Questioning Leads to Critical Thinking

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF QUESTIONING LEADING TO
CRITICAL THINKING IN CLASSROOMS
RESEARCH PROJECT: EDU-6804
By
M. Faisal Ishaq
Roll No. 227
Session: 2012-16
Supervisor: DR. MALIHA NASIR
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF AZAD JAMMU AND KASHMIR
MUZAFFARABAD

ii
APPROVAL SHEET
It is certify that the research project entitled “An analytical study of
questioning leading to critical thinking.” submitted by M Faisal Ishaq under the Roll
No. 227, student of B.Ed (Hons.) Elementary Education, Session (2012-16),
University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Muzaffarabad fulfills the requirement for the
degree of B.Ed. (Hons.) in Education.
___________________________ _____________________
Supervisor Evaluator
Dr. Maliha Nasir
________________________
Director
Institute of Education

iii
DECLARATION
I am Muhammad Faisal Ishaq solemnly declared that I have done my research
work entitled “An analytical study of questioning leading to critical thinking” myself
for the award of the degree of B.Ed. (Hons.) Elementary in Education under the
proper guidance, supervision and cooperation of respected Ma’am Dr. Maliha Nasir.
This is original research and no result or table has been copied from any other
source, journal or thesis.
It has not been submitted concurrently or latterly to this or any other university
for any other degree.
M. FAISAL ISHAQ

iv
DEDICATION
To myFather, Mother & Teachers
For their love, continuous support and 100%
Encouragement;
To my Siblings
For their love, unfailing ‘push’ and support in their
Own individual way;
To my beloved Friend
For her undying love, endless understanding and
Lasting support;
All of you mean so much to me and you are all truly
And absolutely beautiful in my eyes and in my heart.
Nothing is wasted,
Nothing is forgotten...

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, Allah is very kind, merciful and compassionate. His benevolence
and blessings enable me to accomplish this task.
I would like to sincerely thank many people who provided a great amount of
assistance for me in completing this thesis. Having completed this thesis, I will take
with me valuable lessons and great experiences of conducting a research project that
will be useful for my future life.
My greatest gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr. Maliha Nasir whose
limitless guidance and generous support and assistance throughout my research and
study completion were invaluable. Their encouragement throughout the research and
attention over its completion are two things that have earned my lasting admiration.
Their patience and timely feedback have been inspiring in so many ways.
Many thanks to all participants of my research study for sharing their
knowledge, values, opinions and experiences.
Last but not least, I want to thank my grandmothers, parents, brothers and
sisters, all my extended family members and friends for their unconditional support,
encouragement, prayer and love.
M. FAISAL ISHAQ

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ABSTRACT
This study was “An Analytical Study of Questioning Leading to Critical
Thinking in classroom.” All the secondary level teachers were the population. Sample
of the study was 100 teachers which were randomly selected from the population. 10
schools were selected from the population. 5 teachers of each selected school were
selected through convenient sampling techniques. A 21 items based questionnaire
used as a research instrument. The data obtained through questionnaire was scored by
taking frequency and percentages of each question. The result of the research study
was that question is the process of central features of classroom, and it leads students
towards the critical thinking. Both type of convergent or divergent has its own
specific importance and provide a base for higher level of thinking. Synthesis level
questions stimulate learners to be more creative and imaginative. The study also
recommend that a teacher must arrange specific question for class to avoid lower
order questions and proper wait time should be given to student to respond well.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
Sr. No Title Page No
APPROVAL SHEET ii
DECLARATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
1. 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 What is Question? 1
1.2 Nature of Question. 2
1.3 Bloom’s Level of Question. 4
1.3.1 Knowledge level question 6
1.3.2 Comprehension level question 7
1.3.3 Application level question 8
1.3.4 Analysis level of question. 8
21.3.5 Synthesis level of question. 9
1.3.6 Evaluation level of question. 10
1.4 Convergent and Divergent Level of Question. 11
1.5 Wait Time. 13
1.6 Critical Thinking. 14
1.6.1 Definition 14
1.6.2 Theoretical background. 14
1.6.3 Philosophical Approach. 16
1.6.4 The cognitive psychological approach. 18
1.6.5 Educational approach 19

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1.7 Relationship with other concept 20
1.7.1 Metacognition 20
1.7.2 Motivation 22
1.7.3 Creativity 23
1.8 Statement of Problems 23
1.9 objective of Study 24
1.10 Research Question 24
1.11 limitation of Study 24
1.12 Significance of Study 24
2. METHODOLOGY 26
2.1 Population 26
2.2 Sampling 26
2.3 Research Instruments 26
2.4 Data Collection 26
2.5 Data Analysis 27
3. 3. RESULT 28
4. 4. FINDING 39
5. 5. CONCLUSION 41
6. 6. RECOMMENDATIONS 42
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 43

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LIST OF TABLES
S# TITLE Page No.
1. Question in the classroom is “any statement intended to evoke a
verbal response.
28
2. The questioning process is a central feature of most classrooms. 28
3. Question is main source that leads students toward critical
thinking.
29
4. Teacher must be well known of use of effective questions for
enhancement of critical thinking.
29
5. Both convergent and divergent questions has its specific part
toward critical thinking.
30
6. Knowledge level questions lay stresses on memory. 30
7. Knowledge level questions provide a base for higher level
thinking.
31
8. Comprehension based questions gives more consideration to the
comprehension of concepts or principles.
31
9. Comprehension based questions help in use of ideas, concepts,
principles and theories for solutions of the problems.
32
10. Comprehension level stimulate the learner behavior to explain,
describe, summarize, or elaborate the facts.
32
11. Comprehension questions discourage rote memorization of
certain facts and their translation.
33
12. Application level questions help to check competency, use ideas,
concepts, principles and theories to find solutions to problems.
33
13. Analysis level question help to check ability to distinguish,
constituting elements and analyzing the relationship between
various constituents.
34

x
14. A synthesis level question stimulates learners to be more creative
and imaginative.
34
15. Synthesis level encourages students to initiate, assimilate, and
combine ideas into a product, plan, or proposal that is unique to
him/her
35
16. Evaluation level questions require learners to ponder on specific
situation.
35
17. Evaluation level questions are designed to develop in students
the power of making judgments and taking in time decisions.
36
18. While questioning wait time break is key factor of development
of critical thinking.
36
19. Critical thinking include asking and answering questions for
clarification.
37
20. Critical thinking emerged from the cognitive psychological
approach.
37
21. Critical thinking is deeply rooted with different aspects like
metacognition, motivation and creativity.
38

1
1- INTRODUCTION
Questioning is a strategy which is employed to accomplish a specific purpose. A
working definition of a question in the classroom is “any statement intended to evoke a
verbal response’’. Any declaration aimed to elicit a student’s response is called question.
If the questions evoke responses that actively engage a student in the learning process,
are considered effective questions. Questions are helping instruments for teachers to
present the content of the lesson, develop students’ bridging understanding ability to
learn the content. Questions are used to arise interest and curiosity, to focus attention on
an issue, to diagnose specific learning difficulties, to help recall specific information, to
promote thought and understanding of ideas.
1.1- What is Question?
Teacher’s questions has a vital role in the development of students’ spirit of
inquiry, evoke and initiate new ideas, clear their concepts and they become more
demanding and ambitious in life. Students generate their learning and thinking skills
when exposed to the right set of questions. It is therefore vital for teachers to assess their
current questioning techniques (Stewart, 2011).
It was observed that questioning techniques were heavily used teaching strategy
employed by almost all teachers who were observed. Half of their instructional time was
spent in asking questions for the active participation of the students in the lesson, to
arouse their interest and to develop their critical thinking. The researcher interest in the
area developed as being teacher, has experienced great satisfaction when asked questions
from students and got correct responses. It was thought that whether the practice of
asking questions was appropriate and teachers were asking the right type of questions or

2
not? Were these questions effective to improve students’ achievement and develop their
critical thinking? Questioning technique is an indispensable element in the teaching
learning process. Teachers’ classroom time is spent in asking different questions. They
ask questions as much as two questions each minute, up to 400 in a day, almost 70,000 a
year or two to three million questions over the course of a career. So, it is imperative to
ask right questions in the right way. Among the four hundred questions between 30 to 60
percent are procedural rather than learning-based. But questioning technique is still an
important element and play pivotal role in transmitting knowledge (Hastings, 2006).
Questions are vehicles for thought. Teacher questioning behaviors affect which
students learn how much (Walsh & Sattes, 2005). Questioning is an essential and
complex learning tool for teachers –even for the most experience as well -- to master. To
add to the complexity, varieties of questions are suitable for various kinds of instructional
strategies (Pagliaro, 2011).
The use of skilful questioning techniques is seen as sign of a successful teacher. Skilful
teachers match their questions to the ability level of their students. Less competent
students may need a series of questions to arrive at a correct answer (Lapp, Flood &
Farnan, 1989).
1.2 Nature of Questions
One of the aims of teaching is to equip the students with necessary skills to make
appropriate decisions in life. For this purpose students must be taught in such a way as to
enable them to solve the problems actively, to critically think, and to feel relax about
them. They get these skills of thinking by learning to response to critical questions.

3
Asking appropriate question which lead to critical thinking is a complicated process and
unfortunately most of the teachers are untrained to ask high-quality questions (Cecil,
1995).
The questioning process is a central feature of most classrooms. Teachers ask
questions not only to monitor students understanding, but also to stimulate students to
engage with the content, relate it to the prior knowledge, and to think about its
applications. Researches show that teachers are supposed to ask as many questions which
require students to process and analyze information while many of their questions are
factual which encourage only rote memorization. Teachers also tend to rush students
responses not giving them adequate time to provide varied and thoughtful answers (Ryan
& Cooper, 2010).
Teachers play a critical role in asking questions. It is much important for the
teachers to plan questions carefully so that knowledge and comprehension of students
may enhanced. High quality of teacher’s questioning can help students think critically
and independently. All questions involve content. Mastery of teachers in content can help
teachers ask questions which involve students in deeper meaning and critical thinking
(Pagliaro, 2011).
Questions are tool for checking the understanding level of students. Questions are
not only asked to make the students learn factual knowledge or recall information but the
important thing is to ensure that the questions engage students in deeper and creative
thinking. One way to make sure that the questions involve students in creative and

4
analytical thinking is to plan in advance using an organizational structure such as
Bloom’s Taxonomy (Fisher & Frey, 2007)
1.3- Blooms’ Levels of Questions
When one considers the development of thinking skills, turns for guidance to
Bloom’s Taxonomy. Education professor Benjamin Bloom and a group of colleagues
worked to develop a system to identify and organize the process of thinking and learning.
In 1956 Bloom’s group published the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1,
which is now commonly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy (McDonald & Hershman, 2010).
From 1995 through 2000, a group of educators worked to revise the original taxonomy
based on more recent understanding about learning. The group published the result of
their work in 2001(Sousa, 2009). To summarize this taxonomy advocate that giving
judgment for something is not possible without knowing the facts, understanding of the
facts, application of the facts, taking the facts apart, and putting the facts organized in
such a way that new perspectives are disclosed (Morgan & Saxton, 2006).
Bloom’s six types of questions can further be divided into three detailed groups. Level
one question consists of “knowledge” and “comprehension”. These are categorized as
lower level questions, which require students to recall and collect data, but these
encourage students for little deep thinking. Level two questions consist of “application”
and “analysis”. Such types of questions require the students to begin to process data and
to assimilate new content with their own observations. The third level of questions is
“synthesis” and “evaluation”. These questions provoke higher level deep thinking
because these involve a high level of mental activity (Cecil, 1995).

5
These different questioning techniques of Bloom’s Taxonomy are recommended to
promote critical and analytical thinking in students. Teachers can inculcate these
questions in such a manner that students actively participate in many activities of deep
level thinking and behind these techniques the teachers have many objectives and
conclusions. These objectives can be achieved effectively by creating an encouraging
classroom environment boost up active involvement of students with new experiences
and inquisitive attitude which help them in achieving their goals (Shaunessy, 2005).
The concept of learning is that it occurs when the students are able to answer the
questions asked by the teacher, the reality is that learning does not occur until learner
need to know and can formulate the questions for themselves. Classroom activities
involve the students into the process of inquiry thinking, feeling, discussing, arguing,
philosophizing and more- and it is the teacher who is mostly the initiator of these actions
(Morgan & Saxton, 2006).
Gall (1984) indicated that teachers seldom ask questions that require higher levels
of thinking (application, analysis, synthesis or evaluation). Teachers ask questions
requiring students to recall facts. This is unfortunate because higher order questions
stimulate critical thinking. However, achievement is not accomplished if teachers only
ask higher order questions. The best strategy is to use the combination of questions that
can move students from lower levels to higher levels of learning. Gall (1984)
One of the problems is that without higher order, thought-provoking questions
learning becomes little more than memorization (Cooper, 2013).

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Different types of questions serve different types of learning and teaching
purposes. It is not the case that certain types of questions should be preferred over others
such as low cognitive over high cognitive or vice versa. Teachers should select questions
keeping in view the objectives of the lesson. If the objective is to give some basic
information of the concepts, low cognitive questions should be asked. If the purpose is to
make the students analyze, evaluate or create new information, high cognitive questions
should be used (Hunt, Wiseman & Touzel, 2009).
1.3.1- Knowledge Level Questions
Knowledge level questions refer to types of questions that lay stresses on
memory. Such type of questions assist students in understanding or remembering of the
concepts that had been taught. These levels of questions demand students to demonstrate
their knowledge in the form of classification, sequencing and listing of facts (Bloom,
1956). Knowledge based questions encourage the learner to recall, describe, define, or
recognize facts that already have been devoted to memory (Borich, 2000).
Questions formulated at the knowledge level may ask students to remember
common terms, specified and definite facts, methods and procedures, basic ideas, and
principles. This could include stating or describing the who, what, when, where, and how
of a situation. Knowledge questions can prompt students to arrange ,define, describe,
enumerate, identify, know, label, list, match, outline, recall, recognize, select, state, or tell
(Henning, 2008).
Knowledge level questions are important for several reasons. Knowledge level
questions provide a base for higher level thinking as memorization of information is

7
required to perform a variety of tasks. Use of knowledge questions also develops class
participation (Cooper, 2013). Asking knowledge level questions provide an opportunity
to low ability students to exhibit a leading performance by responding correctly to such
questions 70 to 80 percent of the time (Brophy & Evertson, 1976).
On the other hand knowledge category questions have some drawbacks. Most of
the teachers overuse knowledge level questions, memorization of facts are stressed which
is easily forgotten. Such questions judge students’ superficial and shallow understanding
of the phenomena (Cooper, 2013).
1.3.2- Comprehension Level Questions
Comprehension based questions are the type of questions that give more
consideration to the comprehension of concepts or principles. At this level, learners are
expected to use ideas, concepts, principles and theories learned to obtain solutions of the
problems. The principles used must be transparent as well. Learners should have the
ability to manipulate information from diagrams, graphs, formula or explain scientific
terminology (Bloom, 1956).
Questions asked at the comprehension level stimulate the learner behavior to explain,
describe, summarize, or elaborate the facts learned formerly (Borich,
2000).
At the comprehension level, students may be asked to explain facts and principles,
interpret verbal material, clarify charts and graphs, translate etc. (Henning, 2008).

8
Examples
1. Can anyone explain photosynthesis in your own words?
2. What is the purpose of Bloom’s taxonomy?
Questions asked at the comprehension level encourage the learner to go outside of
the rote memorization of certain facts and their translation and to use previously acquired
facts and understandings in an advanced and distinct environment (Borich, 2000).
1.3.3- Application Level Questions
Application level questions give more stress to focus learners’ competency to use
ideas, concepts, principles and theories to find solutions to problems that they have not
confronted before (Bloom, 1956).
The application level of Bloom’s taxonomy requires both understanding and
application; it is considered a high level of cognition than the comprehension level.
Questions at the application level require students to act, administer, apply, articulate,
develop, discover, dramatize, establish, show, use, write etc. (Henning, 2008).
Example
1. Why is Bloom’s taxonomy helpful in analyzing the effectiveness of teacher questions?
1.3.4- Analysis Level Questions
Questions at the analysis level demand learners’ ability to distinguish the
constituting elements of an idea at large, analyzing the relationship between various

9
constituents and splitting up a topic into various inter-connected fractions. Making
distinctions, comparing, connecting, doing an experiment and solving a problem are the
behavior which can be judged at this level (Bloom, 1956).
Analysis level questions come under the category of higher order questions. Here
the students are asked to split the information or problem into its constituent parts and to
draw relationships among the parts (Borich, 2000).
At the analysis level of Bloom’s taxonomy students are asked to divide and
organize concepts, ideas, examples, theories, or other information or material into their
component parts to better understand its organizational structure. Questions may include
verbs such as analyze, appraise, break down, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast,
correlate, diagram, differentiate, outline etc. (Henning, 2008).
Example
1. What features distinguish bird from a mammal?
2. What is the difference between knowledge and analysis level of Bloom’s
0taxonomy?
1.3.5- Synthesis Level Questions
A synthesis level question stimulates learners to be more creative and
imaginative. Acquiring this ability will help them to explore and solve a problem that has
been presented. For instance, this level question demands the learners to plan, combine,
create or produce something new (Bloom, 1956).

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Synthesis level questions are designed to ask the learners to plan or create a
unique or incomparable response to an unknown problem (Borich, 2000).
Synthesis level of Bloom’s taxonomy encourages students to initiate, assimilate,
and combine ideas into a product, plan, or proposal that is unique to him or her. They
may be engaged in writing an essay, composing a speech, designing an experiment,
creating a classification scheme, or generating any kind of project that requires the
formulation of new patterns or structures (Henning, 2008).
1.3.6- Evaluation Level Questions
Evaluation level questions require learners to ponder on specific situation.
Learners require appraising an idea, finding answers and making a judgment. An example
of question for this level is requiring students to evaluate, give opinions, to elaborate the
essence of a specific matter or issue, draw conclusion and give an explanation (Bloom,
1956).
Evaluation level questions are designed to develop in students the power of
making judgments and taking in time decisions. Such type of questions helps students to
employ stated criteria for determining the adequacy of the response (Borich, 2000).
Teachers need practice and guidance on asking a variety of questions as only
effective questions can engage students actively in learning (Powell, 2004, p.)

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1.4- Convergent and Divergent Questions
Asking convergent questions means to restrict student’s responses to one right
answer while asking divergent questions is to divert student’s thinking in many
directions. Divergent questions encourage critical thinking about problems. Mostly,
teachers ask convergent questions without realizing the fact that they are confining
students to recall of information (Althouse et al; 2003). Convergent questions can only be
effective when teachers want to assess students’ knowledge of facts (Colburn, 2003).
Questions may be narrow or broad. Questions are narrow when encouraging a
specific or limited response. Questions are broad when a general or expansive response
encouraged. An efficient and competent teacher has full insight about questioning
technique and always in a position to frame both type of questions, close (convergent)
and open ended (divergent). Convergent types of questions are those which confined
students responses to single or very limited answer. Convergent questions encourage
students thinking on already learned answers and memorizing some limited facts (Borich,
2000).
Hiang (1997) also described the meaning of a convergent question and a divergent
question. A convergent question requires a clear-cut and well-defined answer. The
answer is wrong if it is contrastive to the supposed answer. On the contrary, a divergent
question is not directed towards one specific answer rather it demands one to state one’s
views, feelings, observations, prediction and thoughts on specific situation.
The vast majority of questions teachers ask students are convergent (Blosser,
2000). Convergent questions are also called short-answer questions, since students can

12
often respond to them with a word or two. Convergent questions are effective for
assessing students’ knowledge of facts (Colburn, 2003).
Convergent questions may require students to make comparisons, explain facts or
concepts, state or describe relationships, or solve problems using leaned procedures. The
following example illustrate convergent question:
What is the relationship between crude oil and plastic? (Hunt et al., 2009)
Convergent questions are also asked to lead the way for a discussion. For example:
1. What percentage of all teachers are females?
2. Why would more females become teachers than males?
3. What are the main reasons that all teachers give for becoming teachers?
(Clement, 2005).
Questions which stimulate extensive and wide range responses are termed as
divergent or indirect questions. Such sort of questions has more chances of correct and
right answers (Borich, 2000).
Clement (2005) asserted that divergent questions are designed to guide the
students to think broadly as such questions have many possible answers.
Divergent questions give students the freedom to respond and not restrict them to
one correct answer. Responding to divergent questions require information base on the
part of students. Divergent questions require students to think in new and novel ways
(Powell, 2010).

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Questions classified as divergent may require students to predict, hypothesize, or
infer. An expression such as ‘what if’ is common to questions classified as divergent. The
following example illustrate divergent question: What do you think our society will be
like in one hundred years? (Hunt et al, 2009).
The ratio of convergent questions asked in the classroom is much higher than
divergent questions. The proportion is about 4:1 (Borich, 2000). The formulations of
divergent questions that encourage higher level thinking are difficult to construct. Its
formulation needs planning in advance. Due to lack of proper planning in advance, many
teachers rely on asking primarily convergent questions (Cruickshank, 2009, p.373).
1.5- Wait Time
Another dynamic aspect that is related to teachers’ questions, involves wait time.
Teachers seldom wait more than one minute to answer their own questions (Powell &
Caseau, 2004). Critical and creative thinking and reflection take time. A teacher
questioning methodology should operate in such a way that give students enough time to
think over and give a response (Ryan & Cooper 2010).
Pausing after asking a question (wait time 1) provides students with the
opportunity to think about teacher’s question and to formulate a response. Pausing after a
student’s responds (wait time 2) provides the students with the opportunity to add, to
modify, or elaborate on the response (Rowe, 1973).
Ever since the beginning of classroom research (Stevens, 1912), teachers have
been observed – when not lecturing or demonstrating –ask a good many questions at a

14
fast pace over a class hour, several questions per minute. Less than one second of time
has repeatedly been observed to lapse between the end of the student’s answer and the
start of the teacher’s next question. The majority of questions entail the recall and
recitation of factual information previously taught or studied; some questions bear on
speculative, evaluative, and other cognitive manipulations of information; and the
remainder are conversational and managerial.
1.6 Critical Thinking
1.6.1- Definition:
Critical thinking is that mode of thinking — about any subject, content, or
problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully
analyzing, assessing, and reconstructing it. Critical thinking is self-directed, self-
disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking.
1.6.2- Theoretical Background
Despite differences among the three schools of thought and their approaches to
defining critical thinking, there exist areas for agreement. First, researchers of critical
thinking typically agree on the specific abilities encompassed by the definition, which
include analyzing arguments, claims, or evidence (Ennis, 1985; Facione, 1990; Halpern,
1998; Paul, 1992); making inferences using inductive or deductive reasoning (Ennis,
1985; Willingham, 2007); judging or evaluating (Case, 2005; Ennis, 1985; Lipman, 1988;
Tindal & Nolet, 1995); and making decisions or solving problems (Ennis, 1985; Halpern,
1998; Willingham, 2007).

15
Other abilities or behaviors identified as relevant to critical thinking include
asking and answering questions for clarification (Ennis, 1985); defining terms (Ennis,
1985); identifying assumptions (Ennis, 1985; Paul, 1992); interpreting and explaining
(Facione, 1990); reasoning verbally, especially in relation to concepts of likelihood and
uncertainty (Halpern, 1998); predicting (Tindal & Nolet, 1995); and seeing both sides of
an issue (Willingham, 2007).
Most researchers also agree that in addition to skills or abilities, critical thinking
also involves dispositions (Facione, 1990). As early as 1985, researchers working in the
area of critical thinking recognized that the ability to think critically is distinct from the
disposition to do so (Ennis, 1985). Empirical evidence appears to confirm the notion that
critical thinking abilities and dispositions are, in fact, separate entities (Facione, 2000).
These dispositions have variously been cast as attitudes or habits of mind. Facione (2000)
defines critical thinking dispositions as “consistent internal motivations to act toward or
respond to persons, events, or circumstances in habitual, yet potentially malleable ways”
(p. 64). Researchers tend to identify similar sets of dispositions as relevant to critical
thinking. For example, the most commonly cited critical thinking dispositions include
open-mindedness (Bailin et al., 1999; Ennis, 1985; Facione 1990, 2000; Halpern, 1998);
fair-mindedness (Bailin et al., 1999; Facione, 1990); the propensity to seek reason (Bailin
et al., 1999; Ennis, 1985; Paul, 1992); inquisitiveness (Bailin et al., 1999; Facione, 1990,
2000); the desire to be well-informed (Ennis, 1985; Facione, 1990); flexibility (Facione,
1990; Halpern, 1998); and respect for, and willingness to entertain, others’ viewpoints
(Bailin et al., 1999; Facione, 1990).

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The literature on critical thinking has roots in two primary academic disciplines:
philosophy and psychology (Lewis & Smith, 1993). Sternberg (1986) has also noted a
third critical thinking strand within the field of education. These separate academic
strands have developed different approaches to defining critical thinking that reflect their
respective concerns. Each of these approaches is explored more fully below.
1.6.3- The Philosophical Approach
The writings of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and more recently, Matthew Lipman
and Richard Paul, exemplify the philosophical approach. This approach focuses on the
hypothetical critical thinker, enumerating the qualities and characteristics of this person
rather than the behaviors or actions the critical thinker can perform (Lewis & Smith,
1993; Thayer-Bacon, 2000). Sternberg (1986) has noted that this school of thought
approaches the critical thinker as an ideal type, focusing on what people are capable of
doing under the best of circumstances. Accordingly, Richard Paul (1992) discusses
critical thinking in the context of “perfections of thought” (p. 9). This preoccupation with
the ideal critical thinker is evident in the American Philosophical Association’s
consensus portrait of the ideal critical thinker as someone who is inquisitive in nature,
open-minded, flexible, fair-minded, has a desire to be well-informed, understands diverse
viewpoints, and is willing to both suspend judgment and to consider other perspectives
(Facione, 1990).
Those working within the philosophical tradition also emphasize qualities or
standards of thought. For example, Bailin (2002) defines critical thinking as thinking of a
particular quality— essentially good thinking that meets specified criteria or standards of

17
adequacy and accuracy. Further, the philosophical approach has traditionally focused on
the application of formal rules of logic (Lewis & Smith, 1993;Sternberg, 1986). One
limitation of this approach to defining critical thinking is that it does not always
correspond to reality (Sternberg, 1986). By emphasizing the ideal critical thinker and
what people have the capacity to do, this approach may have less to contribute to
discussions about how people actually think.
Definitions of critical thinking emerging from the philosophical tradition include
“the propensity and skill to engage in an activity with reflective skepticism” (McPeck,
1981, p. 8); “reflective and reasonable thinking that is focused on deciding what to
believe or do” (Ennis, 1985, p. 45); “skillful, responsible thinking that facilitates good
judgment because it 1) relies upon criteria, 2) is self-correcting, and 3) is sensitive to
context” (Lipman, 1988, p. 39); “purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in
interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential,
conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or conceptual considerations upon which that
judgment is based” (Facione, 1990, p. 3); “disciplined, self-directed thinking that
exemplifies the perfections of thinking appropriate to a particular mode or domain of
thought” (Paul, 1992, p. 9); thinking that is goal-directed and purposive, “thinking aimed
at forming a judgment,” where the thinking itself meets standards of adequacy and
accuracy (Bailin et al., 1999b, p. 287); and “judging in a reflective way what to do or
what to believe” (Facione, 2000, p. 61).

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1.6.4- The Cognitive Psychological Approach:
The cognitive psychological approach contrasts with the philosophical perspective
in two ways. First, cognitive psychologists, particularly those immersed in the behaviorist
tradition and the experimental research paradigm, tend to focus on how people actually
think versus how they could or should think under ideal conditions (Sternberg, 1986).
Second, rather than defining critical thinking by pointing to characteristics of the ideal
critical thinker or enumerating criteria or standards of “good” thought, those working in
cognitive psychology tend to define critical thinking by the types of actions or behaviors
critical thinkers can do. Typically, this approach to defining critical thinking includes a
list of skills or procedures performed by critical thinkers (Lewis & Smith, 1993).
Philosophers have often criticized this latter aspect of the cognitive psychological
approach as being reductionist—reducing a complex orchestration of knowledge and
skills into a collection of disconnected steps or procedures (Sternberg, 1986). For
example, Bailin (2002) argues that it is a fundamental misconception to view critical
thinking as a series of discrete steps or skills, and that this misconception stems from the
behaviorist’s need to define constructs in ways that are directly observable. According to
this argument, because the actual process of thought is unobservable, cognitive
psychologists have tended to focus on the products of such thought—behaviors or overt
skills (e.g., analysis, interpretation, formulating good questions). Other philosophers have
also cautioned against confusing the activity of critical thinking with its component skills
(Facione, 1990), arguing that critical thinking is more than simply the sum of its parts
(Van Gelder, 2005). Indeed, a few proponents of the philosophical tradition have pointed

19
out that it is possible to simply “go through the motions,” or proceed through the “steps”
of critical thinking without actually engaging in critical thought (Bailin, 2002).
Definitions of critical thinking that have emerged from the cognitive
psychological approach include “the mental processes, strategies, and representations
people use to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts” (Sternberg, 1986,
p. 3); “the use of those cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a
desirable outcome” (Halpern, 1998, p. 450); and
“seeing both sides of an issue, being open to new evidence that disconfirms your ideas,
reasoning dispassionately, demanding that claims be backed by evidence, deducing and
inferring conclusions from available facts, solving problems, and so forth” (Willingham,
2007).
1.6.5 The Educational Approach:
Finally, those working in the field of education have also participated in
discussions about critical thinking. Benjamin Bloom and his associates are included in
this category. Their taxonomy for information processing skills (1956) is one of the most
widely cited sources for educational practitioners when it comes to teaching and
assessing higher-order thinking skills. Bloom’s taxonomy is hierarchical, with
“comprehension” at the bottom and “evaluation” at the top. The three highest levels
(analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) are frequently said to represent critical thinking
(Kennedy et al., 1991).

20
The benefit of the educational approach is that it is based on years of classroom
experience and observations of student learning, unlike both the philosophical and the
psychological traditions (Sternberg, 1986). However, some have noted that the
educational approach is limited in its vagueness. Concepts within the taxonomy lack the
clarity necessary to guide instruction and assessment in a useful way (Ennis, 1985;
Sternberg, 1986). Furthermore, the frameworks developed in education have not been
tested as vigorously as those developed within either philosophy or psychology
(Sternberg, 1986).
1.7- Relationship with Other Concepts
As a way of defining the concept of critical thinking, many researchers have
drawn connections to other skills commonly identified as twenty-first century skills,
including metacognition, motivation, and creativity. Each of these related concepts will
be discussed separately.
1.7.1- Metacognition.
Metacognition has been defined most simply as “thinking about thinking.” Other
definitions include “the knowledge and control children have over their own thinking and
learning activities” (Cross & Paris, 1988, p. 131); “awareness of one’s own thinking,
awareness of the content of one’s conceptions, an active monitoring of one’s cognitive
processes, an attempt to regulate one’s cognitive processes in relationship to further
learning, and an application of a set of heuristics as an effective device for helping people
organize their methods of attack on problems in general” (Hennessey, 1999, p. 3); and
“the monitoring and control of thought” (Martinez, 2006, p. 696).

21
What is the relationship between critical thinking and metacognition? (Kuhn,
1999) sees critical thinking as being a form of metacognition, which includes
metacognitive knowing (thinking that operates on declarative knowledge), meta-strategic
knowing (thinking that operates on procedural knowledge), and epistemological knowing
(encompassing how knowledge is produced). Likewise, Flavell (1979) sees critical
thinking as forming part of the construct of metacognition when he argues that “critical
appraisal of message source, quality of appeal, and probable consequences needed to
cope with these inputs sensibly” can lead to “wise and thoughtful life decisions” (p. 910).
On the other hand, Van Gelder (2005) and Willingham (2007) appear to perceive
metacognition as being subsumed under critical thinking when they argue that a
component critical thinking skill is the ability to deploy the right strategies and skills at
the right time, typically referred to as conditional or strategic knowledge and considered
part of the construct of metacognition (Kuhn & Dean, 2004; Schraw et al., 2006).
(Halonen, 1995) identifies metacognition as the ability to monitor the quality of critical
thinking. Similarly (Halpern, 1998) casts metacognition as monitoring thinking and
strategy use by asking the following kinds of questions: What do I already know? What is
my goal? How will I know when I get there? Am I making progress?
Some researchers have argued that the link between critical thinking and
metacognition is self-regulation. For example, the APA Delphi report includes self-
regulation as one component skill of critical thinking (Facione, 1990). Schraw et al.
(2006) draw connections between metacognition, critical thinking, and motivation under
the umbrella of self-regulated learning, which they define as “our ability to understand
and control our learning environments” (p. 111). Self-regulated learning, in turn, is seen

22
as comprising three components: cognition, metacognition, and motivation. The cognitive
component includes critical thinking, which Schraw and associates explain consists of
identifying and analyzing sources and drawing conclusions.
1.7.2- Motivation.
Critical thinking is also related to motivation. For example, most researchers view
critical thinking as including both skills, or abilities, and dispositions. The disposition to
think critically has been defined as the “consistent internal motivation to engage
problems and make decisions by using critical thinking” (Facione, 2000, p. 65). Thus,
student motivation is viewed as a necessary precondition for critical thinking skills and
abilities. Similarly, Halonen notes that a person’s propensity, or disposition, to
demonstrate higher-order thinking relates to their motivation (1995). Halpern (1998)
argues that effort and persistence are two of the principal dispositions that support critical
thinking, and Paul maintains that perseverance is one of the “traits of mind” that renders
someone a critical thinker (1992, p. 13). Thus, like metacognition, motivation appears to
be a supporting condition for critical thinking in that unmotivated individuals are unlikely
to exhibit critical thinking. On the other hand, several motivation researchers have
suggested that the causal link goes the other way. In particular, some motivation research
suggests that difficult or challenging tasks, particularly those emphasizing higher-order
thinking skills, may be more motivating to students than easy tasks that can be solved
through the rote application of a pre-determined algorithm (Turner, 1995).

23
1.7.3- Creativity.
Finally, many researchers have made connections between critical thinking and
creativity (Bailin, 2002; Bonk & Smith, 1998; Ennis, 1985; Paul & Elder, 2006; Thayer-
Bacon, 2000). At first glance, critical thinking and creativity might seem to have little in
common, or even to be mutually exclusive constructs. However, Bailin (2002) argues that
a certain amount of creativity is necessary for critical thought. Paul and Elder (2006) note
that both creativity and critical thinking are aspects of “good,” purposeful thinking. As
such, critical thinking and creativity are two sides of the same coin. Good thinking
requires the ability to generate intellectual products, which is associated with creativity.
However, good thinking also requires the individual to be aware, strategic, and critical
about the quality of those intellectual products. As the authors note, “critical thinking
without creativity reduces to mere skepticism and negativity, and creativity without
critical thought reduces to mere novelty” (p. 35). Paul and Elder (2006) point out that, in
practice, the two concepts are inextricably linked and develop in parallel. Accordingly,
the authors believe both creative and critical thinking ought to be integrated during
instruction.
1.8- Statement of the Problem
Being a student of education and future teacher. The researcher noticed that
teachers asked a lot of questions but whether the questions were better enough to promote
critical thinking. Perhaps this vital issue has not gained attention of the researchers and
still an under – researched area in Pakistan.

24
The overall purpose of the study was an analysis of Questioning leading to critical
thinking in the classrooms.
1.9- Objectives of the Study
1. To know types/level of questions and their use.
2. To explore the types of questions leading to critical thinking at Secondary Levels.
1.10- Research Questions
1. Do convergent and divergent questions leads students toward critical thinking?
2. Do teachers need to ask lower order questions at Secondary Level?
1.11- Limitations of the Study
Keeping in view the real world constraints, the study was limited to Secondary
Levels of education. The study was further delimited to the Secondary level School
teachers of Public and private Sector schools in Muzaffarabad
1.12- Significance
Questioning is essential for good communication and it lies at the heart of good,
interactive teaching. The study is important because it provide guide line to the teacher in
developing different types of questions for different purposes. After studied this research
teachers will be able to know the purpose of different types of question so they becomes
able to developed different questions according to the define objectives. They also can
easily assess the achievement of the students. This study also provide guide line to the

25
curriculum wing in mention question at the end of each chapters. This study also provide
guidelines to the examination committee in developing different questions.

26
3. METHODOLOGY
In this section researcher describes the research methodology. This is the survey
type research. The research methodology included the following steps
2.1 Population
All the teachers of secondary level of education in Muzaffarabad Azad Jammu
and Kashmir were the population of the study.
2.2 Sample
To find out the better result of the research researcher select 20 school of
secondary level including 10 from public sector and 10 from the private sector. 5 teacher
of each school were randomly selected. Total sample size is 100.
2.3 Research Instrument
A well-developed questionnaire were used as research instrument, questionnaire
consist of 20 questions and each question has responses on five point Like Agree (A),
Strongly Agree (SA), Undecided (UD), Disagree (DA) and Strongly disagree (SDA)
2.4 Data Collection
For collection of data researcher personally visited sampled schools, met with 5
secondary teachers from each school and distribute questionnaire among them for their
response.

27
2.5- Data Analysis:
After the collection of data it was tabulated, analyzed and interpreted for each
categories of respondent. The response in total on each item was shown in tabulated
form.

28
3- RESULTS
In this section the results are presented in tabulated form. The percentage and
frequency of the response of each question is written in the table.
Table No: 1 Question in the classroom is “any statement intended to evoke a verbal
response.
Respondent SA A UD DA SDA
Frequency 64 34 2 - -
Percentage 64 34 2 - -
Table No. 1 shows that 64%teachers strongly agreed and 34% teacher agreed and
2% teachers’ undecided with the statement that “Question in the classroom is “any
statement intended to evoke a verbal response.”
Table No: 2 the questioning process is a central feature of most classrooms.
Frequency 62 36 - 2 -
Percentage 62 36 - 2 -
Table No. 2 shows that 62%teachers strongly agreed and 36 % teacher agreed 2%
teachers disagree with the statement that process is a central feature of most classrooms.

29
Table No: 3 Question is main source that leads students toward critical thinking.
Frequency 60 40 - - -
Percentage 60 40 - - -
Table No. 3 shows that 60%teachers strongly agreed and 40% teacher agreed with
the statement that “Question is main source that leads students toward critical thinking.”
Table No: 4 Teacher must be well known of use of effective questions for enhancement
of critical thinking.
the statement that “Teacher must be well known of use of effective questions for
enhancement of critical thinking.”

30
Table No: 5 both convergent and divergent questions has its specific part toward critical
thinking.
Table No. 5 shows that 40%teachers strongly agreed, 40% teacher agreed and
20% teachers undecided with the statement that “Both convergent and divergent
questions has its specific part toward critical thinking.”
Table No: 6 Knowledge level questions lay stresses on memory.
Table No. 6 shows that 66%teachers strongly agreed and 34 % teacher agreed
10% undecided with the statement that “Knowledge level questions lay stresses on
memory.”

31
Table No: 7 Knowledge level questions provide a base for higher level thinking.
Frequency 22 62 2 14 -
Percentage 22 62 2 14 -
Table No. 7 shows that 22%teachers strongly agreed, 62% teacher agreed and 2%
teachers undecided, 14% teachers disagreed with the statement that “Knowledge level
questions provide a base for higher level thinking.”
Table No: 8 Comprehension based questions gives more consideration to the
comprehension of concepts or principles.
the statement that “Comprehension based questions gives more consideration to the
comprehension of concepts or principles.”

32
Table No: 9 Comprehension based questions help in use of ideas, concepts, principles
and theories for solutions of the problems.
the statement that “Comprehension based questions help in use of ideas, concepts,
principles and theories for solutions of the problems.”
Table No: 10 Comprehension level stimulate the learner behavior to explain, describe,
summarize, or elaborate the facts.
Frequency 12 84 - 4 -
Percentage 12 84 - 4 -
Table No. 10 shows that 12%teachers strongly agreed, 84% teacher agreed and
4% teachers disagreed with the statement of the question “Comprehension level stimulate
the learner behavior to explain, describe, summarize, or elaborate the facts.”

33
Table No: 11 Comprehension questions discourage rote memorization of certain facts
and their translation.
Frequency - 10 2 74 14
Percentage - 10 2 74 14
Table No. 11 shows that 10% teacher agreed, 2% teachers undecided, 14%
teachers strongly disagreed and 74%teachers disagreed with the statement that
“Comprehension questions discourage rote memorization of certain facts and their
translation.”
Table No: 12 Application level questions help to check competency, use ideas, concepts,
principles and theories to find solutions to problems.
Frequency - 88 12 -
Percentage - 88 12 -
Table No. 12 shows that 88 % teacher agreed and 12%teachers disagreed with the
statement that “Application level questions help to check competency, use ideas,
concepts, principles and theories to find solutions to problems.”

34
Table No: 13 Analysis level question help to check ability to distinguish, constituting
elements and analyzing the relationship between various constituents
Table No. 13 shows that 66%teachers strongly agreed and 34% teacher agreed
with the statement that “Analysis level question help to check ability to distinguish,
constituting elements and analyzing the relationship between various constituents.”
Table No: 14 A synthesis level question stimulates learners to be more creative and
imaginative.
Table No. 14 shows that 6%teachers strongly agreed, 66% teacher agreed
,8%teacher undecided and 20%teacher disagree with the statement that “A synthesis level
question stimulates learners to be more creative and imaginative.”

35
Table No: 15 Synthesis level encourages students to initiate, assimilate, and combine
ideas into a product, plan, or proposal that is unique to him/her
Frequency - 72 4 24 -
Percentage - 72 4 24 -
Table No. 15 shows that 72% teacher agreed and 4% teachers undecided and 24%
teachers disagreed with the statement that “Synthesis level encourages students to
initiate, assimilate, and combine ideas into a product, plan, or proposal that is unique to
him/her”
Table No: 16 Evaluation level questions require learners to ponder on specific situation.
Table No. 16 shows that 62%teachers strongly agreed and 38% teacher agreed
with the statement that “Evaluation level questions require learners to ponder on specific
situation.”

36
Table No: 17 Evaluation level questions are designed to develop in students the power of
making judgments and taking in time decisions.
Table No. 17 shows 88%teachers strongly agreed, 88% teacher agreed and
4%teacher undecided with the statement of the question “Evaluation level questions are
designed to develop in students the power of making judgments and taking in time
decisions.”
Table No: 18 while questioning wait time break is key factor of development of critical
thinking.
Frequency 2 76 2 18 2
Percentage 2 76 2 18 2
Table No. 18 shows that 2%teachers strongly agreed, 76% teacher agreed,2%
teachers undecided,2% teachers strongly disagreed and 18%teachers disagreed with the
statement that “While questioning wait time break is key factor of development of critical
thinking.”

37
Table no: 19 Critical thinking include asking and answering questions for clarification.
Table No. 17 shows 50%teachers strongly agreed, 25% teacher Agree,
23%teacher undecided and 2%teacher disagree with the statement of the question
“Critical thinking include asking and answering questions for clarification.”
Table No: 20 Critical thinking emerged from the cognitive psychological approach.
Frequency 22 60 5 8 5
Percentage 22 60 5 8 5
5%teacher undecided 8% teachers disagree 5%techers strongly disagree with the
statement of the question “Evaluation level questions are designed to develop in students
the power of making judgments and taking in time decisions.”

38
Table No: 21 Critical thinking is deeply rooted with different aspects like metacognition,
motivation and creativity.
4%teacher undecided 3% disagree with the statement of the question “Evaluation level
questions are designed to develop in students the power of making judgments and taking
in time decisions.”

39
4- FINDINGS:
On the basis of data collected from different schools and the analysis of the data the
following are the findings of the study.
1. Any statement of question type intended to evoke a verbal response. (table no 01)
2. Questioning is most important and central feature in the class room. (table no 02)
3. Questioning process is main source for creating and developing of critical
thinking. (table no 03 & 04)
4. Both convergent and divergent type questions has its own importance in critical
thinking. (table no 05)
5. Knowledge level question is base for higher level thinking, and focus on memory.
(Table no 06 &07).
6. Comprehension level question enhance comprehension about concept and
principals, help in use of concepts ideas, principle, and problems. They also
stimulate behavior, elaborations, and summarizations. (table no 8, 9, 10 &11)
7. Application level questions help to check competency, use of ideas, principal and
theories of solution for problems. (table no 12)
8. Analysis questions help in use of skills like distinguish, constituting elements and
analyzing. (table no 13)

40
9. Synthesis level question stimulates learners to be more creative and imaginative.
They also encourages students to initiate, assimilate, and combine ideas into a
product. (table no 14 & 15)
10. Evaluation level questions require learners to ponder on specific situation. They
also develop power of judgments and in time action skills. (Table no 16& 17).
11. Wait time is main factor for development of critical thinking. (table no 18)
12. Critical thinking include asking and answering questions for clarification. (table
no 19)
13. Critical thinking emerged from the cognitive psychological approach. (table no
20)
14. Critical thinking is deeply rooted with different aspects like metacognition,
motivation and creativity. (table no 21)

41
5- CONCLUSION
The research find out that questions is intended to evoke a verbal response. Questioning
leads students towards critical thinking. Teachers use effective questions for
enhancement of the critical thinking. Both type of convergent and divergent questions are
useful for critical thinking. Knowledge level questions lay stress on student’s memory
and provide base for higher level thinking. Comprehension level question enhance
comprehension about concept and principals, help in use of concepts ideas, principle, and
problems. They also stimulate behavior, elaborations, and summarizations. Application
level questions help to check competency, use of ideas, principal and theories of solution
for problems. Analysis questions help in use of skills like distinguish, constituting
elements and analyzing. Synthesis level question stimulates learners to be more creative
and imaginative. They also encourages students to initiate, assimilate, and combine ideas
into a product. Evaluation level questions require learners to ponder on specific situation.
They also develop power of judgments and in time action skills.

42
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Teacher should avoid to ask too much lower order questions at secondary level.
2. A proper wait time should be given to students for proper response.
3. Teacher should be well known of use of effective questions for examining the
critical thinking skill of the students.
4. Teacher should ask questions which help to check the competency, use ideas,
concepts principles, and the find solutions to problems.
5. Teacher should ask question which develop the students’ power of judgment
and making them able to take right decision at the right time.

43
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1
ANNEXURE A
QUESTIONNAIRE
ANALYTIC STUDY OF QUESTIONS LEADING TO CRITICAL THINKING
Name___________________ Age________________________
Gender_________________ Level of Teaching____________
Teaching Experience (In Years)______________________________________
S# Questionnaire SA A UD DA SD
1 Question in the classroom is “any statement
intended to evoke a verbal response.
2 The questioning process is a central feature of
most classrooms.
3 Question is main source that leads students
toward critical thinking.
4 Teacher must be well known of use of effective
questions for enhancement of critical thinking.
5 Both convergent and divergent questions has its
specific part toward critical thinking.
6 Knowledge level questions lay stresses on
memory.
7 Knowledge level questions provide a base for
higher level thinking.
8 Comprehension based questions gives more
consideration to the comprehension of concepts
or principles.
9 Comprehension based questions help in use of
ideas, concepts, principles and theories for
solutions of the problems.
10 Comprehension level stimulate the learner
behavior to explain, describe, summarize, or
elaborate the facts.
11 Comprehension questions discourage rote
memorization of certain facts and their
translation.
12 Application level questions help to check
competency, use ideas, concepts, principles and
theories to find solutions to problems.
13 Analysis level question help to check ability to
distinguish, constituting elements and
analyzing the relationship between various
constituents

2
14 A synthesis level question stimulates learners to
be more creative and imaginative.
15 Synthesis level encourages students to initiate,
assimilate, and combine ideas into a product,
plan, or proposal that is unique to him/her
16 Evaluation level questions require learners to
ponder on specific situation.
17 Evaluation level questions are designed to
develop in students the power of making
judgments and taking in time decisions.
18 While questioning wait time break is key factor
of development of critical thinking.
19 Critical thinking include asking and answering
questions for clarification.
20 Critical thinking emerged from the cognitive
psychological approach.
21 Critical thinking is deeply rooted with different
aspects like metacognition, motivation and
creativity.

Questioning Leads to Critical Thinking

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