2. of opposite valence) at a time, physiological responses were
affected.Theauthorsindicatedthatanyaffectmayhavediffer-
ent implications for blood pressure or heart rate,dependingon
concurrent changes in the other affective dimensions. A posi-
tive experience may undo the effects of a negative mood,
whereaswhen two negative affectsare atrelatively high levels
of intensity, the physiological effects are augmented.
Recent data of Schaefer, Nils, Sanchez, and Philippot
(2008) showed that emotional ļ¬lm clips of about 5ā7 min
of duration may elicit a mixture of two negative (e.g., sadness
and disgust) feelings or a mixture of two opposite: negative
(e.g., sadness) and positive (e.g., tenderness) feelings at the
same time. The content of the sad ļ¬lm excerpts (āāThe
Champāā and āāSteel Magnoliasāā) used in Fredrickson and
Levensonās study (1998) had a negative content (sadness
related to loss) presented in a positive (tenderness or friend-
ship for a dead close relative) affective context (Lovell
Zefļ¬relli, 1979; Stark, Stone, White, Ross, 1989). How-
ever, Fredrickson and Levenson did not study responses to
ļ¬lms with the negative content (e.g., sadness) presented in a
negative (e.g., disgust) context. The current study was con-
ducted to test the hypothesis thattwo affectiveļ¬lms whicheli-
cit a common negative emotion (e.g., sadness) would elicit
different physiological responses depending on an additional
affectivecontext,eithernegativeorpositive.Differentcompo-
nentsoftheemotionalreactionwereproposedtobeevaluated:
behavioral, autonomic, subjective cognitive (appraisals), and
experiential (feelings and sensations) in order to compare the
response systems synergy (cooperative action) in processing
of different contexts of the same affect. The present study is
a laboratory-based context in which we explored some of
the ideas raised in Fredrickson and Levenson (1998) and
Shapiroet al.(2001),forexample,toinvestigatewhetherthere
is an addedphysiological āācostāā (increase in autonomic arou-
sal) of experiencing multiple negative emotions simulta-
neously and whether negative emotions can potentially be
mitigatedbypositive ones.WhileShapiroetal.ās (2001) study
proposed a parallel interaction of multiple feelings in their
(mitigating or augmenting) effect on physiological arousal
in everyday life, Fredrickson and Levensonās (1998) study
proposed that these arousal-relatedeffects of multiple feelings
would be in sequence, that is, with a delay from period of ļ¬lm
viewingtorecoveryperiod.These two different (āāsequentialāā
and āāparallelāā) concepts proposed two viewpoints on a con-
tent appraisal mechanism during and after exposure to emo-
tional ļ¬lms: A sequential appraisal of the several emotional
componentsofcomplexstimulioraparallelappraisalofthese
emotional components of ļ¬lms at the same time. Similar par-
allel or sequentialpatterningof objectiveindicatorsoffeelings
(facial expression) and mitigated or augmented physiological
arousal (autonomic activity) in response to two different stim-
uli was proposed to support one of the viewpoints.
Beside sadness, the additional affective contextual
information of the ļ¬lm clips had to induce another strong
emotion, either negative or positive. In the current study,
sadness was chosen as the common negative emotion to rep-
licate the study of Fredrickson and Levenson (1998). Two
additional emotions, either disgust (negative) or tenderness
(positive), were chosen, which demonstrate either avoidance
(antipathy) or attachment (empathy) moral behavior. Disgust
is one of the basic negative emotions, and it plays a special
role in moral judgment, moral conļ¬ict, and in a variety of
phobias, and is related to avoidance behavior in social rela-
tionships (Ortony Turner, 1990; Rozin, 1999). In many
cases, disgust emotion is accompanied by fear of the object
eliciting disgust. In the present study, the sad ļ¬lm with dis-
gust context was designated as āāavoidanceāā based on rela-
tionships between these two (i.e., fear and disgust) emotions
to common avoidance behavior. In contrast to disgust, ten-
derness is a complex emotional state (related to attachment)
which promotes positive subjective experiences such as soft,
loving, friendship, warm, and joyful feelings directed toward
someone else (Koelsch et al., 2007). Thus, the effects of an
āāavoidanceāā ļ¬lm (a sad ļ¬lm involving an additional nega-
tive experience of antipathy or disgust) were compared with
those of an āāapproachāā ļ¬lm (a sad ļ¬lm involving an addi-
tional positive experience related to empathy or tenderness).
In sum, one viewpoint suggests a sequential appraisal of
the two (main and supplementary) emotional components of
ļ¬lms (Figure 1a). It proposes that the ļ¬rst physiological
reaction to the two short ļ¬lm clips (i.e., during their presen-
tation) will be similar and related to the main negative con-
tent of ļ¬lms, that is, there will be no within-subject
difference in reactivity to the ļ¬lms compared to the baseline
level. However, there will be a within-subject contrast for
recovery periods after the two ļ¬lms: extension (i.e., prolon-
gation) effects on physiological reactivity from the addi-
tional negative context (āāavoidanceāā ļ¬lm) in contrast to
mitigation effects on physiological reactivity from the addi-
tional positive context (āāapproachāā ļ¬lm). The contrast will
be manifested by the difference from the baseline level to
the recovery period, when participants regulate their emo-
tions through rumination (perseverative cognition, Luminet
et al., 2000; Ottaviani, Shapiro, Davydov, Goldstein,
2008; RimeĢ et al., 1992). A second viewpoint supposes a
parallel appraisal of the two emotional components of ļ¬lms
at the same time (Figure 1b). At the physiological level, it
proposes that the ļ¬rst physiological reaction to the two ļ¬lms
(i.e., already during their presentation) will be different and
detected by within-subject contrast compared to the baseline
level in reactivity to the ļ¬lm viewing, when the appraisals
are made in parallel. The contrast will be related to arousal
augmentation effect of the additional negative context
(āāavoidanceāā ļ¬lm) and arousal mitigation effects related
to the additional positive context (āāapproachāā ļ¬lm). In
general, arousal-modulation effects were mainly expected
on sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
(Kreibig et al., 2007), which could be assessed by skin con-
ductance and cardiovascular reactivity.
Since the ļ¬lms could elicit more than two discrete emo-
tions, different negative and positive feelings were evaluated
to assess effects against dimensional and discrete approaches
in a study on affect (Stemmler et al., 2007; Watson, Clark,
Tellegen, 1988). Ratings of these feelings were aggregated
in scores related to separate negative and positive affective
dimensions. Objective variables of emotional responses
(facial expression as indicator of smiling and frowning
behaviors) were considered together with subjective (experi-
ential or feeling) ratings of the predicted emotions. In addi-
tion to autonomic responses, subjectsā bodily sensations
68 D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns
Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80 Hogrefe Publishing
3. were scaled to compare affective induction effects on both
subjective (sensations) and objective (physiology) measures
of somatic reactivity. Autonomic responses and changes in
bodily sensations during ļ¬lm presentation were expected
to show arousal component of the emotional responses.
Cognitive appraisals of ļ¬lm contents were used to account
for the variance in cognitive load (mental effort) and attrib-
uted to individual differences in perception of ļ¬lm content
(typicality, clarity, importance, and valence of situations pre-
sented in short clips). Thus, different groups of variables
were evaluated: motor or behavioral (facial expression),
autonomic (electrodermal and cardiovascular), subjective
cognitive (appraisals), and experiential (feelings and sensa-
tions) components of emotional reaction (domains of affec-
tive response). Concordance between and within these
response domains would help to test the hypothesis of cor-
respondence of a common sad experience assessed by sad
feeling and related facial expressions with either mitigated
or augmented arousal of autonomic activity assessed
by somatic sensations, electrodermal (sympathetic) and
cardiovascular (sympathetic/parasympathetic) activity in
two contexts validated by assessment of additional feelings,
appraisals, and related facial expressions. The time-related
pattern of these responses (see Figure 1) would help to test
the parallel and sequential mechanisms of complex affective
content processing.
Method
Participants
Twenty-six healthy female students at the UniversiteĢ Catho-
lique de Louvain, Belgium, took part in the experiment.
In Fredrickson and Levensonās study (1998), women were
more reactive to the sad ļ¬lm than men. For this reason, in
the present study, only female participants were studied.
Their mean age was 20 years (SD = 1.3). All participants
were French-speaking Belgian citizens. Written informed
consent was obtained after the procedures were fully
explained. They received course credit for their participa-
tion. The participants were treated according to ethical stan-
dards and fully debriefed.
Materials, Apparatus, and Measures
Visual Materials
Films are holistic creative compositions, which content
cannot easily be composed from and decomposed to all con-
textual elements and components for stimuli standardization
or selection procedure. However, more complex stimuli
were found to determine more accurate experience of pre-
sented emotions and content-related arousal than their par-
ticular components presented separately (Baumgartner,
Esslen, JaĢncke, 2006). Film effects cannot be determined
or explained by their component parts alone. Instead, the
ļ¬lm as a whole determines in an important way how the
parts (content and context) affect a subject. In the present
selection strategy common and different, primary and sec-
ondary affective elements of ļ¬lm content were evaluated
by combination of two subjective variables ā scores related
to feelings elicited by ļ¬lm clip viewing as a whole: āādiscrete
emotional ratingsāā and āādiscreteness of emotional statesāā
(see below).
The ļ¬lm clips were selected based on Schaefer et al.ās
study (2008) (http://nemo.psp.ucl.ac.be/FilmStim/). Find-
ings from this study have widely been used in recent studies
Figure 1. Schema of two pro-
posed viewpoints on negative
ļ¬lm perception with main nega-
tive (sad) contents and supple-
mentary negative (disgust, SN
ļ¬lm) or positive (tenderness, SP
ļ¬lm) emotional components
(contexts) in relation to physio-
logical arousal changes.
D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns 69
Hogrefe Publishing Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80
4. (GracĢanin, Kardum, Hudek-KnezĢevicĢ, 2007; Kreibig et
al., 2007; Van Gucht et al., 2008) and provide data on
self-reported emotional intensity scores, positive and nega-
tive affect levels (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988), 16 discrete
emotional ratings (Schaefer et al., 2003), and discreteness of
the emotion scores for these ļ¬lm clips (see Table 1). Dis-
crete emotional ratings are assessments of the intensity of
particular feelings related to the 16 differential emotions
scales. Discreteness of emotional states is the degree to
which one emotional state is uniquely activated while other
possible emotions are less activated: the mean score of the
scale targeting one particular emotion (from the discrete
emotional ratings) minus the averaged mean scores of the
scales targeting the other emotions. For example, a higher
score on a sadness self-report item while other items like
anger or happiness yield lower scores suggests that a state
of sadness has been activated with higher degree of discrete-
ness. Level of emotional intensity of a ļ¬lm clip is related to
how efļ¬cient the stimulus is in determining not a particular
emotion or an emotional dimension, but the global emo-
tional state (from no emotion to very intense emotion).
The clips were also evaluated on the PANAS global positive
and negative affect subscales. Three clips āāSadness with
Negative contextāā (SN) and seven clips āāSadness with Posi-
tive contextāā (SP) were ļ¬rst picked according to the global
affect indicated by the PANAS (positive affect ā negative
affect). Then, the selected SN and SP clips were balanced
on length, rating, discreteness of the common emotion (sad-
ness), and global emotional intensity. The clips were also
appraised for contrasts in ratings and discreteness of addi-
tional emotions (disgust and tenderness). Two short clips
known to elicit sadness plus an additional emotion (either
negative ā disgust, or positive ā tenderness), high global
emotional intensity, and interest were used in this study.
Table 1. Attributes of two sad ļ¬lm clips with different additional āāPositiveāā (SP) or āāNegativeāā (SN) emotional contexts
(from Schaefer et al., 2008)
Sad ļ¬lm with āāPositiveāā
(āāattachmentāā) context (SP)
Sad ļ¬lm with āāNegativeāā
(āāavoidanceāā) context (SN)
Variable āāPhiladelphiaāā āāDead man walkingāā
Time 50
2800
60
4000
Global emotional intensity rating score 5.24 5.87
General affect (positive ā negative
affects measured with PANAS)
0.47 (1.94ā1.47) 0.63 (1.99ā2.31)
A priori emotional category of the ļ¬lm excerpt Sadness Sadness
SADness rating score 4.37 4.21
Discreteness of SADness (score) 2.27 1.02
Additional strong emotion (rating score) Tenderness (4.35) Disgust (5.30)
Discreteness of additional emotion (score) 2.25 2.33
Ratings of feeling (7-point scales):
Interested 5.81 5.91
Fearful 1.94 3.46
Anxious 2.31 4.64
Moved 4.35 2.23
Angry 1.57 3.96
Ashamed 1.28 1.84
Warmhearted 1.33 1.14
Joyful 1.22 1.02
Sad 4.37 4.21
Satisļ¬ed 1.35 1.29
Surprised 1.48 2.18
Loving 1.89 1.27
Guilty 1.50 1.70
Disgusted 1.41 5.30
Disdainful 1.07 3.20
Calm 3.93 2.36
Discreteness (highest [7] to lowest [ 7]) of
Joy 1.51 2.82
Tenderness 2.25 1.36
Anger 1.09 0.72
Sadness 2.27 1.02
Fear 0.64 0.12
Disgust 1.29 2.33
70 D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns
Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80 Hogrefe Publishing
6. electrodes (Biopac System, Inc., Santa Barbara, CA, USA)
ļ¬lled with Biopac electrode gel and Biopac bioampliļ¬ers.
Interelectrode distance (center to center) was 1 cm for each
recording site. Signals were band-pass ļ¬ltered from 5 to
5,000 Hz and sampled at 1,000 Hz. The action of the
Orbicularis Oculi, pars lateralis (EMGorb), is proposed to
be a reliable sign of genuine enjoyment (sincere and invol-
untary smile), and the action of the Corrugator Supercilii
(EMGcor) is a reliable sign of genuine sadness (Ekman,
2003).
Cardiovascular System
Continuous recordings of the electrocardiogram (ECG) were
made using two standard Ag/AgCl electrodes ļ¬lled with
Biopac electrode gel and placed on each of the participantās
forearms. The signal was ampliļ¬ed and ļ¬ltered by a Biopac
bioampliļ¬er with high and low cutoffs set at 40 and 8 Hz,
respectively, and sampled at 2,000 Hz controlled by
AcqKnowledge software.
An infrared transducer was attached to the distal pha-
lange of the middle ļ¬nger of the right hand, and beat-to-beat
pulse volume was measured using a peripheral pulse ampli-
ļ¬er (Contact Precision Instruments, London, UK). The sig-
nal was sampled at 2,000 Hz via Biopac A/D converter by
control of the AcqKnowledge software.
Skin Conductance Level and Responses
These parameters were recorded using two Ag/AgCl elec-
trodes and 0.05-M NaCl electrolyte. Electrodes were placed
on the distal phalanges of the index and third ļ¬ngers of the
left hand. A constant voltage of 0.5 V was applied across
the electrodes, and skin conductance was measured using
a Biopac preampliļ¬er and sampled at 125 Hz. The signal
was calibrated to detect activity in the range from 0 to 20
microSiemens (lS).
Recommendations of Boucsein (1992) were used for
treatment of electrodes for skin conductance recording. Prior
to application of the other electrodes, the designated sites
were cleaned with alcohol to reduce skin impedance.
Procedure
On arrival at the laboratory, participants signed a consent
form informing them that the study would consist of psy-
chological testing and presentation of unpleasant ļ¬lm mate-
rial, as well as attachment of devices to record their
physiological responses, and that they would be free to with-
draw at any time. All procedures were conducted in a 6 Ā·
3-m electrically and acoustically isolated chamber. Partici-
pants were seated in a comfortable armchair, and their fore-
arms rested on armrests at heart level. To get baseline
self-evaluation, participants were asked to rate by paper
and pencil the 12 emotions and 13 bodily sensations they
were experiencing. To avoid possible order effects, ļ¬lm
presentations were counterbalanced. Physiological channels
were continuously sampled during the ļ¬lm presentations,
baseline, and recovery periods. Instructions were given from
an adjacent room via an intercom. Following an orientation
period and attachment of physiological sensors, participants
were asked to ļ¬nd a comfortable sitting position, to relax, to
empty the mind of all thoughts, feelings, and memories, and
reminded to avoid any unnecessary movements and speech.
They were to stay alert and look at the white cross on the
television monitor.
After a short period (1ā2 min) of monitoring to insure
proper equipment functioning, the ļ¬rst baseline recording
of physiological activity was completed (6 min). Then, the
ļ¬rst ļ¬lm presentation (5 min 28 s or 6 min 40 s) followed
after a short instruction to watch the whole scene attentively.
After presentation of the ļ¬lm clip, physiological activity was
recorded during the ļ¬rst recovery period (5 min). Then, the
ļ¬lm familiarity, emotional upset, 12 emotions, 13 bodily
sensations, and 8 ļ¬lm content appraisal scales were com-
pleted. The same procedure was repeated for the second
ļ¬lm. During the baseline and post-ļ¬lm recovery periods,
the television monitor was black. Following detachment of
electrodes, the personality questionnaires were administered
and participants were fully debriefed. Total time for the
experiment was about 60ā80 min.
Physiological and Subjective Data Reduction
and Processing
Physiological Variables
The raw EMG signal was subjected to a 10ā500-Hz digital
band-pass ļ¬lter, rectiļ¬ed, and smoothed using a 1-s time
constant and downsampled to 10 Hz. The interbeat intervals
(IBI) were calculated as the time in milliseconds between
successive R waves in the ECG and were edited for outliers
(artifacts or ectopic myocardial activity). Successive differ-
ences between IBIs were measured to assess IBI variability
(IBIV; in ms). Respiration was derived from the recorded
ECG signals by the amplitude demodulation (R-wave ampli-
tude time series) method related to mechanical cardiorespi-
ratory coupling to chest and diaphragm motion, which has
a high correlation with the respiration derived by other tech-
niques (see, e.g., Felblinger Boesch, 1997). Respiration
data are not presented in the current report. Finger pulse
amplitude (FPA), the trough-to-peak amplitude (in Volts)
of each ļ¬nger pulse, was measured. To obtain pulse transit
time (PTT) to the ļ¬nger, the interval was timed between
the peak of each R wave and the beginning of the upstroke
of the pulse wave at the ļ¬nger. Skin conductance level
(SCL) was measured in microSiemens (lS), rate of nonspe-
ciļ¬c skin conductance responses (SRR) in number per min-
ute of short-term skin conductance increases (SCRs)
exceeding 0.04 lS from preceding zero-slope baselines,
and mean SCR amplitude (SRA) of nonspeciļ¬c SCRs in
lS as the average amplitude of the SCRs. Data processing
of physiological signals for detection of level, interval,
rate, amplitude and variability with artifact search and
72 D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns
Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80 Hogrefe Publishing
7. replacement was performed off-line with customized inter-
active computer programs written in the Spike2 program-
ming environment (Cambridge Electronic Design,
Cambridge, UK; programs written by DMD, see Davydov,
Shapiro, Cook, Goldstein, 2007; Davydov, Shapiro,
Goldstein, 2010).
This set of measures was selected to allow for continu-
ous measurement, to be as unobtrusive as possible, and to
sample broadly from the autonomic system. Whereas heart
period (IBI) is under both sympathetic and parasympathetic
control, FPA (an index of peripheral vasoconstriction), PTT
(an inverse index of blood pressure changes, see, e.g., Pollak
Obrist, 1983), and skin conductance measures (SCL,
SRR, SRA) track processes mediated by the sympathetic
nervous system, and IBIV traces mainly changes in
cardiac vagal control (Friedman, Allen, Christie, Santucci,
2002).
Raw scores were deļ¬ned as the arithmetic mean of the
physiological data within each experimental condition
(two rest baselines, two ļ¬lm presentations, and two recovery
periods). This approach likely leads to a conservative esti-
mate of emotional response speciļ¬city, as subjects are unli-
kely to manifest a strong emotional response at a consistent
magnitude at the very beginning and throughout the ļ¬lm
period. Reactivity for each variable (EMGcor and EMGorb
levels, IBI, IBIV, FPA, PTT, SCL, SRR, SRA) was deļ¬ned
as difference scores calculated by subtracting the prior base-
line mean score (i.e., the average of the quiet sitting period
immediately preceding each ļ¬lm clip) from the ļ¬lm and
recovery raw mean scores. Finally, variables were assessed
for normality of distribution.
Emotional Experience
Composite scores for subjective data were computed for
each participant by averaging the ratings of joy and happi-
ness (positive feeling domain, Cronbachās a = .92) and sad-
ness, anger, fear, anxiety, disgust, and contempt (negative
feeling domain, Cronbachās a = .86). Though interest and
surprise seemed to be related to the same arousal domain,
they were considered as separate uncorrelated vigilance
and orienting arousal processes (Cronbachās a = .28) and
were evaluated independently. The two socially-orienting
feelings (shame and guilt) were also considered as two
weakly-correlated processes (Cronbachās a = .57) and were
used as separate measures.
Bodily Sensations
Composite scores for subjective data were computed for
each participant by averaging the ratings for perspiration,
hot head, and blushing (heat sensation domain, Cronbachās
a = .82), lump in the throat, pounding heart, change of
breath, heavy chest, stomach sensations, and tension in their
muscles (organ sensation domain, Cronbachās a = .84).
Other uncorrelated sensation terms were analyzed as unique
variables: cold shivers (cold sensation domain), body
relaxation (in inverse scale as body tension domain), shiver-
ing, and impression of āāblood boiling.āā General somatic
arousal scores were computed by averaging subjective
bodily sensation terms for baseline and two post-ļ¬lm
periods.
Film Content Appraisals
Composite scores for ļ¬lm content appraisals were computed
for each participant by averaging ratings of the terms famil-
iar/strange, banal/exceptional, and usual/unusual (āātypical-
ityāā or āāfamiliarityāā content domain, Cronbachās a = .79),
clear/confused, comprehensible/incomprehensible (āāclarityāā
content domain, Cronbachās a = .78), enjoyable/unpleasant,
no consequence/full of consequences, insigniļ¬cant/serious
(āāvalenceāā content domain, Cronbachās a = .86).
Statistical Analysis
Data analysis was performed with SPSS, Release 12.0
(SPSS Science, Chicago, IL) using General Linear Models
(GLM). Respective assumptions (e.g., normality and linear-
ity) for regression models were tested. Differences at
p .05 were regarded as signiļ¬cant, and g2
.15 was
deļ¬ned as the appropriate (medium or large) effect size, con-
cerning the balance between Type I and Type II errors due to
the small sample size. Since some subjective measures did
not ļ¬t a normal distribution, the Friedman Test (v2
) with
Spearmanās rank-order correlation coefļ¬cient (q) were used
as the nonparametric alternatives to the one-way repeated-
measures GLM analyses with a g2
measure of effect size
(marked in the Tables).
Film familiarity (āāļ¬lm already seenāā) and order of the
ļ¬lm presentation were used as covariates in all analyses to
control for the effects of these factors on dependent behav-
ioral, physiological, and subjective responses. For manipula-
tion check, all measures of emotional experience and bodily
sensations (scores of subjective scales), as well as of emo-
tional expressive behavior (EMG levels) between baseline
and ļ¬lm periods (period factor), were subjected to
repeated-measures GLM analyses for each dependent
variable.
To test the hypothesis on the difference in physiological
reactivity between the SN and SP ļ¬lms, two sets of tests
were conducted. Each physiological variable was ļ¬rst tested
for signiļ¬cant differences between baseline and ļ¬lm and
between baseline and recovery periods by GLM analyses.
Additionally, difference scores of physiological reactivity
adjusted to respective covariates (the āāļ¬lm orderāā and āāļ¬lm
already seenāā) were tested for signiļ¬cant differences
between the two ļ¬lm conditions (Condition factor: SN
and SP) by the t-tests. Since the āāļ¬lm already seenāā factor
varied within each subject as a speciļ¬c element related to a
particular ļ¬lm, repeated-measures GLM could not be uti-
lized for these between-ļ¬lm contrast analyses. Since the
study was conducted for a single inference related to two
alternative hypotheses no compensations for the number
of inferences (i.e., multiple testing correction) were made.
D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns 73
Hogrefe Publishing Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80
8. To clarify the second viewpoint (if the ļ¬rst physiological
reaction to the two ļ¬lms would be different), within-subject
variations in physiological reactions, various feelings and
sensations between ļ¬lms were evaluated for correspondence
by appropriate product-moment or rank correlation (e.g., for
D body tension ratings and D SCLs as within-subject SN-SP
difference of these values between ļ¬lms) to explain the nat-
ure of physiological reactivity difference between ļ¬lms as
related to: (a) between-ļ¬lm variation in induction of sad
feeling associated with a common sad content; (b) the pres-
ence of other between-ļ¬lm factors determining variation in
subjectās attention (interest, signiļ¬cance, or orienting) asso-
ciated with content contrast or in subjectās tension associated
with physical (visual or acoustical) contrasts between stim-
uli; or (c) between-ļ¬lm difference in induction of negative
moral feelings (shame avoidance vs. guilty attachment)
associated with difference in moral disgust (avoidance)
and tenderness (attachment) contexts.
Results
Experiential Responses (Subjective Ratings)
As predicted, the SN and SP ļ¬lms did not differ signiļ¬cantly
in eliciting sad emotion (Table 2). Moreover, SN and SP
ļ¬lm contents signiļ¬cantly increased sad feeling and arousal
related to vigilance (i.e., ratings of interest, but not ratings of
surprise related to orienting arousal), decreased subjectsā
positive feelings and āāheat sensationāā ratings compared to
baseline (Table 2). In addition, the SN ļ¬lm content increased
negative feelings, coldness and organ-related sensations,
body tension (i.e., decreased relaxation), and general
somatic arousal compared to baseline. The SP ļ¬lm content
decreased social negative affect (shame) and impression of
āāblood boilingāā compared to baseline. The two ļ¬lms signif-
icantly differed from each other in effects on positive feel-
ings (less ratings during the SN ļ¬lm), on negative
feelings, vigilance ratings, coldness and organ-related sensa-
tions, body tension, and general somatic arousal (all scores
are more during the SN ļ¬lm). Contents of the two ļ¬lms
were differently appraised with the SP ļ¬lm content assessed
as being less clear (more confused), but less unpleasant and
evoking less emotional upset (Table 3).
Behavioral Responses (Facial Muscle Activity)
As predicted SN and SP ļ¬lm contents signiļ¬cantly increased
subjectsā EMGcor activity compared to baseline (Table 4).
The SN ļ¬lm content also increased EMGorb activity com-
pared to baseline and the SP ļ¬lm condition. Though with
less power, increased EMGorb activity after the SN ļ¬lm
content and higher EMGcor activity after both SN and SP
ļ¬lms continued to be induced during the recovery period
compared to baseline (Table 5). During the recovery period,
Table 2. Within-subject Paired Samples Testsa
of subjective feelings and sensations for the Sad ļ¬lm with Negative context
(SN) and the Sad ļ¬lm with Positive context (SP) compared to baseline, and between themselves
Film condition ā
baseline difference (D)
Baseline For SN ļ¬lm For SP ļ¬lm
DSN ļ¬lm ā DSP
ļ¬lm difference
Variables M (SD) M D (SD) F(1, 26) g2
M D (SD) F(1, 26) g2
F(1, 26) g2
Sad emotion 1.54 (1.58) 1.34 (1.87) 13.40** .35 1.00 (2.02) 6.37* .20 1.26 .05
Interest (vigilance) 4.00 (0.89) 1.15 (1.35) 19.07* .43 0.62 (1.17) 7.21* .22 7.70* .24
Surprise (orienting) 1.65 (1.38) 0.38 (1.75) 1.26 .05 0.12 (1.99) 1 .00 1 .02
Positive feelings 3.04 (1.18) 2.81 (1.18) 146.2*** .85 1.71 (1.28) 46.34*** .65 33.22*** .57
Negative feelings 1.19 (0.94) 1.73 (1.50) 34.78*** .58 0.02 (1.03) 1 .00 59.25*** .70
Social affect (shame)b
0.35 (0.75) 0.12 (1.31) 1 .09 0.31 (0.74) 5.00* .33 3.57 .74
Social affect (guilt)b
0.54 (0.95) 0.35 (1.02) 1.60 .08 0.35 (1.16) 3.57 .33 1.80 .67
Heat sensation 1.47 (1.26) 0.86 (1.29) 11.47** .31 1.12 (1.35) 17.56*** .42 2.08 .08
Cold sensationb
0.35 (0.63) 1.77 (1.92) 13.24*** .47 0.62 (1.53) 3.00 .20 10.89** .48
Shiveringb
0.89 (1.70) 0.08 (1.60) 1 .48 0.35 (1.55) 1 .41 3.60 .55
Impression of
āāblood boilingāāb
0.31 (0.47) 0.12 (0.95) 1 .03 0.19 (0.40) 5.00* .54 3.57 .72
Organ sensation 1.53 (1.22) 0.99 (1.36) 13.79** .36 0.08 (0.89) 1 .01 20.60*** .45
Body tension 2.08 (1.44) 2.69 (2.45) 31.51*** .56 1.04 (2.97) 3.17 .11 23.43*** .48
General somatic arousal 1.10 (0.65) 0.80 (0.89) 20.78*** .45 0.01 (0.85) 1 .00 35.26*** .59
Note. a
Since the results of parametric tests (F) showed similar effects with and without controlling for ļ¬lm order and already seen
factors, the effects related to subjective ratings are presented here without adjustment for these factors to be comparable to nonpara-
metric (v2
) tests.
b
A nonparametric Friedman Test (v2
) was used for repeated-measures analysis with Spearmanās rank-order correlation coefļ¬cient (q) as
a measure of effect size instead of respective F and g2
.
*p .05. **p .01. ***p .001.
74 D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns
Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80 Hogrefe Publishing
9. the two ļ¬lms also signiļ¬cantly differed from each other in
their effects on EMGorb activity (more activity during the
SN ļ¬lm).
A signiļ¬cant Film order Ā· Period interaction was
obtained for EMGorb reactivity to the SP ļ¬lm, F(1,
23) = 4.48, p .05, g2
= .16. Less EMGorb activity com-
pared to baseline was found during the SP ļ¬lm period when
the SP ļ¬lm was presented before the SN ļ¬lm (mean D
(SD) = .42 (2.43) and g2
= .06). More EMGorb activity
compared to baseline period was found during the SP ļ¬lm
period when the SP ļ¬lm was presented after the SN ļ¬lm
(mean D (SD) = .30 (1.30) and g2
= .11).
Physiological Responses
(Autonomic Activity)
Compared to baseline, the two sad ļ¬lms induced different
autonomic responses (Table 4). The SN ļ¬lm content pro-
voked an increase in SRR and in SCL, but the SP ļ¬lm con-
tent induced a decrease in SRA and heart rate (increase in
IBI). The two ļ¬lms also differed signiļ¬cantly from each
other in their effects on SCL (increase during the SN ļ¬lm)
and on SRA (decrease during the SP ļ¬lm). During the
post-ļ¬lm recovery period, the SN ļ¬lm content produced
accelerated heart rate (lower IBI) compared to baseline
and the SP post-ļ¬lm condition, while the SP ļ¬lm content
continued to induce a decelerated heart rate (increase in
IBI) during the post-ļ¬lm recovery period compared to base-
line (see Table 5).
In addition signiļ¬cant Film order Ā· Period interaction
effects were also obtained for SRR and IBI recovery after
SP, Fs(1, 23) = 9.27 and 12.76, ps .05, g2
= .29 and
.36, respectively, and SN, Fs(1, 23) = 4.84 and 8.07,
ps .05, g2
= .17 and .26, respectively, ļ¬lms. Skin conduc-
tance and heart rate activities were more overinhibited com-
pared to baseline period (means D (SDs) = 1.37 (4.88)
and 27.39 (57.22), and g2
= .15 and .34, respectively) after
the SP ļ¬lm when the SP ļ¬lm was presented before the SN
ļ¬lm. Skin conductance and heart rate activities were more
overactivated compared to baseline period (means D
(SDs) = 1.18 (2.67) and 22.06 (20.99), and g2
= .31,
and .72, respectively) after the SN ļ¬lm when the SN ļ¬lm
was presented after the SP ļ¬lm.
Effects on PTT activity were masked by the familiarity
with ļ¬lm content. Signiļ¬cant Already seen Ā· Period interac-
tions were obtained for PTT activity related to the SN ļ¬lm
during presentation and recovery periods, Fs(1, 23) = 6.60
and 4.95, ps .05, g2
= .22 and .18, respectively. Shorter
PTT (physiologically corresponds to increase of blood pres-
sure) compared to baseline was found during the SN ļ¬lm
presentation and recovery periods in subjects who had not
viewed this ļ¬lm previously (means D (SDs) = 3.80
(6.51) and 2.41 (5.32), and g2
= .33 and .23, respectively).
Coupling of Subjective Ratings With
Behavioral and Physiological Responses
During Film Viewing
Signiļ¬cant (p .05) correlations were found for within-sub-
jects differences in ratings of body tension and SCL
(r = .42), in ratings of āāorgan sensationāā and EMGorb
activity (r = .54), in ratings of ļ¬lm content appraisal of con-
fusion and EMGcor activity (r = .53), and in ratings of an
avoidance-related social feeling (shame) and somatic arousal
indexed by objective measures (SRR, SCL, and IBI,
rs = .48, .45, and .44, respectively) and a subjective mea-
sure (āāorgan sensationāā, r = .46).
Discussion
Can a Common Sad Experience Induce
Different Somatic Arousal?
As predicted, sad ļ¬lm clips induced coupled reactions of
experiential and behavioral response systems in response
to the negative emotional content of the ļ¬lms. Participants
reported feeling less happy and joyful and showed increased
activity of facial muscle related to sadness (Corrugator
Supercilii or āāfrowningāā). Response of the latter, objective
Table 3. Within-subject Paired Samples Testsa
of content appraisals between the Sad ļ¬lm with Negative context (SN) and
the Sad ļ¬lm with Positive context (SP)
After SN ļ¬lm After SP ļ¬lm SN ļ¬lm ā SP ļ¬lm difference
Variables Mc
(SD) Mc
(SD) F(1, 26) g2b
Film content unusual 5.30 (1.37) 5.06 (1.18) 1 .04
Film content confused 1.98 (1.07) 4.07 (1.70) 28.93* .58
Film content unpleasant 6.00 (0.82) 4.16 (1.43) 29.04* .59
Film already seenb
0.27 (0.45) 0.19 (0.40) 1 .14
Emotional upset 7.19 (1.36) 4.57 (2.42) 21.04* .51
Notes. a, b
Idem (see Table 2).
c
Higher scores are always related to the variable label used, where score 4 corresponds to the middle or neutral level for Film content
unusual, confused, or unpleasant, score 0 corresponds to unfamiliarity with a ļ¬lm for the āāFilm already seenāā question, and score 5
corresponds to the middle or neutral level for the single āāEmotional upsetāā question after watching the ļ¬lm.
*p .001.
D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns 75
Hogrefe Publishing Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80
10. Table 4. Within-subject Paired Samples Testsa
of physiological reactivity for the Sad ļ¬lm with Negative context (SN) and the Sad ļ¬lm with Positive context (SP)
compared to baseline, and between themselves
For SN ļ¬lm For SP ļ¬lm
DSN ļ¬lm ā DSP ļ¬lm differenceb
Baseline
Film condition ā
baseline difference (D) Baseline
Film condition ā
baseline difference (D)
Variables M (SD) M D (SD) F(1, 22) g2
M (SD) M D (SD) F(1, 22) g2
P (two-sided)
SRR (response per min) 2.10 (2.13) 0.85 (1.65) 6.60* .22 2.02 (2.49) 0.32 (1.57) 1.06 .04 .241
SRA (microSiemens) 0.34 (0.26) 0.01 (0.17) 1 .00 0.37 (0.32) 0.14 (0.27) 6.70* .23 .019
SCL (microSiemens) 6.47 (3.03) 0.36 (0.76) 5.63* .20 6.30 (2.65) 0.18 (0.80) 1.28 .05 .016
PTT (msec) 213.31 (21.27) 0.35 (6.61) 1 .00 210.04 (19.32) 0.80 (3.82) 1.09 .05 .446
FPA (V) 2.04 (1.53) 0.25 (.81) 2.33 .09 2.08 (1.72) 0.36 (1.03) 2.98 .12 .671
IBIV (ms) 43.76 (20.70) 0.61 (8.19) 1 .01 41.19 (21.61) 0.80 (6.95) 1 .01 .929
IBI (ms) 834.86 (103.37) 11.99 (30.23) 3.94 .15 820.08 (97.56) 15.99 (27.99) 8.17** .26 .623
EMGorb (mV) 2.89 (1.34) 0.79 (1.12) 12.65** .36 2.96 (1.65) 0.08 (1.29) 1 .00 .012
EMGcor (mV) 9.75 (6.11) 10.76 (9.90) 29.57*** .56 10.29 (6.46) 6.77 (5.90) 32.87*** .59 .084
Notes. SCL, SRR, SRA ā Skin Conductance level, Response Rate, and Response Amplitude; PTT ā Pulse Transit Time; FPA ā Finger Pulse Amplitude; IBI, IBIV ā Interbeat Interval
Mean and Variability; EMGorb, EMGcor ā Orbicularis Oculi and Corrugator Supercilii muscle activities.
a
The āāļ¬lm orderāā and āāļ¬lm already seenāā variables were presented in the models as covariates to adjust effects. The results showed similar effects without controlling for these factors
with higher or lower effect sizes.
b
Since the āāļ¬lm already seenāā factor varied within each subject as a speciļ¬c element related to a particular ļ¬lm, repeated-measures GLM could not be utilized for these between-ļ¬lm
contrast analyses. The t-tests of difference of means of adjusted reactivity scores were used instead.
p .1. *p .05. **p .01. ***p .001.
76
D.
M.
Davydov
et
al.:
Sadness
and
Physiological
Response
Patterns
Journal
of
Psychophysiology
2011;
Vol.
25(2):67ā80
Hogrefe
Publishing
11. measure of negative condition, coincided with increased
subjective ratings of sad feeling in response to both ļ¬lms
and was not signiļ¬cantly different between ļ¬lms.
However, as predicted, the āāavoidanceāā ļ¬lm (a sad ļ¬lm
involving an additional negative emotion of antipathy, dis-
gust, or fear) and the āāapproachāā ļ¬lm (a sad ļ¬lm involving
an additional positive emotion of empathy, tenderness, or
friendship) differed in their ability to induce both subjective
experiential and sensation measures of emotional arousal.
On the one hand, the āāavoidanceāā ļ¬lm induced more basic
negative emotions of anger, fear, anxiety, disgust, and con-
tempt and more of some unpleasant somatic sensations
(coldness and organ-related sensations: lump in the throat,
pounding heart, change of breath, heavy chest, stomach sen-
sations, and tension in the muscles). On the other hand, the
āāapproachāā ļ¬lm induced a reduction in the social negative
emotion of shame and unpleasant somatic sensations of heat
and impression of blood boiling, compared to baseline.
Moreover, the āāapproachāā ļ¬lm content was subjectively
appraised as less unpleasant, but also less clear or more
ambiguous (confused) compared to content of the āāavoid-
anceāā ļ¬lm. It is thus possible that the āāapproachāā ļ¬lm with
emotions from different negative and positive dimensions
had a more complex content in comparison to the āāavoid-
anceāā ļ¬lm, which content was clearly negative.
These results suggest that the combination of two differ-
ent negative facets in a stimulus can accentuate the negative
impact of an emotion-inducing stimulus on the subjective
experience and associated somatic arousal indexed by
somatic perceptions in general. In contrast, the combination
of positive and negative facets in a stimulus can reduce the
negative impact of a sad ļ¬lm in part as indicated by coupled
decreases of speciļ¬c negative moral feeling (shame) and
somatic arousal (indexed by heat sensation). The results also
showed that the latter combination of positive and negative
facets complicated the cognitive processing of the contents
of a stimulus as indexed by its appraisal as being less clear
(more confused). It appeared to support the value of a cog-
nitive (appraisal) aspect in affective processes (Scherer,
Schorr, Johnstone, 2001).
The present study also showed that ļ¬lms that involve
complex emotional contents can be used to induce the expe-
rience of discrete emotions of the same negative affect
dimension but in different directions. In the present study,
while the main sad content of the ļ¬lm with an attachment
context induced an increase of sadness, an additional posi-
tive (empathy) contextual information in the same clip
reduced the negative social (moral) emotion of shame from
baseline without changing the general negative affect dimen-
sion. Shame is distinct from empathy and involves a focus
on the self, isolation, and avoidant-orienting coping strate-
gies. Thus, all above subjective (appraisals, feelings, and
sensations) and objective (behavioral) outcomes conļ¬rmed
the ļ¬rst hypothesis that the āāapproachāā sad ļ¬lm differed
qualitatively from the āāavoidanceāā sad ļ¬lm according to
their secondary āāmoralāā contexts. The second question,
whether between-ļ¬lm differences in subjective responses
were supporting a parallel (holistic) or a sequential (serial)
processing of complex contextual information, is addressed
in the following discussion of changes in physiological
activity.
A Parallel (Holistic) or a Sequential (Serial)
Processing of Complex Contextual
Information
In the present study, as predicted (see Kreibig et al., 2007),
the ļ¬lms had no effects on the parasympathetic activity (as
measured by heart rate variability) during ļ¬lm viewing and
recovery periods. This suggests that viewing sad ļ¬lm clips is
Table 5. Within-subject Paired Samples Testsa
of physiological reactivity during recovery periods after the Sad ļ¬lm with
Negative context (SN) and the Sad ļ¬lm with Positive context (SP) compared to baseline (for baseline variables
see Table 3), and between themselves
Recovery condition ā baseline (D)
DSN ļ¬lm ā DSP ļ¬lm difference
After SN ļ¬lm After SP ļ¬lm
Variables M D (SD) F(1, 23) g2
M D (SD) F(1, 23) g2
P (two-sided)
SRR (response per min) 0.41 (1.69) 1.51 .06 0.18 (2.36) 1 .01 .305
SRA (microSiemens) 0.03 (0.36) 1 .01 0.01 (0.34) 1 .00 .682
SCL (microSiemens) 0.30 (0.87) 3.02 .12 0.10 (1.18) 1 .01 .170
PTT (msec) 0.07 (5.45) 1 .00 1.21 (3.30) 3.40 .13 .366
FPA (V) 0.16 (0.77) 1.05 .04 0.28 (1.06) 1.69 .07 .643
IBIV (ms) 0.50 (6.55) 1 .01 2.18 (9.89) 1.21 .05 .255
IBI (ms) 8.66 (20.71) 4.37* .16 13.11 (31.93) 4.22 .16 .005
EMGorb (mV) 0.42 (1.03) 4.23 .16 0.28 (1.28) 1.15 .05 .035
EMGcor (mV) 2.61 (4.72) 7.66* .25 2.31 (5.35) 4.67* .17 .831
Notes. SCL, SRR, SRA ā Skin Conductance level, Response Rate, and Response Amplitude; PTT ā Pulse Transit Time; FPA ā Finger
Pulse Amplitude; IBI, IBIV ā Interbeat Interval Mean and Variability; EMGorb, EMGcor ā Orbicularis Oculi and Corrugator Supercilii
muscle activities.
a
Idem (see Table 4).
p .1. *p .05.
D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns 77
Hogrefe Publishing Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80
12. a relatively passive task that cannot evoke an active engage-
ment or that would need affect regulation in a healthy sam-
ple (Mauss et al., 2005; Volokhov Demaree, 2010).
Indeed active engagement or affective regulation has been
associated with vagus activity changes in active laboratory
challenges (Ottaviani et al., 2008). As a consequence, the
physiological changes found in the present study were attrib-
uted to sympathetic arousal variations. Compared to the rest-
ing (baseline) period, the āāavoidanceāā ļ¬lm viewing induced
an increase in sympathetic arousal as indexed by an increase
in SCL and response rate in all subjects and by lower PTT in
subjects who had not previously seen this ļ¬lm. The condi-
tion of an augmented sympathetic arousal was extended to
the recovery period after this ļ¬lm presentation. This was
then indexed by a higher heart rate in all subjects and by
a lower PTT in subjects who had not previously seen this
ļ¬lm. In contrast, compared to the resting (baseline) period,
the āāapproachāā ļ¬lm induced a decrease in sympathetic
arousal as indexed during the ļ¬lm viewing by a decrease
in amplitude of skin conductance responses and during both
periods by lower heart rate.
Thus, the ļ¬lms induced a qualitative (bidirectional or
binary: 1/ 1) contrast in physiological arousal responses
since responses went in different directions relative to base-
line and this started already during ļ¬lm presentation. It con-
ļ¬rmed the somatic arousal differences between the
āāapproachāā and the āāavoidanceāā sad ļ¬lms indicated by
subjective sensations. This result answers the second ques-
tion as to whether between-ļ¬lm differences in subjective
responses were supporting a parallel (holistic) or a sequen-
tial (serial) processing of complex contextual information.
It appeared to support the viewpoint of a parallel (holistic)
rather than a serial processing of complex contextual infor-
mation submitted by ļ¬lms. Indeed, the results of the present
study showed that, although two sad ļ¬lms were both asso-
ciated with higher negative affective (subjective and behav-
ioral) responses, they determined physiological arousal in
opposite directions (up or down) from the baseline levels.
The within-subject arousal variations were induced already
during the ļ¬lms viewing by the cognitive appraisals of the
same common sad or depression-like content (unjust suffer-
ing, loss, and grief) presenting in the two different contexts.
This arousal-related contrast of autonomic and behavioral
activities continued to spread through the post-ļ¬lm āārecov-
eryāā period and was not dependent on differences in other
arousal-related factors such as interest and tension. These
results thus appeared to support the viewpoint that the level
of physiological arousal would be simultaneously (Shapiro
et al., 2001), but not serially (Fredrickson Levenson,
1998), modulated by an additional emotional context of
the sad stimulus. Indeed, if it were serially modulated, only
the post-ļ¬lm recovery period would have shown the
detected differences in physiological arousal (see Figure 1).
In addition, the results of the present study showed that
an additional affective context affected physiological arousal
not according to an āāundoāā mechanism. This mechanism
would have been found if the physiological āācostāā of
experiencing a negative emotion was found to be mitigated
by the simultaneous living of a positive one (Fredrickson
Levenson, 1998; Shapiro et al., 2001). This was not the
case. Indeed, a temporal coupling of the negative affects
of sadness and disgust at relatively high levels of intensity
was related to augmented physiological arousal above base-
line levels, thus indexing an arousal-increasing condition.
On the contrary, an affect related to the positive experience
of tenderness did not just undo the effects of an intense neg-
ative sad subjective experience, but the coupling of these
two emotions was associated with decreased physiological
arousal below baseline levels, and thus indexing an arou-
sal-over-decreasing condition. This overdecreased physio-
logical arousal condition corresponds to the previously
described hypoarousal affective conditions associated with
attachment coping behavior suitable to the present
āāapproachāā ļ¬lmās context (Davydov, Shapiro, Goldstein,
Chicz-DeMet, 2005, 2007; Gold Chrousos, 2002;
Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991).
Thus, negative subjective experiences within a partici-
pant induced by viewing of a sad ļ¬lm were accompanied
by either an up- or downshift in physiological and bodily
sensation components of arousal from baseline coupled
with either avoidance or attachment context, respectively.
The midarousal condition of the baseline resting period
was associated with a less disturbed state of subjective expe-
rience.
Some challenges related to behavioral responses should
be taken into account. Indeed, on the one hand, the viewing
of the āāapproachāā ļ¬lm was found to be associated with the
expected coupling of a decrease of positive feelings and a
decrease in activity of the Orbicularis Oculi, pars lateralis,
a facial muscle known to be related to enjoyment and invol-
untary smile (Ekman, 2003). On the other hand, the āāavoid-
anceāā ļ¬lm was found to be associated with the coupling of a
decrease of positive feelings and an increase in activity of the
Orbicularis Oculi muscle. Ekman (2003) proposed that, in
some cases, activity over the Orbicularis Oculi muscle could
be a sign of disgust and not of enjoyment. In the present
study, the sad āāavoidanceāā ļ¬lm content induced the emotion
of disgust. Also, the proposed association of the Orbicularis
Oculi muscle activity with disgust was supported by the ļ¬nd-
ings of within-subject variations in this muscle activity cou-
pled with variations in āāorgan sensationāā ratings, which
could be attributed to a somatic dimension of the disgust
emotion. A moderate heart rate decrease during the āāavoid-
anceāā ļ¬lm viewing was also attributed to the additional dis-
gust context of its content (Rohrmann Hopp, 2008). These
results suggest that activity over the Orbicularis Oculi muscle
should be controlled for this speciļ¬c negative emotion effect,
which could be considered as an objective sign of intensity of
the positive emotional response. Finally, the study also
showed that part of the within-subject variation in facial
activity associated with negative emotions (Corrugator
Supercilii or āāfrowningāā muscle) could be attributed to the
variations in subjectās efforts to process the complex ļ¬lm
content during ļ¬lm viewing (i.e., cognitive load).
78 D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns
Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80 Hogrefe Publishing
13. Limitations and Recommendations
for Future Research
This initial study supported the feasibility of assessing com-
plex emotions, but it is necessarily limited. Deļ¬nitive inter-
pretations may require well-focused further work. The
selection of ļ¬lms was based on previous literature ratings.
However, the use of two different ļ¬lms might not have been
an optimal experimental strategy in that context, since the
ļ¬lms may differ in other emotional and non-emotional
domains affecting physiology and behavior and which could
not be easily controlled for. In future studies, more attention
should be applied to standardization of stimuli to diminish the
potential inļ¬uence from other factors. For example, the same
stimuli could be presented with different sound tracks with
more negative-related or more positive-related information.
The method of inducing mood states by means of the
presentation of ļ¬lms with a particular emotional (e.g., sad)
content is widely used in experimental laboratory studies
examining its effects on cognition, behavior, and physiolog-
ical arousal (Fredrickson Levenson, 1998; GracĢanin et al.,
2007; Kreibig et al., 2007; Mauss et al., 2005; Van der Does,
2002; Van Gucht et al., 2008; Volokhov Demaree, 2010).
This procedure relies on the āāpurenessāā of the induced emo-
tion based on the self-reported perception of a majority of
viewers. It should however be noted that previous ļ¬ndings
have shown inconsistencies in the effects of this induction
method of complex stimuli compared to induction proce-
dures of less complex stimuli such as ļ¬xed pictures (e.g.,
Lang, Bradley, Cuthbert, 1997). The present results
should thus be replicated with a larger sample including
both genders. Also, future studies should ideally include a
āāpureāā emotion-induced condition as a control group to
which the mixed emotional states conditions could be com-
pared to. The induction of a single emotional state in com-
parison to emotional ļ¬lms inducing multiple primary
emotions (e.g., happiness, anger, fear, and sadness) would
allow to test in a more controlled way the direction of the
effects (arousal increasing or decreasing from baseline and
in comparison to a āāpureāā condition). The effects of the pre-
sentation order and of the familiarity with ļ¬lms on facial
expressions and autonomic reactivity and recovery found
in the present study should also be taken into account in
future studies. The designs should be constructed according
to potential emotional interference of thoughts related to the
second ļ¬lm content with probable long-lasting ruminations
associated with the previous ļ¬lm content.
Summary and Conclusion
The present study dealt with the complexity of emotional
states induced by ļ¬lms with similar sad contents. The general
subjective experience evaluations of sadness and the behav-
ioral responses indexed by the āāfrowningāā facial activity
corresponded to the common sad content in both ļ¬lms. Their
additional negative (avoidance) or positive (attachment) con-
texts were found to be distinguished by the measurement of
other discrete subjective experiential, sensation, and apprai-
sal evaluations, by behavioral responses and, in particular,
by the autonomic responses.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Professor David Shapiro
(UCLA, USA) for his comments and suggestions on a pre-
vious version of this manuscript. This research was sup-
ported by a postdoc position from the Research Fund of
the UniversiteĢ Catholique de Louvain (FSR), Belgium
granted to Dmitry M. Davydov and by Grant 1.5.175.06
from the Belgian National Fund for Scientiļ¬c Research
(FRS-FNRS) granted to Olivier Luminet.
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Accepted for publication: June 15, 2010
Dmitry M. Davydov
P. K. Anokhin Institute of Normal Physiology
11-4 Mokhovaya ulitsa
Moscow, 125009
Russia
Tel. +7 495 496-5234
E-mail d.m.davydov@gmail.com
80 D. M. Davydov et al.: Sadness and Physiological Response Patterns
Journal of Psychophysiology 2011; Vol. 25(2):67ā80 Hogrefe Publishing