This literature review examined the effectiveness of expectancy theory and goal-setting theory in meeting organizational goals and driving change in diverse populations based on multiple field studies. The key findings were: 1) Both expectancy theory and goal-setting theory were found to be effective in multiple field studies in diverse cultural contexts when used individually or combined with other variables. 2) However, limitations were identified for both theories, including expectancy theory's difficulty managing uncertainty and goal-setting theory's challenges with disparities in employee and organizational commitment. 3) When goals were ambitious yet well-supported, commitment to assigned or self-set goals was found to be equally high according to two studies.

1. Running head: A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 1
A Literature Review of Expectancy &
Goal-Setting Theories When Meeting
Organizational Goals and Effecting
Change for Diverse Populations
1 / 5 / 2 0 1 5
Angela Dykstra
Global workplace disengagement was estimated by Gallup Poll (2013) to cost USA businesses
and society half a trillion dollars in 2012. In the new global economy and workplace, getting and
staying motivated while successfully navigating assigned or self-chosen workplace change may
demand leadership mitigate and mediate alarmingly high rates of workplace disengagement.
As a result, meeting or exceeding qualitative and quantitative organizational targets usually
requires leadership provide the right mix of motivational theories and tools to its leadership and
staff. However, no single motivation theory or tool has proven itself to be an end all strategy in
boosting staff motivation to change, or maintain a consistently high level of achievement. In
Porter & Lawler’s expectancy model, motivation was moderated and mediated by separate
variables that influence employee perceptions by value, probability, effort, ability, role,
performance, rewards, equity, and satisfaction. Goal-setting theory was proven in the literature
to increase performance among individuals, teams, and the organization in Australia, Canada,
the Caribbean, England, Japan, Germany, Spain, and Sweden. This literature review confirmed
that whether worker expectation or high-set specific and supported goals work best to motivate
staff, each have proved alone and in combination with other variables in this literature review to
positively or negatively affect motivation toward organizational goals and changes effecting
culturally diverse workplaces.

2. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 1
A Literature Review of Expectancy & Goal-Setting Theories
When Meeting Organizational Goals and Effecting Change for Diverse Populations
Angela Dykstra
Southern New Hampshire University

3. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 2
A Literature Review of Expectancy & Goal-Setting Theories
When Meeting Organizational Goals and Effecting Change for Diverse Populations
Maintaining competitive advantage or improving market standings of products and
services has required many 21st
Century organizations to go global (Estrin, 2009; Kim &
Maborgne, 2005). As a result, meeting or exceeding qualitative and quantitative organizational
targets usually requires leadership provide the right mix of motivational theories and tools to its
leadership and staff (Latham, 2012). In combination, or alone, making appropriate choices as to
which, when, where, why, and how a particular motivation theory or tool should be used often
requires leadership to consult the scientific record for reported best motivational options based at
least in part on situation, role, and environmental need. That said, expectancy and goal-setting
findings reviewed for this paper provided validity and some utility across diverse situation,
environment, culture, role, and task. Therefore, both expectancy and goal-setting theories proved
valid motivation models that have some multi-cultural design and content utility, and can produce
statistically significant probabilities of achievement prior to implementation.
Expectancy theory, which is itself comprised of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence
components, maintains that motivation is a two-stage sequence with performance bridging the
divide between effort and outcome (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009). In Porter & Lawler’s expectancy
model, motivation is moderated and mediated by separate variables that influence employee
perceptions by value, probability, effort, ability, role, performance, rewards, equity, and
satisfaction (Dinibutun, 2012). Expectancy theory has proven itself in the literature to measure
employee perceptions as they relate to motivational performance rewards as measured by goal-
attainment outputs across cultures (Latham, 2012). Therefore, the constructs of expectancy

4. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 3
theory appear to support motivating staff in meeting organizational goals and effecting change for
diverse populations.
Goal-setting theory claims that motivation relies on goals that direct employee attention
and effort toward goal-relevant activities while regulating effort, persistence, task strategies, and
action plans (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009). Goal-setting theory was proven in the literature to
increase performance among individuals, teams, and the organization in Australia, Canada, the
Caribbean, England, Japan (DuBrin, 2004), Germany (Bipp & Kleingeld, 2010), Spain (Morelli &
Braganza, 2012), and Sweden (Thorgren & Wincent, 2013). Absent a well thought out and
participative plan, including a detailed roadmap for navigational success, most organizations will
fail to thrive in today’s swiftly evolving technologically-driven marketplace in which the human
factor can make, break, or exceed projections. Therefore, goal-setting theory in whole and in part
appears to support motivating staff in meeting organizational goals and effecting change for
diverse populations.
Problem Formation
Global workplace disengagement was estimated by Gallup Poll (2013) to cost USA
businesses and society half a trillion dollars in 2012. Gallup Poll (2013) conducted a multiple
measures method of analysis from 34 countries, 49 industries, with 1,390,491 participants. As
presented in Table 1, Gallup Poll (2013) employee engagement results scream out for immediate
motivational leadership attention and intervention. Consequently, two motivation process
theories were believed to aid leadership in supporting an a organizational re-engagement strategy
with both validity and utility in culturally diverse settings. Process theory models engage with
motivation as a series of variable interactions that can be manipulated to influence employee
behavior to take action (Dinibutun, 2012). An expectancy theory model would claim motivation

5. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 4
Table 1
is an employee decision between effort and task situation (DuBrin, 2004). A goal-setting theory
model would claim motivation to perform as high levels of achievement can, in some instances,
be enhanced by setting participative difficult yet specific goals that include relevant and timely
feedback so as to strengthen commitment to assigned or self-set goals (Lock & Latham, 2002).
Therefore, based on the Gallup Poll (2013) results, leadership around the globe should scramble
to embrace motivational strategies such as expectancy and goal-setting so as to produce swift,
effective, affecting, long-lasting, and perhaps abrupt changes among diverse populations.
In the new global economy and workplace, getting and staying motivated while
successfully navigating assigned or self-chosen workplace change may demand leadership
mitigate and mediate alarmingly high rates of workplace disengagement (Latham, 2012).
However, no single motivation theory or tool has proven itself to be an end all strategy in
boosting staff motivation to change, or maintain a consistently high level of achievement

6. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 5
(DuBrin, 2004; Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009). As a result, the majority of studies reviewed for this
article also included common workplace variable components between the two such as:
personality, perceptions, performance, behavior, age, commitment-strength, education level, role,
task, feedback, and location. Therefore, expectancy and goal-setting theories provided a well-
researched platform from which to meet organizational goals intended to effect change for diverse
populations.
Method
Two research questions were under investigation in this literature review. Q1) Has
Expectancy Theory proved effective in field studies to meet organizational goals and effect
change for diverse populations? Q2) Has Goal-setting Theory proved effective in field studies to
meet organizational goals and effect change for diverse populations? To answer these questions,
an equal number of studies for each theory was sourced from the SNHU Online Library.
Although both theories appear in a number of psychology and managerial text books as being
positively correlated with achieving organizational goals involving change among diverse
cultures (DuBrin, 2004; Estrin, 2009; Kim & Mauborgne, 2005; Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009;
Latham, 2012), not until the study data was assembled and reviewed could either null hypothesis
be invalidated (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 2013).
Randomization and relevance of study was attempted by using multiple search strings in
the SNHU Online library and Google: study + expectancy theory; study + goal-setting theory;
study + expectancy + goal-setting theory; cultural validity + expectancy theory or goal-setting
theory; cultural utility + expectancy theory or goal-setting theory; negative + expectancy theory or
goal-setting theory; and positive + expectancy theory or goal setting theory (Rosnow &
Rosenthal, 2013). Return hit criteria included publication year ≥ 2009 + peer reviewed + journal

7. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 6
+ online full article availability. Article acceptance criteria were: Field study, culturally diverse
industry, setting, employee, or issue that measured a motivational aspect or change-acceptance
aspect of Expectancy- or Goal-setting theory alone and in combination with other dependent or
independent variables and theories. Article rejection criteria were: literature reviews and opinion
pieces. Therefore, the chosen method of artifact inclusion in this review contained flaws and
possible investigator biases so different studies might be obtained from another University or
Public Library by applying the same search string vocabulary, or choosing entirely new
vocabulary in the SNHU Online library or Google searches.
Data Analysis & Initial Findings
In today’s global economy, this literature review validates a basic foundational roadmap
of organizational motivation, or tool chest item support from which to scaffold direct findings that
apply or do not apply across culturally diverse workplace settings prior to investing in time,
energy, and money (Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009). Commitment to goals, whether self-set or
assigned, are often a high-target and measurable motivational output expectancy placed on
leadership effort and staff response (DuBrin, 2004). Among 97 chemical production workers in
Germany, Bipp & Kleingeld (2010) reported goal commitment to be highly correlated to associate
perceptions of the goal-setting process itself. So too did Jalivand & Ebrahimabadi (2011) in their
all-male field study of 131 Iranian Oil field-employees investigating the motivational
commitment of associates to attend organizational trainings based on demographic characteristics.
However, in the Iranian study, degree of commitment was found to be highly correlated to and
modulated by one’s employment-type (temporary vs regular) because this variable altered the
expectations of both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators the employee valued for participation.

8. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 7
Although neither a German chemical company nor Iranian oil firm can entirely represent
every global workplace, the expression and testing of expectancy and goal-setting motivational
theories supporting goal commitment to forced change in dangerous settings identified some
utility between a Collectivist vs Independent societal perspective. Both expectancy and goal-
setting theories in these two studies supported the development and maintenance of associate goal
commitment and also provided why commitment disparity could occur. Therefore, both theories
supported meeting organizational goals and effecting change for diverse populations in potentially
dangerous workplace settings.
Theory Applicability Analysis: Expectancy Theory Strengths & Limitations
The Brazilian research team of De Oliveira et al. (2013) reconfirmed the value-to-self
component of expectancy theory in their study of 241 banking mangers that measured willingness
to volunteer for organizationally-sponsored initiatives. Applying expectancy theory as their
primary motivational strategy, De Oliveria et al. (2013) discovered that this group of employees
were motivated to choose volunteerism only when the reward was perceived as valuable to the
manager. Expectancy motivation by individual vs organizational extrinsic and intrinsic reward
values in the Brazilian study were found to be almost equally effective as motivating or
demotivating results.
Johnson (2009a, 2009b, & 2010), along with Lambright (2010), applied expectancy theory
to explain motivation among 401 Midwestern US police officers and 78 US government
stakeholders to achieve quantifiable and qualifying routine productivity expectations related to
quotas of both self- and assigned goals. Using a multi-variant method of analysis, the multiple
Johnson studies measured officer expectancy to arrest criminals on their shift against actual arrest
records for domestic violence (2010), illegal drugs (2009a), and routine officer safety checks

9. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 8
(2009b). Results concluded the same in all three variations of inquiry. The highest rate of arrest
involved officers who received specialized training and perceived themselves to have a sufficient
amount of time in their schedules to dedicate to arrests. Lambright (2010) reported that
expectancy theory may fall short in settings, situations, or among stakeholders where phenomena
produced conditions of uncertainty; especially among 3rd
-party contractors. Therefore, while
expectancy theory appears valid in that it measures what it intends to measure as well as seems to
have utility across several culturally diverse settings, its identified shortcoming in managing
uncertainty could prove problematic because many workplaces are burdened with uncertainty
when strategizing organizational change.
Theory Applicability Analysis: Goal Setting Theory Strengths & Limitations
Highly-set goals often result in higher achievement than ‘do your best’ goals (Locke &
Latham, 2002). However, as Thorgren & Wincent (2013) reported in their questionnaire study of
134 Swedish leaders, too much passion for setting high goals can have negative motivational
effects on project teams because of the multi-variant nature of personality, perceptions, and
projects when working in group settings toward multi-faceted assigned and self-set goals.
Positive correlation was reported by Thorgren & Wincent (2013) between perceptions of team
member competence and their passion to engage in and remain committed to setting and
achieving high team goals. However, goal-setting speed mediated the goal-challenge relationship
by proving that at least in this study population, obsessive passion was negatively correlated with
team goal-setting ability because it can lead to a rushing of the goal-setting process.
Morelli and Braganza (2012), employed semi-structured interviews with Swedish
Pharmaceutical sales people to establish 11 key barriers to achieving goal-set quotas. Six of
these obstacles - goal-setting participation, fairness, reward, feedback, and perceived

10. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 9
unreasonable targets – also proved impactful to goal commitment among production employees in
the Bipp & Kleingeld (2010) Germany findings. In two studies rolled into a single article, Wetter,
Hofer, & Jonas (2013) measured the value of goal-setting success, vigor, and inefficiencies of
simple goal-setting among 65 European airport security employees and its effect on productivity
using performance as the measurement variable. Results proved that pre-intervention goal-setting
by leadership resulted in improved performance among staff committed to achieving employer-set
short-cycle goals (Wetter et al., 2013).
Additionally, Wetter et al. (2013) claimed that with their population, no feedback was
necessary to achieve high performance in short-cycle goals but that the more specific the goal
was, the higher employee performance result. However, when the associate or team was primed
to anticipate failure based on their perceptions from previous organizational goal-setting
initiatives that did not conclude with positive individual or team results, the benefits of goal-
setting on performance can be damaged (Wetter et al., 2013). Somewhat similarly, the Thorgren
and Wincent (2013) as well as Bipp and Kleingeld (2010) reported that team goal achievement
may be contingent upon leadership self-efficacy as well as extrinsic rewards related to her or his
role satisfaction, and the personalities of group stakeholders. Therefore, while goal-setting theory
appears valid in that it measures what it intends to measure as well as seems to have utility across
several culturally diverse settings, its identified shortcoming in managing disparity between
employee and organizational commitment could prove problematic because many employees
(Gallup Poll, 2013) may be intentionally disengaged when strategizing organizational change.
Discussion
Two initial hypotheses were under investigation in this literature review. H1) Expectancy
Theory has proved effective in multiple field studies in meeting organizational goals and effecting

11. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 10
change for diverse populations. H2) Goal-setting Theory has proved effective in field studies in
meeting organizational goals and effecting change for diverse populations. Findings from this
review concluded the null hypotheses were false. This review proved, as an enormous amount of
other literature has previously validated as true (DuBrin, 2004; Kinicki & Kreitner, 2009; Latham,
2012) that both Expectancy- and Goal-setting theories alone and in combination with other
variables proved effective in field studies to meet organizational goals and effect change for
diverse populations. Therefore, both theories appear to provide extrinsic and intrinsic
motivational guidelines when task, age, education, self-efficacy, feedback, personality,
perceptions, culture, location, industry, demographic, setting, project, and job role are
considerations to developing organizational motivation strategies to change that deliver as
anticipated across cultures.
Further Consideration
When goals are ambitiously high as opposed to ‘do your best’ and also well supported by
leadership and the organization, Bipp and Kleingeld (2010) and Wetter et al. (2013) both reported
there was no statistical significance measured when they assessed degree of commitment between
willingly completing assigned vs self-set goals. The De Oliveria et al. (2013) study validated that
at least among Brazilian banking populations, organizational communication of assigned goals
can and does affect both desired, undesired, or negligible motivation-related outcomes. Bipp and
Kleingeld (2010) confirmed that German employee interest and motivational tendencies toward
pay, working environment, and benefits can moderate and in some production populations
mediate strength of commitment to organizationally assigned goals. Expectancy and goal-setting
field study findings concluded both can measure compatible and incompatible motivation-to-
change components and variables in cross-cultural multi-modal organizational motivation strategy

12. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 11
development (Jalivand & Ebrahimabadi, 2011; Latham, 2012; Morelli & Braganza, 2012 ).
Therefore, whether worker expectation or high-set specific and supported goals work best to
motivate staff, each have proved alone and in combination with other variables to positively or
negatively affect motivation toward organizational goals and changes effecting culturally diverse
workplaces.

13. A LITERATURE REVIEW OF EXPECTANCY & GOAL-SETTING … 12
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