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1. A STUDY OF SPEECH ERROR UTTERED BY ZAYN
MALIK DURING INTERVIEW WITH ZANE LOWE
THESIS PROPOSAL
Submitted as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain Strata One
(S1) Degree
BY:
SUKMA SUKRIANA
(1305402/2013)
ADVISOR:
Prof. Dr. Jufrizal, M.Hum.
Delvi Wahyuni, S.S, M.A.
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LANGUAGE AND ART
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI PADANG
2017

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Problem
Language is uniquely human. The most significant difference between a
human and an animal is that a human is able to talk while an animal is not. No
other animal has the ability to communicate with anything like the complexity that
humans do. As the consequence of this, human has been remarkably successful as
a species through their capability of thinking and reasoning. Therefore, human‘s
civilization is symbolized by language; it holds people together but may also
caused conflict in the first place. A person‘s cognitive skill can be measured
through their language used; in other words, language can determined a person‘s
personality.
Human communication occurs most frequently via speech, so
understanding speech production (talking) and comprehension lays the foundation
for an understanding of human language ability. Knowing a language means
knowing how to produce and comprehend an unlimited set of utterances. The
process of human being produce a language is called speech production.
“Speech” or “speech production” refers to either the production of sounds or
gestures, unless otherwise indicated (Jean & Nan, 1998: 310). The processes of
speech production fall into four broad areas as developed by Levelt; they are
conceptualization, formulation, articulation, and self- monitoring (Levelt, 1989).
First, we must conceptualize what we wish to communicate. Second, we

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formulate this thought into a linguistics plan. Third, we execute the plan through
the muscles in the speech system. Finally, we monitor our speech, to assess
whether it is what we intended to say and how we intended to say it.
While speech communication or speech comprehension may be viewed as
a ―chain of events linking the speaker’s brain with listener’s brain,‖
(Denes & Pinson, 1963 in Jean & Nan, 1998: 310).
The stages of comprehending a speech according to Denes and Pinson are
the linguistics, physiological and acoustic level. Speaker will produce the
language through a linguistics form, arrange their thought for what they wish to
say, then finally produce the language as in acoustic level. In reverse, listener will
listen to the audio delivered by speaker first as in acoutic level, arrange their
thought and prepare for the reply delivered in linguistics form as well. Hence, the
different forms in spoken language exist in its progress from the mind of the
speaker to the mind of the listener.
The phenomena happened within a language is analyzed by linguists
explicitly; one of the kind is the psychology of language. Language and
psychology are studied in one of linguistics‘ field that is psycholinguistics.
Psycholinguistics is the discipline that investigates and describes the
psychological processes that make it possible for humans to master and use
Linguistic
level
Physiological
level
Acoustic level
Physiological
level
Linguistic
level

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language. Simply, Psycholinguistics is the use of language and speech as a
window to the nature and structure of the human mind (Thomas Scovel, 2001:4).
Both speech production and speech comprehension occur at extremely
rapid rates: speech is typically generated at a rate of 150 words per minute (wpm)
or greater (Maclay & Osgood, 1959 in Jean & Nan, 1998: 310). No wonder error
occurs at such rapid rates. Researchers have historically relied on two kinds of
data in the construction of speech production models, they are speech error and
speech difluency.
Speech error is a psycholinguistics analysis that relies on the mental
process of a speech, while speech disfluency relies on the speech disorder on
aphasia. When it comes to speech error, linguists usually refer to mental grammar
that permits us simultaneously be both speaker and listener. An analysis of speech
error allows insight into the nature of this mental grammar. Lashley (1958) in Jean
& Nan, 1998: 312 stated that “When we think in words, the thoughts come in
grammatical form with subject, verb, object, and modifying clauses falling into
place without our having the slightest perception of how the sentence structure is
produced.” No wonder the speech error commonly occurs in our speech it is not
yet arranged in a sentence structure in such rapid rates as explained by Mackay
and Osgood.
Speech errors can be categorized according to the linguistic units involved
in the error (i.e. at the phonological feature, phoneme, syllable, morpheme, word,
phrase, or sentence levels) and the error mechanism involved (i.e. blend,

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substitution, addition, or deletion of units. For example, we tend to say irregural
verb instead of irregular verb. There are nine types of speech error according to
Clark (1977) that are silent pause, filled pause, repeats, retracted false start,
unretracted false start, correction, stutter, interjection, and slips of the tongue.
According to Smith (1997), there are four types of everyday speech error such as
slips of the tongue, spoonerisms, the ‗tip of tongue‘ phenomenon, and
malapropisms. While according to Fromkin & Ratner (1998), speech error are
classified into eight types of speech error such as phonemic segments, phonetic
features, syllable, stress, morpheme, word, grammatical, phrase.
Most of us are all guilty of producing such speech errors in our daily
communications. Therefore, speech errors have been a source of amusement,
frustration, and a serious study in the field of psychology becasue they provide
much greater value to the field of linguistics. Speech errors are providing linguists
with insight into the mechanisms behind speech production. Hence, the researcher
is interested in studying speech error as a future linguist.
1.2 Identification of the Problem
Although such error may be funny, embarrassing or frustrating; they also
provide indirect evidence for the units, stages, and cognitive computations
involved in speech production. This research will examine the types of commonly
documented speech errors, the rules that govern error-generation, and how these
errors provide insight into some of the proposed speech production models. The
nature of speech errors in this chapter will be based on speakers who have no pre-

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existing speech delays or disorders. These are errors made by speakers whose
language and speech production systems are thought to be fully intact. Hence, this
thesis will discuss about the speech error found in speeches of Zayn Malik during
the interview session with Zane Lowe by using a transcript dialogue from
YouTube Channel.
Firstly, the researcher is interested in investigating speech produced by
Zayn Malik during the interview with Zane Lowe because Zayn Malik has no
problem with speech delay or disorders. However, he has admitted to the world
that he has suffer from anxiety disorder since 2011 which is also provide the
evidence for researcher to consider his psychology which is perhaps will affected
to his speeches. Secondly, the speech produced by Zayn Malik is unique with his
half-British and Pakistani accents. Thirdly, the researcher has been watching every
interview of Zayn Malik since 2011 and has found out something unique in the
way Zayn Malik delivered their speech. Fourthly, the researcher is also interested
in study of psychology and language. Last but not least, the researcher found out
common speech error uttered by Zayn Malik during the interview with Zayn
Lowe.
1.3 Limitation of the Problem
The length of the interview is 25 minutes and 51 seconds. It is taken place
in Bradford stadium that consist only 2 person in the video who are Zayn Malik as
the guest and Zayn Lowe as the host. The researcher are going to analyze the
speech error delivered by Zayn Malik only as in this case Zayn Malik is the

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special guest with uniques speech production. The researcher is not going to
analyze all of the utterance in the interview optimally, but only focus on Zayn
Malik‘s utterance because of the limit capacity and time of the researcher in doing
this research. The researcher will also limit the theories of speech error on Zayn
Malik according to Clarks‘s speech error theory that are silent pause, filled pause,
repeats, retracted false start, unretracted false start, correction, stutter, interjection,
and slips of the tongue.
1.4 Formulation of the Problem
The researcher will listen to the interview many times and trascript the
interview between Zayn Malik and Zayn Lowe into English transcription. After
listening to the speeches of Zayn Malik, the researcher will determined the error
uttered by Zayn into eight types of speech error. To help the researcher analyze
the speech, the symbol of each error will be transcripted into:
// = silent pause
,..., = filled pause
/ = repeat
= correction
 = slip of tongue
1.5 Research Questions
Based on the background of study presented above, this study is
undertaken to answer the following questions:

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1. Why does speech error happen?
2. How psychology affects language production?
3. What kind of speech error frequently happens on Zayn Malik‘s speech?
1.6 Purposes of the study
In line with the research questions, the purposes of this study are:
1. To find out the reason why most people do speech error
2. To examine how psychology of a person affects their speeches
3. To identify the dominant speech errors used by Zayn Malik
4. To give information to the reader about speech error
5. To help reader overcome speech error happened.
1.7 Significance of the Study
The researcher considers this study will give valuable knowledge and
understanding for readers about speech error used by Zayn Malik. Hence, this
study will be useful to show the example to other students who are interested in
studying psycholinguistics especially about speech error. This study provides
knowledge about speech error in daily conversation. Practically, it will be useful
not only to student of English department, but also to all reader, especially to
people who suffer from speech error or to people who concern about speech error
happen in daily conversation.

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1.8 Definitions of Key Terms
1. Silent Pause
It is a period of no speech between words. Speed of talking is
almost fully controlled by the sum of such pausing when people
hesitate or nervous.
2. Filled Pause
It is a period of no word between the speeches that is filled up by
the expressions such as "er ", "ah ","mm “uh." or any others that
fill the gap when the speaker is speaking.
3. Repeats
It occurs when the speakers repeat one or more words in an
utterance. Usually happens when a person speaks spontanously and
fast.
4. Corrections
The correction that include an explicit "I mean", "or rather", or
"that is‖, or "well" to mark the phrases as a correction.
5. Slip of the tongue
It is daily speech error most people uttered the slip of tongue. For
example: irregular vs irregural.

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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
1. PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE
Language, according to Cambridge dictionary, is a system of
communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar, or the system of
communication used by people in a particular country or type of work. Language
and psychology are studied in one of linguistics‘ field that is psycholinguistics.
Psycholinguistics is the discipline that investigates and describes the
psychological processes that make it possible for humans to master and use
language. Simply, Psycholinguistics is the use of language and speech as a
window to the nature and structure of the human mind (Thomas Scovel, 2001:4).
In other words, psycholinguistics or the psychology of language will explore how
the origin of language were made in human being.
2. SPEECH PRODUCTION
When the language production system is working correctly, it is easy to
underestimate its complexity. Every now and then, however, the system slips up
and produces an error, and errors in any system can have a tremendous
explanatory value. They can tell us, for example, whether apparently separate
functions fail separately or together, and thus whether they probably derive from
one or more modular processes. With further analysis, they can also tell us which

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modules communicate with which other modules, what form of encoding is being
passed back and forth, and how well protected the communication links are
against damage or interference.
Utterance Generator Model of Speech Production
There are six stages of which different representations of utterance occur
in this model. (Gleason, J.B & N.B. Ratner. 1998)
Stage 1 Meaning to be conveyed is generated
Although very little is known about the form of the conceptual message, it
is believed that ―competing plans‖ occur at this level as there could be the more
than one message generated at this stage that could be mapped onto one or more
syntactic structures in Stage 2. This could lead to syntactic errors such as syntactic
blending – How long does that has to – have to simmer?
Stage 2 The Message is mapped onto a Syntactic Structure
A syntactic outline is created for the message. The syntactic structure
determines the form and grammatical category of the words that may be chosen.
Stage 3 Intonation Contours (Sentence and Phrasal Stress) are
Generated on the Basis of the Syntactic Representation
Intonation for the sentence is assigned before the lexis is selection.

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Stage 4 Words are Selected from the Lexicon
Lexical items are now selected based on their semantic features and
syntactic categories. At this stage, errors may occur in which semantically or
phonologically similar words may be selected instead of the intended words. In
addition, it is also possible that when mapping the words into the syntactic
structure that the words are dislodged out of their specific sequential places.
Stage 5 Phonological Specification
Phonological pronunciation rules apply and produce fully specified
phonetic segments in syllables as the output
Stage 6 Generation of the Motor Commands for Speech
The phonetic feature bundles of segments or full syllables are mapped
onto motor commands to the muscles of the vocal tract to produce the intended
utterance.
3. EVERYDAY SPEECH ERRORS according to Smith (1997)
We are all guilty of producing such speech errors and other slips of the
tongue in our day-to-day communications. Speech errors have long been a source
of amusement for many, a source of frustration for some, and more recently a
source of serious study in the field of psychology. Although these errors are good
for a laugh now and then, they prove to be of much greater value to the field of

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linguistics. Speech errors are providing linguists with insight into the mechanisms
behind speech production. There are limitations to how much is available for
study; the process of speech production is largely inaccessible for observation.
However, by analyzing errors individually and in the context of their
surroundings, we may better learn the underlying mechanisms that occur to
produce our speech, and investigate the reality of speech production units in word
formation. This research will introduce the different types of commonly
documented speech errors, the rules that govern error-generation, and how these
errors provide insight into some of the proposed speech production models. The
nature of speech errors in this chapter will be based on speakers who have no pre-
existing speech delays or disorders. These are errors made by speakers whose
language and speech production systems are thought to be fully intact. First, let us
start by introducing the smaller errors and then work our way up through a
hierarchy based on size of units subject to the error.
3.1 Slips of the Tongue
In an early study of the sort of errors we all make in our everyday speech,
Dell (1986) identifies three levels of slip of the tongue error, as follows:
(a) Sound Errors: These are accidental interchanges of sounds between
words. Thus "snow flurries" might become "flow snurries". (Boomer and
Laver had already claimed that segmental errors such as these account for
about 60% of all errors.)

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(b) Morpheme Errors: These are accidental interchanges of morphemes
between words. Thus "self-destruct instruction" might become "self-
instruct destruction".
(c) Word Errors: These are accidental transpositions of words. Thus
"Writing a letter to my mother" might become "Writing a mother to my
letter".
Additionally, each of these three levels of error may take various forms
such as:
(a) Anticipations: Where an early output item is corrupted by an
element belonging to a later one. Thus "reading list" - "leading list".
(b) Perseverations: Where a later output item is corrupted by an
element belonging to an earlier one. Thus "waking rabbits" - "waking
wabbits".
(c) Deletions: Where an output element is somehow totally lost. Thus
"same state" - "same sate".
To support this analysis, Dell (1986, p291) gives the following examples
of the different ways in which the sentence "Some swimmers sink" might fail,
Error Type
Sim swimmers sink phoneme anticipation
swum simmers sink phoneme shift

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Some simmers sink phoneme deletion
Sim swummers sink phoneme exchange
Some swummers sink phoneme perseveration
Some swinkers sink cluster anticipation
Some sinkers swim stem exchange
Some swimmers swim stem perseveration or word substitution
Some swimmers drown word substitution
Dell then points out that there is a clear same-category pattern to most
error occurrences. Thus initial consonants will interact predominantly with other
initial consonants, prefixes with other prefixes, and nouns with nouns. This is
consistent with verbal storage and retrieval processes also being organized on
some sort of same-category basis. Anticipation, perseveration,
transposition, and deletion of a sound; Anticipation, perseveration, transposition,
and deletion of a morpheme; Word transpositions within a clause ; Word
transpositions between adjacent clauses; Word transpositions between non-
adjacent clauses; Word transpositions between adjacent sentences; Word
transpositions between non-adjacent sentences.
3.2 The "Tip of the Tongue" Phenomenon
This is the name given to the relatively common everyday experience
where we more or less know the word we want to say next, but are unable to bring

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it all the way to consciousness. The phenomenon has been known about for some
time, but recent interest is normally dated to Brown and McNeill (1966), who
carried out psycholinguistic research on 56 American undergraduates. They
selected 49 low-frequency words (such as apse, nepotism, cloaca, ambergris, and
sampan) and prepared brief dictionary definitions of each. Subjects were given a
response sheet and were then presented with each definition (just like opening a
dictionary at random, reading an entry, and then trying to guess the word to which
it refers). Where subjects either knew or did not know the target word, no
response was required, but on approximately 8.5% of trials, they experienced a
tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) state - their lexicon had nearly delivered them up the
target word, but not quite. On these occasions, they were required to guess at the
missing word's first or last letters, the number of syllables it contained, and which
syllable they thought carried the primary stress.
Brown and McNeill's subjects experienced a total of 360 TOT states,
of which 233 were "positive TOTs", that is to say, TOTs "for which the
data obtained could be scored as accurate or inaccurate" (p280), and the
remainder were "negative TOTs", that is to say, TOTs "for which the subject
judged the word read out not to have been his target and, in addition, one in which
the subject proved unable to recall his own functional target" (p281). (Brown and
McNeill, 1966, pp292-293; italics original) Brown and McNeill then discuss at
length exactly how this incomplete lexical entry might be coded.
More recently, Jones and Langford (1987) and Maylor (1990) have
looked at how different types of distractor word can interfere with the TOT

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phenomenon. And more recently still, Harley and Bown (1998) varied the
frequency and phonological distinctiveness of the target words and found "that
TOTs are more likely to arise on low-frequency words that have few close
phonological neighbours" (p151).
Finally, although this section is primarily concerned with speech errors in
normals, the similarity between the TOT phenomenon and the clinical sign known
as "anomia" is too glaring not to get a comment. Goodglass, Kaplan, Weintraub,
and Ackerman (1976) studied the confrontational naming ability of a population
of aphasics, and began by pointing out this very similarity. "The designation of a
patient as 'anomic' indicates that his access to lexical terms is poor in relation to
the fluency of his articulation and grammar. The results indicated a clear cut
superiority on the part of conduction aphasics, as compared to Wernicke's and
anomic subjects." (Goodglass et al, p145).
4. CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH ERROR according to Clark (1998)
1. Silent Pause
A period of no speech between words can be called silent
pause. Speed of talking is almost wholly controlled by the sum of such
pausing. People who speak slowly hesitate a lot and when they speed up
their rate of words, they do it by eliminating the pauses, not by
shortening the words.

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2. Filled Pause
The next type of speech, errors is filled pause. The period of no
word between the speeches is filled up by the expressions such as "er ",
"ah ","mm “uh." or any others that fill the gap when the speaker is
speaking.
3. Repeats
It occurs when the speakers repeat one or more words in an
utterance when people talk very fast and spontaneously.
COMMIT-AND-RESTORE MODEL OF REPEATED WORDS
Four stages of repeated word according to (Clark & Wasow, 1996).
Stage I: Initial Commitment
When speakers produce a word, they are ordinarily committing themselves
to one or more constituents containing that word and to meaning
something by them. Consider (2), another utterance by Reynard:
(2) I thought it was before sixty-five, (1.1.244).
When Reynard produces I, he is committing himself to producing a larger
constituent that begins with I and to meaning something by it for Sam, his
addressee. Sam can expect him to complete it, unless he is told otherwise.
Making such a commitment is both constrained and optional. It is
constrained by the formulation imperative: Speakers cannot produce an
expression until they have formulated it completely (Clark, 1996). On the
other hand, Reynard could have delayed his commitment (delaying ‗‗I‘‘),
produced a filler (e.g., ‗‗uh‘‘), or made an alternative commitment

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(‗‗well‘‘). So, even though making a commitment is constrained by the
formulation process, it is a strategy speakers can use for particular
purposes. When Reynard produces I in (1), he makes the same
commitment, even if he suspends his speech immediately afterwards.
Stage II: Suspension of Speech
Speakers can in principle suspend their speech at almost any point in an
utterance (Levelt, 1989). Consider (3), by Sam: (3) because you see I {-
uh} some of our people, {. (clears throat)} who are doing LEs, {- - u:m}
have to consider which paper {.} to do, (1.1.39). For purposes of
exposition, we will label each pair of suspensions and resumptions—each
disruption—with left and right curly brackets (Clark, 1996). In (3) Sam
suspends his speech four times and apparently for different causes. He
stops after I to replace it with some of our people who are doing LEs. Such
a suspension, as Levelt (1989) has argued, is strategic, because it depends
on the type of repair the speaker has to make. Sam stops after people
perhaps to clear his throat. He also stops after LEs and paper, perhaps
because he hasn‘t yet formulated what he wants to say. Suspending speech
isn‘t specific to repeats. It occurs at many points and for many reasons.
Stage III: Hiatus
The hiatus is the material between the suspension and the resumption of
speech—the material between the curly brackets. Speakers may do a

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variety of things in a hiatus, from nothing to adding fillers or clearing their
throat. In (1), Reynard filled the hiatus with ‗‗uh,‘‘ although he had the
option of remaining silent for the same length of time. In (4), the hiatus
contains nothing, not even a pause: (4) well I {} I get rather fed up of some
of these youngsters, (1.1.768). Speakers‘ options in dealing with the hiatus
are also not tied to repeats.
Stage IV: Restart of Constituent
When speakers resume speaking after a hiatus, they have many options.
Consider (5), another utterance by Sam: (5) I suppose if I {uh} get more
expensive ones, they‘ll be {.} safer, (1.1.467). When Sam resumes
speaking after ‗‗I uh,‘‘ he simply continues. His choice contrasts with
Reynard‘s in (1), which is to repeat I. In the cases like (1), (4), and (5),
speakers appear to have two main options: (a) they can restart one of the
constituents they interrupted; or (b) they have can continue where they left
off. Repeats arise when speakers take the first option. Speakers, of course,
cannot resume speaking until they have something formulated, but they
have the option of delaying as long as they wish. Restarting at the
beginning of constituents is characteristic of repairs and what are called
fresh starts (Levelt, 1983; Maclay & Osgood, 1959). So it, too, is a general
process and not tied to repeats. All four of these processes—initiating
constituents, suspending speech, dealing with hiatuses, and restarting
constituents—occur in a variety of cir-cumstances. It is their combination

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that leads to repeated words. If we are to account for repeats, we must
account for their combination. We now turn to three hypotheses about the
sources of repeats.
4. Corrections
The category of that is called corrections is quite similar to false
starts. Something that makes them different is that corrections contain an
explicit "I mean", "or rather", or "that is-, or "well" to mark the phrases
as a correction.
5. Slip of The Tongue
There are several subtypes of slips of the tongue.
a. Anticipation is when a speaker intends to say 'take me to
ride," but says instead "take me to tide," anticipating the "p" at the
beginning of "ride" in the speaker's pronunciation of "take.‖
b. Perseveration is the opposition of anticipation. e.g. Take me to
ride → take met to tide
c. Reversal is two segments are interchanged. Reversal
happened in two syllables.e.g. lighter→ tighler
d. Blends are the speaker mixes two words together taken the
first half of on and the second half of other., e.g. Boys and Girls
→ Boris
e. Haplologies are the speaker leaves out a short stretch of speech.
e.g. unanimity → unamity

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f. Misderivations are the speaker somehow attaches the
wrong suffix or prefix to the word. e.g. enjoyment → enjoity
g. Word Substitution is the speaker produces a word that is
wrong, but typically related either semantically or phonologically
to the word intended. e.a. My sister went to the Grand Canyon →
The Grand Canyon went to my sister.
4. AN OVERVIEW OF SPEECH ERRORS according to Wikiversity
(2016)
Early estimates suggested upwards of 10 000 different speech errors are
committed in the English language. These errors have become the source of
investigation and experimentation in search of explanation of the basic processes
that conduct speech production; from the basic stages of planning to the finished
motor plan that produces audible speech. A preliminary finding from error
observations is that errors occur mainly within the same level of speech
production rather than between levels of production. For example, this means in
the occurrence of units being exchanged that one phoneme will change with
another phoneme, but will not change with a syllable as it is a speech unit existing
on a separate level of production. First, let us familiarize ourselves with nine
commonly documented speech errors:
1. Addition: adding a unit
"optimal number→ moptimal number" Anticipation: a later speech unit
takes place of an earlier one "reading list→leading list"

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2. Blends: two speech units are combined
person+people=perple Deletion: a unit is deleted specific→ pacific
3. Exchange: two units swap positions
thunder and lightning→lunder and thightning
4. Misdeviation: a wrong unit is attached to a word
Intervening node→intervenient node
5. Perseveration: speech unit is activated too late
Rule of thumb→ rule of rum
6. Shift: affix changes location
she decides to hit it→she decide to hits it
7. Substitution: unit is changed into a different unit
Set the table→set the chair
All different types of speech units are victims of speech error. Above we
see changes in features, syllables, morphemes, affixes, words, and syntax. It must
be acknowledged that classification of errors is no easy task as some errors are co-
occur between different units of speech. Classification can at times be ambiguous.
For example, an error such as "hit the spot" (as opposed to the intended word pot)
could be considered a phoneme addition, or also a word substitution.

24. 24
A. Phoneme Errors
Errors made at the level of the phoneme, whether it be substitution,
addition, deletion, or any others for that matter, are by far the most common
speech errors. An error at this level can occur within a word but more frequently
will occur between separate words. The majority of these phonemic errors are
anticipations, in which a substitution occurs of a sound that is supposed to occur
later in the sentence. In this case, the speaker produces the target phoneme earlier
than intended and it interferes with the intended original phoneme; the interfering
segment follows the error.
a) also share→ alsho share b) sea shanty→ she shanty
Second in frequency to phonemic anticipation errors are perseverance
errors (the interfering segment precedes the error), which are as follows:
a) walk the beach→walk the beak
b) Sally gave the boy→Sally gave the goy
The very nature of these errors, and the fact that they occur indicate that
speech is well planned before it is articulated. As words get confused, like we saw
above, we could speculate that all words of a sentence exist as part of a single
representation in production and are therefore susceptible to being mixed at that
stage in planning. Of course this is intuitive as a sentence could not be created if
words were held as separate representations; at some point down then line the
words must be integrated and related to create and complete the sentence. Dell et

25. 25
al. noted a difference between perseverations and anticipations depending on the
context of the sentence. If one is speaking a novel sentence, they are more prone
to perseverations, where as anticipations are more common amongst practiced and
recited phrase.
Another possible phonemic error is the exchange of two segments, where
the order of sound segments gets changed. Exchange errors have been interpreted
as the possible combination of an anticipation and a perseverance.
a) feed the dog→ deed the fog
b) left hemisphere→ heft lemisphere
These phonological errors always involve the exchange of like units; a
vowel exchanges with a vowel and a consonant with another consonant. Never is
there an exchange between a vowel and a consonant. This is known as the
consonant-vowel category effect.
B. Beyond vowels and consonants
All of the above examples involved the anticipation, perservation, or
exchange of single segments. Errors consisted of small segments such as a vowel
or a consonant. These individuals segments can further be combined. As
individual segments, two consonants can be transposed. By addition of a
consonant to a word, a cluster can be produced as opposed to an intended single
segment, as follows:

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Fish grotto→ Frish gotto
This is similar in all respects to the previously shown single segmented
errors, the only difference now being that the affected segment has become a
consonant cluster. A cluster however is not a single unit in speech production, but
consists of a sequence of separable segments.
C. Syllable Errors
Although our focus on speech errors has thus far been on small-segment
phonemic errors, this does not mean that errors amongst phonemes are the only
source of speech error. Larger than phonemes are syllables that are also units of
speech performance and susceptible to error. Nooteboom (1969) was the first to
suggest that syllables could be a unit of measure in speech programming. He
found that speech errors generally occur within seven syllables distance between
the origin and target. This corresponds and fits with our understanding of a short-
term memory span that allows us to comfortably remember seven consecutive
items. Anything beyond this magic number of seven becomes challenging.
Nooteboom supported the notion that segmental slips yield to a structural law of
syllable placement. If we have two words, each with an equal amount of syllables,
the corresponding syllables will be the ones to exchange in the event of an error.
The first syllable of the origin word will replace the first syllable of the target
word. Likewise, the final syllable of the origin word will exchange with the final
syllable of the target word.
Moran and Fader→ Morer and Fadan

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In further support of syllables being a unit of articulation, syllabic errors
also occur as blends, substitutions, deletions, and additions.
Tremendously→tremenly (deletion of syllable)
Shout+yell= shell (blending of syllables)
D. Morpheme Errors
As we continue up our hierarchy of speech units, we now see that units of
meaning are susceptible to speech errors. Such errors tend to happen subsequent
to the syntactic planning of the sentence. Even units as large as an entire word can
be subject to an error such as exchange.
Bowl of soup→soup of bowl
Plant the seeds→plan the seats
E. Substitutions
Substitutions and exchanges of whole words occur but do so with like-
constituents. A noun will take place of a noun, and the same goes for an adjective
or verb. When there is a change in word placement but no change in morphemes,
the error is said to consist of inflectional morphemes. However, when the root of
the words remains and there is an error due to a morpheme addition or
substitution, the error is known as a derivational morpheme error.
Bed time→time bed (inflectional)
Easily enough→easy enoughly (derivational)

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Such derivational speech errors show that semantic intentions are intact,
however, the choice of semantic features has been incorrect. Substitutions can also
occur where the substituted word is structurally similar but semantically different
from the intended word.
F. Affix Substitution
He was very productive→ he was very productful
Documentation of errors involving word affixes provides us with insight as
to how words are stored and later produced in speech. An error such as the one
above leads one to believe that the word 'productive' may be stored in the mental
lexicon as two separate constituents. It is possible that the correct version is stored
as product + ive, which is suggestive of rules for word formation. From such
errors we may infer that there exists separate vocabularies for stems and affixes.
The improper pairing of an affix (product+ful) then leads to a word that is
impermissible by the rules of our language. This evidence supports the hypothesis
that affixes are a source of speech error and that they may exist as a separate
component of one‘s lexicon.
G. Syllable Stress
In articulation of a sentence, there is a segment of primary stress at which
one syllable will be stressed more than the others. Regardless of whether it is a
vowel, a whole syllable, part of a syllable, or even a whole word being involved in
substitution, the pattern of stress within the sentence does not change. Take for
example the following error:

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How great things were→ how things were great
In articulation of a sentence, there is a segment of primary stress at which
one syllable will be stressed more than the others. Boomer and Laver suggest that
despite an error of word exchange, the position of the primary stress in the
sentence remains the same (in this case on the second word of the sentence).
H. Freudian Slips
Freud focused on the common errors we make in our day-to-day processes
and made these errors a central point of his studies. Verbal errors (or more
commonly: slips of the tongue) have since been titled Freudian slips. These are
errors in speech (or memory and physical action) that are said to occur due to the
interference of an unconscious wish, need, or thought. For example, a man calling
his spouse by the name of his previous partner.
At first glance, Freudian slips seem like a gold mine for speech error
research, however, they pose some difficulty in regards to research with the model
of speech production. With our current linguistic tools, we are unable to tap into
the unconscious processes of language production. With no access; we do not
know the intentions that lie behind these errors, unlike the other speech errors we
previously examined. Therefore, we cannot make any inference about these errors.
To use these slips would require a vast knowledge of the inner-self of the speaker,
something that is currently largely inaccessible. Until we develop such methods to
do so, this resource of unconscious errors will remain largely untapped.

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5. WHAT SPEECH ERROR DATA INFORMS US
a. Speech is planned in advanced
Anticipation and exchange errors (whether phonological, lexical or
syntactic) show that speech is not produced one unit at a time. Prior to
articulation, the speaker must have access to a representation thatincludes more
than one word, and in fact, may include more than one clause.
b. The lexicon is organized both semantically and phonologically
Words which are involved in word substitution errors and word blends are
semantically or phonologically similar or both. The target word and the
substituted word share significantly similar initial segments, stress placements,
morphological structure and phonological form.
 That‘s a horse of another colour → a horse of another race (semantic
substitution)
 White Anglo-Saxon Protestant → … prostitute (phonological
substitution)
 Grab/reach → greech (semantic blend)
 Gin and tonic → gin and topic (phonological substitution)
 Arrested and prosecuted → arrested and persecuted
(phonological/semantics)
One explanation for the choice for inappropriate words is because
synonyms, antonyms and similar sounding words are stored in close proximity to

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the given target word and thus may be retrieved in error. Such errors however,
must occur at a stage after the syntactic form class of the target word has been
determined because word substitutions and blends do not create ungrammatical
strings of sentences as nouns substitute for nouns, verbs for verbs, etc. This
indicates that the speaker has already determined the grammatical form class of
the target word. Slips also occur due to ―competing plans‘‘. An example of this is
someone saying ―He made hairlines‖ instead of ―He made headlines‖ when
referring to a barber.
c. Morphologically Complex Words Are Assembled
The production of errors of possible but nonoccurring morphologically
complex words show that words are morphologically assembled.
A New Yorker → A New Yorkan (cf. America/ American)
d. Affixes and Funtors Behave Differently From Content Words in
Slips of the Tongue
Affix morphemes and minor sentence elements (adverbs, intensifiers,
determiners) may be ―moved‖ or ―shifted‖ whereas major category stems and
words (nouns, verbs and adjectives) tend to be involved in exchange errors but
seldom participate in shift errors. Another difference between the two types of
speech errors is that exchanges preserve (phrasal) stress whereas shifts distort it.
 I frankly admit to being subjective → I admit to frankly being subjective

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 I‘d forgotten about that → I‘d forgot abouten that
 That would be the same as adding ten → as add tenning
 if she wantS (-/s/) to come here → if she want to comeS (/-z/) here
 Jerry‘S (/-z/) Pancake House → Jerry Pancake‘S (/-s/) House
e. Speech Errors Reflect Rule Knowledge
This can be seen when a regular rule has been applied to an irregular or
exceptional form, when a rule that should apply does not or when a rule is
mistakenly applied.
 He SWAM in the pool → he SWIMMED in the pool
 The CHILDREN are in the park → the CHILDS are – I mean the children
are in the park
 I don‘t know whether anyone has SAW the review
 It took you longer to read it that it took me to WROTE it
 How angry he is → how angry he AM
The mental grammar accessed during production includes syntactic rules
and constraints that determine which sentences are well formed and which are not.
Ungrammatical sentences or syntactic speech errors also occur when speakers
violate constraints pertaining to movement rules, subcategorization constraints
(for example, a transitive verb must be followed by a noun-phrase object) or
selectional restrictions (for example, verbs such as love or cry mist co-occur with
an animate subject).
 Does it sound different → does it hear different?

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 She swore me to secrecy → she promised me to secrecy
 They seem to know where the problem is → they seem they know…
(sentence blend of they seem to know/they know)
 Turkish and German don‘t have the third dimension, so does Swedish.
 It would be of interesting to see. (sentence blend of it would be
interesting/it would be of interest)
 She made him to do the assignment over.
 John is going, isn’t it?

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6. THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
ZAYN MALIK’S SPEECH ERROR
A STUDY OF SPEECH ERROR UTTERED BY ZAYN MALIK
DURING INTERVIEW WITH ZANE LOWE
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
SPEECH PRODUCTION
SPEECH ERROR
CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH ERROR
SMITH (1997)
- Slip of Tongue
- Sound Error
- Morpheme Error
- Word Error
- Anticipation
- Perseveration
- Deletion
- Tip of Tongue
CLARK (1998)
- Silent Pause
- Filled Pause
- Correction
- Slip of Tongue
- Anticipation
- Perseveration
- Reversal
- Blends
- Haplologies
- Misderiviations
- Substitution
WIKIVERSITY (2016)
- Phoneme Error
- Beyond Vowel and Consonant
- Syllable Error
- Morpheme Error
- Substitution
- Affix Substitution
- Syllable Stress
- Freudian Slips
ACCORDING TO:

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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHOD
A. Types of Research
This study will be conducted by using qualitative approach since the data
are in the form of utterances through its transcript which are analyzed
descriptively based on transcripts. Descriptive qualitative method is the
appropriate design in conducting this study, because it aims at describing speech
error constructed by Zayn Malik. This method is flexible to answer the statement
of the problems offered in the first chapter. Besides, the data will be interpreted
and displayed descriptively and systematically based on the supporting theory.
B. Data and Source of Data
The sources of data in this study is Zayn Malik. He is the most famous
singer in the world, especially in United Stated. The interview is broadcasted all
over the world. In this occasion, the researcher will take interview from YouTube
Channel: (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bhCsPxJApik) to help researcher in
choosing the best episode programs easier; then the researcher creates the
transcription of the interview
C. Instrument of Research
As Moleong (1991:9) said in qualitative research, the researcher is the
instrument of the research. Hence, the researcher will be the key instrument of this
study because the researcher as the point of people who want to finds the research

36. 36
problems itself. The researcher observes and takes an active participant in this
research by finding the accurate data. Besides, to make the observation more
systematic, effective, and easier, the researcher is going to need a laptop, an
internet connection, a headphone and some written equipment.
D. Method and Technique of Data Collection
The researcher is going to collect the data by assessing the official website
of Zane Lowe. The data of this research will be collected through the process as
follow: First, the researcher will watch the interview from accessing the internet.
Second, the researcher looked for transcriptions of the interview to make the
research more valuable and reliable. Third, the researcher will analyze the speech
error uttered by Zayn Malik. Finally, the researcher will classify the data based on
theory of speech error.
E. Method and Technique of Data Analysis
In this study, the researcher does some procedures to get a data analysis.
Firstly, the researcher will identify all utterances of the dialogue found in each
speech based on theory of speech error. Secondly, researcher will classified the
speech error frequently used by speakers based on theories into a table of type of
speech error. Then, the researcher will see the number of speech error used by
speakers in the table. After that, the researcher will identify through percentage on
how often speakers use each of speech error in the interview. Finally, the
researcher may conclude the result based on the analysis.

37. 37
References
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5. Smith. 2010. Course Handout - Speech Errors, Speech Production
Models, and Speech Pathology. Online:
http://www.smithsrisca.co.uk/speech-errors.html
6. __________ Course Handout – The History of the Psycholinguistics.
Online: http://www.smithsrisca.co.uk/PSYtranscodingmodels.html
7. Wikifoundry. 2007. Psychology of Language. Online:
http://psycholinguistics.wikifoundry.com/page/Speech+Errors
8. __________. Utterance Generator Model of Speech Production. Online:
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of Speech Production
9. __________. The Neuropsychology of Speech Production. Online:
http://psycholinguistics.wikifoundry.com/page/The Neuropsychology of
Speech Production
10. __________. The Analysis of Hesitations. Online:
http://psycholinguistics.wikifoundry.com/page/The Analysis of
Hesitations
11. __________. Syntactic Planning. Online:
http://psycholinguistics.wikifoundry.com/page/Syntactic Planning
12. __________. What data informs us. Online:
http://psycholinguistics.wikifoundry.com/page/What data informs us
13. Wikiversity. 2016. Psycholinguistics/Speech Errors. Online:
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Psycholinguistics/Speech_Errors
Theses:
1. Nisa, Hasnun. 2009. A study of speech errors made by Global TV VJ The
Music Programs: “Most Wanted”. Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara