2017) proposed the need for a resource to
provide high quality information for personal trainers, though it is not clear that per-
sonal trainers suffer from a lack of sources of information. In fact, the present study
shows that trainers are willing to use a wide variety of sources. Therefore, improving
the ability of personal trainers to find, and discern the quality of, reliable sources may
be a useful strategy.
In contrast to the change observed in Misconception scores, there was no change in
Knowledge scores observed. This may be due to a ceiling effect. As the agreement with
all factual statements was quite high, and the items all concerned fundamental knowledge,
this scale may not have been sensitive enough to capture changes in knowledge. But a
similar floor effect was not seen with misconceptions statements. This suggests that mis-
conceptions are distinct from a lack of knowledge on a topic. Given that some participants
agreed with both the factual and misconception statement of the same concept, this
implies that the alternate understandings can co-exist with the correct understanding of
the content. Not only is this consistent with the durable nature of misconceptions, it
also suggests that a misconception is not merely a lack of knowledge, but rather a separate
cognitive phenomenon.
So while changes in critical thinking ability were not confined to the intervention group,
and therefore could not be attribute to the intervention, the improvement in the appropri-
ate trust of sources of information, and reduction of misconceptions, suggests that the
skills of critical thinking may have been applied more successfully following exposure
to the intervention. This research represents the first time this has been demonstrated
in personal trainers, suggesting that there is a place for critical thinking in the professional
development of trainers. It is also possible that embedding critical thinking instruction in
VET could be an effective approach to improving these skills, and subsequently help to
protect against the formation of misconceptions in personal trainers.
STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 11

13. Limitations
It should be noted that the sample of participants was self-selected, with participants being
notably older than the typical personal trainer (Fitness Australia 2016), and having higher
educational achievement than reported in previous research into personal trainers (Jolley
et al., in press). It is possible given the relatively high education levels of participants that
the critical thinking ability of personal trainers was overestimated in the present study, and
that a more representative sample of personal trainers may have responded differently to
the critical thinking intervention.
Additionally, while participants were instructed to not refer to reference material
when completing the survey online, this cannot be ruled out. As a result, it is also poss-
ible that the actual prevalence of individual misconceptions scores may be higher than
what was identified here. It is also possible, however, that certain misconceptions are
overrepresented here, and that participants accessing reference material may have
made poor choices in the sources they used. It is also possible that participants may
have searched online for answers to the Cognitive Reflection Test following the
initial survey, due to the items being in the public domain. Future research should con-
sider the use of the expanded Cognitive Reflection Test proposed by Toplak, West, and
Stanovich (2014).
The ESKS was originally designed to be used with a broad range of participants to assess
misconceptions that may be passed from professionals to the public. As a result, state-
ments were designed with the general public in mind. The very high Knowledge scores
observed in the present study suggest that a ceiling effect may have influenced results.
It is possible that more challenging Knowledge items would see some change in Knowl-
edge scores as a result of the intervention. Similarly, the magnitude of change in Miscon-
ceptions scores (a small effect size, and a mean improvement of less than one extra item
answered correctly following the intervention) suggests this may not have demonstrated a
meaningful change. While promising for initial research, further investigation in this area
may require a survey with more items of a finer gradation to better assess this.
Caution should also be exercised when examining the change in the use of sources, as
this question specified a timeframe of the prior twelve months. The question was not
reworded following the critical thinking intervention, so it is possible that any change
in the use of sources was due to accessing information to complete activities in the inter-
vention, rather than a change in the participants’ behaviour. It is also highly likely that a
source of information accessed prior to the intervention could still be identified as a source
following the six-week intervention. While a shorter time period could be used (less than
six weeks), this may not be sufficient to capture a representative range of sources in all
participants. This highlights the need for further research to include follow-up measure-
ments at six- and 12-months post-intervention.
Conclusion
The possession of misconceptions presents a significant risk to the competence of personal
trainers, who need to be highly autonomous in their work, and may lack opportunities to
interact with more qualified health professionals to help them select, and interpret, appro-
priate information. Given these skills may not be adequately fostered in VET, professional
12 D. JOLLEY ET AL.

14. development in critical thinking skills is important for personal trainers to be able to make
better choices of information relevant to the safe and successful exercise of their clients.
This study provides evidence that an online, domain-specific critical thinking course
can successfully improve skills related to critical thinking, and reduce the presence of mis-
conceptions, in personal trainers. This potentially protects personal trainers from the
development of further misconceptions, as rather than requiring correction for each, trai-
ners can apply the skills to critical thinking to find accurate sources, examine their own
thinking, and potentially prevent misconceptions from forming.
However, it is likely that this type of intervention would appeal to those who are more
academically inclined. Personal trainers have flexibility in their choice of professional
development, so shorter, more accessible options may need to be provided. It is unclear
whether these approaches would be effective, or whether these skills would also be
improved in a more representative sample of personal trainers.
Future research should examine these alternative approaches to improving critical
thinking skills. More comprehensive tests of critical thinking ability, knowledge, and mis-
conceptions that specifically designed for exercise professionals are also needed. Addition-
ally, professional development should look to embed the skills of critical thinking in an
industry specific context.
Acknowledgement
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding
author, MD, upon reasonable request.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This work was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program scholarship.
ORCID
Daniel Jolley http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3164-2105
Lynne Roberts http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0085-9213
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