Meaningful test and assignments crumpcla

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Designing Meaningful
And Fair Tests and Assignments
Copyright © 2005 by Cynthia L. A. Crump
All rights reserved
[Revision made to Bloom’s taxonomy in 2012]
Printed by Antigua Printing and Publishing Ltd.
Tel. 481-1500 Fax 481-1515 Email: antprint@candw.ag

i
PREFACE
Dear Teacher / Trainee
This handbook is prepared especially for practitioners like you and me.
As educators, we need to be constantly exploring ways in which we can improve on the on the
methods and forms of assessment used in our classrooms.
The major elements of assessment – Testing, Measurement and Evaluation – are presented in
simple language for everyday application, even for the new teacher to understand.
The information is presented in four parts:-
Part 1: Teachers are exposed to relevant knowledge and skills pertaining to assessment.
 Exploring the process of assessment and other related concepts
 Planning the test
 Designing the test
Part 2: Presents readings, on selected topics, related to approaches to assessment, which are
clarified by examples
 Authentic assessment: alternatives to the traditional approach
Part 3: Provides readings and practical examples of analyzing, interpreting and reporting
student performance.
 Marking, Evaluating and Reporting.
Part 4:Shares with the reader two essential topics to assist in assessing exceptionalities.
 Extra! Extra!
My expectation is that you will find this handbook useful in your quest to engage in effective
assessment procedures. Then you can be actively involved in the ‘good’ practice of designing
and selecting meaningful and fair tests and / or assignments which will provide valid
measures of your lessons’ objectives. In addition, you will be exposed to the two main methods
of reporting accurately to stakeholders – parents, administrators and students – about student
performance and patterns of behaviour.
Cynthia Crump
January 2005

ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special appreciation is extended to the following individuals for their advice, support,
encouragement and / or suggestions.
Colin Hanley, Instructor, Antigua and Barbuda Institute of Technology;
Jessie Kentish
Patricia Benn,
Dawn Joseph,
Esther Utoh, Tutor,
colleagues at the Department of Education, Antigua State College, who reviewed the ‘first’
drafts of this handbook.
Arthur G. Richardson (Professor), Director of the School of Education UWI
Barbados
Peecheeta Spencer, Principal Antigua State College
Edrys Joseph, Education Officer, Zone Three, Ministry of Education, Human
Development and Culture
Thanks must also be extended to teachers and students whose work served as practical examples
of assessment:
Primary School Principals, Workshop exercises on performance Assessment
Temika Christian, Primary Teacher Trainee, 2001 – 2003, exercise on Writing
Specific Objectives
Michael Collins, Secondary Teacher Trainee, 2002 – 2004, Aspects of Criterion-
referenced analysis
Cynthia Crump

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART ONE:
Section One: Introduction: Exploring The Process Of Assessment And Other Related Concepts 1
The nature of assessment 1
The definition of assessment 3
The difference between testing, measurement and evaluation 4
Characteristic of assessment, measurement and evaluation
Section Two: Planning the Test 8
Why do we test 8
Planning to test 9
Purposes and consequences – Kinds of test 9
General and specific objectives 11
Table of specifications 19
Instruments and devices 21
Section Three: Designing The Test 22
Types of items 23
Making meaningful and fair tests and assignments 29
Major steps in preparing tests/assignments 31
PART TWO:
Section Four: Authentic Assessment; Alternatives To The Traditional Approach To Testing 32
Authentic assessment 33
Student evaluation form 35
Performance assessment – Why? 37
Performance vs. traditional assessment 43
Portfolio assessment 49
PART THREE: Marking, Evaluating and Reporting 53
Section Five: Marking and Grading: Collecting Information
Section Six: Evaluating: Making Judgements on the Basis of Information Collected 54
Reporting Student Performance: Interpreting Results To Provide Feedback 55
Norm-referenced vs. criterion-referenced measurements 56
Criterion-referenced evaluation 57
Table of specifications 57
Sample analysis 58
Follow up action 59
Test itemanalysis 60
Norm-referenced evaluation 61
Test itemanalysis 63
Norm-referenced interpretation 66
Measures of variability 66
Measures of central tendency 66
Interpreting the standard deviation 67
Graphical representation of scores 68
PART FOUR:
Section Six: Extra! Extra! 69
Educational assessment and the exceptional learner 69
Creativity 70

iv
Bibliography
LIST OF TABLES
Table:
1.1 Differentiating between Tests, Measurement and Evaluation 4
1.2 Characteristics of assessment, Measurement and evaluation 5
2.1 Similarities and differences Between Kinds of Test 11
2.2:1 Cognitive Domain: Taxonomies/Descriptions 15
2.2:2 Affective Domain: Taxonomies/Descriptions 15
2.2:3 Psychomotor Domain: Taxonomies/descriptions 15
2.3 Identifying the Components of a Specific Objective 17
2.4 Sample: General and Specific Objectives 18
2.5 Sample (Two-Way) Table of Specifications for a Summative Test 19
2.6 Testing methods for Varying Purposes 21
2.7 Testing and non-testing Devices 21
3.1 Review Suggestions for itemTypes 25
3.1:1 Multiple Choice 25
3.1:2 True / False 26
3.1:3 Matching 26
3.1:4 Fill in the Blanks / Completion 27
3.1:5 Essays 27
3.2 A comparison Table (Selection Items and Essays) 28
4.1 Sample Evaluation Rating Form 36
4.2 Speaking Checklist / Rating Scale – Nursery Rhymes 41
4.3 Evaluation Rubric: Social Studies Practicum
5.1 Table of Specifications: Topics, Objectives and Items for Mathematics Test 55
5.2 Criterion-referenced Analysis of Students’ Mathematics Score 57
5.3 Follow-up Action with Whole Class 58
5.4 Students’ Performance on IQ Test: Scores and Tally 63
5.5: Calculating the Standard Deviation 64
5.5:1 Example 1 64
5.5:2 Example 2 66
5.6 Interpretation of Student Performance 66
5.6:1 Range of Scores and Interpretations 66
5.6:2 % Performance and Interpretations 66
5.7 Class Intervals: Tally and Frequency 67

v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1 Domain and Taxonomies 14
2 Designing a Table of Specifications 19
3 Types of Items 23
4 Main Aspects of Cover Sheet for portfolio Entry 51
5 IQ Test Scores 63
6:1 Histogram – Distribution of IQ Scores 67
6:2 Frequency Polygon – Distribution of IQ Scores 67
7 Circle Test 72

Introduction: Exploring The Process Of Assessment And Other Related Concepts
_____________________________________________________________________________________________1
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION:
EXPLORING
THE
PROCESS
OF
ASSESSMENT
AND
OTHER RELATED
CONCEPTS
The Nature Of Assessment
The Definition Of Assessment
The Difference Between Testing, Measurement And Evaluation
Characteristics of Assessment, Measurement And Evaluation
Assessment of student learning requires that the classroom teacher review the
nature of assessment in order to effectively link teaching, learning and assessment.
Before we proceed, here are seven principles which emphasize the importance of
assessment – The Nature of Assessment.

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The classroom teacher must
know: (Rowntree, 1997);Assessing students
1. How to assess:
Teachers must select from among all the
techniques at their disposal.
Traditional
 Oral
 Written
Alternate
 Authentic
o Performance
 Process
 Product
2. What to assess:
Teachers must be aware and decide what
they are looking for in the individuals
involved in the learning process.
Student
 Achievement
 Performance
 Behaviour
 Personality
 Interests
 Values
 Attitudes
Teacher
 Methods
 Approaches
 Enthusiasm
3. When to assess:
Teachers must establish the purpose for
assessment to be administered.
 Before instruction
 During instruction
 After Instruction
4. What instruments to use:
Teachers must be knowledgeable of the
variety of methods available to assess
students’ performance and patterns of
behaviour.
 Standardized Tests
 Teacher-made Tests
 Observation schedules
 Questionnaires
 Inventories
5. The developmental level of
the students:
Teachers must use their knowledge of
learning theories to plan appropriate
assessment corresponding to students’ level
of development, as well as individual
differences.
 Chronological
 Mental
 Physical
 Emotional
6. How to interpret results:
Teachers must consider the purpose and
consequence of assessment to facilitate
the method of interpreting scores.
 Norm-referenced
 Criterion-referenced
7. Then provide feedback:
Teachers must share strengths and
weaknesses with the stakeholders of
education.
 Students
 Parents
 Administrators
 Policy makers

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DEFINITION OF ASSESSMENT:
ASSESSMENT of student learning requires the use
of a number of techniques for measuring
achievement. This is done through a systematic
process that plays a significant role in effective
teaching. It begins with the identification of learning
goals and ends with a judgement concerning how
well those goals have been attained. Thus for Linn
and Gronlund (2000, 31-32) assessment is:
“A general term that includes the full range
of procedures used to gain information
about student learning (observations,
ratings of performances or projects, paper-
and-pencil tests) and the formation of value
judgments concerning learning progress….”
For Savage & Armstrong (1987):
“Assessment includes objective data from
measurement … (and) from other types of
information, some of which are subjective
(anecdotal records and teacher observations
and ratings of student performance). In
addition … assessment also includes
arriving at value judgments made on the
basis of subjective information.”
N.B. Some authors may use assessment
synonymously with evaluation. For example,
Mehrens & Lehmann (1984,5) who define evaluation
as the “process of delineating, obtaining, and
providing useful information for judging decision
alternatives.”
In each of the definitions above, a process is outlined.
It is clear that some sort of instrument/technique must
be administered/used in order to obtain
data/information. This data/information can then be
used to judge the level of understanding or standard
of student performance in relation to knowledge,
skills, attitude and pattern of behaviour.
In considering the process of assessment the
following view is very important.
“Measurement is the handmaiden of instruction.
Without measurement, there cannot be
evaluation. Without evaluation, there cannot be
feedback. Without feedback, there cannot be
good knowledge of results. Without knowledge
of results, there cannot be systematic
improvement in learning (Parnell, 1973, 2698;
in Mehrens & Lehmann 1984,7).
Assessment of student performance and patterns of
behaviour may be associated with negative effects
such as anxiety, bias, unfairness, labeling, and
traditionalism. However, there are many benefits
associated with the purposes of assessment.
PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT:
The purposes of assessment can be outlined as
follows:
Judging pupils’ mastery of skill and knowledge;
Evaluating the instructional method;
Ascertaining effectiveness of curriculum;
Encouraging good study habits;
Measuring growth;
Ranking pupils;
Diagnosing difficulties;
Providing feedback;
Motivating students;
Reporting to stakeholders;
Certifying examinees.
Mehrens & Lehmann (1984, 7–12) conclude that
the main purpose of assessment, therefore, is
to make EDUCATIONAL DECISIONS.
These include the following:
o Instructional decisions (teacher &
students)
o Guidance decisions
o Administrative decisions
o Research decisions
Generally, we want to find out about our students in
order to make decisions related to:
 Placement
 Selection
 Aptitude
 Achievement
 Classification
 Guidance
 Promotion
In order to answer the above questions, that is, “How
well does the individual perform?” we must conduct
frequent assessment activities.
When conducting assessment – test, measurement
and evaluation - we should ask the following
questions to guide the purpose and decision-making.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________4
Placement: (entry behaviour)
“Have the students already
achieved the intended
outcomes?”
“Do the students have the
prerequisite skills to proceed to
the next topic or unit?”
Formative: (during instruction)
“Which learning tasks are
students handling satisfactorily?
… Need help with?”
Diagnostic:(during instruction)
“Which students need remedial
work?
Summative: (end of instruction)
What grade should I assign to
each student?”
“Is the method I am using
effective?”
DIFFERENTIATINGBETWEEN TEST, MEAS UREMENT AND EVALUATION
In this handbook evaluation is viewed as the final stage in the assessment process, which is preceded by testing and
measurement. Here is an example to clarify the difference/link between Test, Measurement and Evaluation.
Mrs. H is the teacher at Grade 3. She has new students who were promoted from Grade 2.
Consider the following assessment process: - Based on the definition by Linn and Gronlund (2000)
Step 1.
She establishes Purpose: She wishes to conduct an assessment to find out “Can the students add one digit
numbers to two digit numbers up to fifteen successfully?”
Step 2:
She administers a set of questions: a ‘Test’ or an instrument or specific procedure for sampling a set of questions.
This will help her to find out “How well’ each student performs in comparison to each other (norm-referenced) or in
comparison with a domain of performance tasks (criterion-referenced).
Step 3:
She marks students’ work: She obtains a numerical value or score called the ‘Measurement’. Thus she finds out
“How much” each student scores.
Step 4:
She makes value judgment: That is, she makes an ‘Evaluation’ of students’ performance. She judges whether
they have the prerequisite skills to proceed to the next level or if she has to re-teach the concept re. the purpose.
N.B When a teacher sifts and interprets the measurement he/she has obtained,
he/she is performing an evaluation exercise
Table 1.1 Differentiating Between
Test, Measurement And Evaluation
TESTS MEASUREMENT EVALUATION
A subject teacher constructs
and administers a set of items
to assess student performance
in (any subject area)
N.B. student characteristics
can also be obtained using
non-testing devices
The guidance counselor has
each student complete an
interest inventory, attitude
scale and a personality test
The items are scored. This
produces a set of numbers
that indicate how each
student is performing in
relation to other students or
in comparison to a
standard.
 High performing and
low performing
students are identified.
 Positive and negative
attitudes, interest and
different personalities
are also identified.
If a student lacks
perseverance, is failing
(subject area) and has a
negative attitude towards
the subject, then he/she can
be advised that his/her
choice of career in
(profession) is hopelessly
unrealistic.
If a student is creative, loves
(subject area) and does
well, then she can be
advised in her ambition to
become a (profession).

Exploring the Process of Assessment And Other Related Concepts
___________________________________________________________________________
5
DECISIONS SHOULD BE BASED ON SOUND CRITERIA!!!.
Four main characteristics – reliability, suitability, objectivity and validity - should be
considered when preparing to assess. These characteristics, therefore, are also essential in
planning testing, measurement and evaluation.
Table 1.2 Characteristics of Assessment, Measurement and Evaluation
Reliability Suitability Objectivity Validity
*Refers to the
assessment obtained
with an assessment
instrument
*Consistency of test
scores or assessment
results from one
measurement to another
*Inter rater –
consistency of scores
between raters
*Intra rater -
Consistency of scores
given by the same rater
at different times
*Appropriateness of the
item in relation to:
 Age level of students
 Objective being
tested
 Content taught
*Free of subjective
judgment
*Degree to which
equally competent
scorers obtain the same
measurement
*Can affect reliability
and validity of scores
*Accuracy
*Concerned with
adequacy and
appropriateness of the
interpretation and use of
assessment results –
Criterion-related
*How well the sample
tasks are representative
of the domain of tasks
or content to be
measured- content-
related
*The correspondence
between achievement
test items and the
instruction for which the
test is built. *Construct
–related
*Does the test measure
what it sets out to
measure?
In order to ensure a high degree of reliability, suitability, objectivity and validity there are
several approaches the teacher can utilize.

___________________________________________________________________________
6
How can the teacher improve Reliability?
 Avoid ambiguous questions and directions or instructions.
 Sample more items with similar content.
 Use well defined scoring/marking schemes.
 Train raters/markers in an effort to standardize marking or interpretation of
students’ work
How can the teacher improve Suitability?
 Match items to objectives.
 Keep students’ reading level and age in mind when designing tests/exams.
 Give enough time to complete tasks.
How can the teacher improve Objectivity?
 Provide clear scoring scheme or criteria especially for performance tasks and
supply items e.g. essays.
 Design (select) items to ensure only one correct response e.g. multiple choice.
How can the teacher improve Validity?
 Design a table of specifications.
 Test only what is taught.
 Consider ‘for whom’ and ‘for what’.
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 UUssee iittee mm ttyyppeess tthhaatt eennhhaannccee rreelliiaabbiilliittyy ooff tteess ttss –– bbootthh ssuubbjjeeccttiivvee aanndd oobbjjeeccttiivvee iittee mmss ..
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 DDeetteerrmmiinnee wwhh iicchh lloo ww ddiissccrriimmiinnaattiinngg iittee mmss ttoo ddiiss ccaarrdd aafftteerr iittee mm aannaallyyssiiss..
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Gronlund (2000) points out: “The degree of validity is the single most important aspect of a test”.
Furthermore, the teacher must be aware of the many factors which may influence the validity of tests
measurement, or evaluation results at any given time in the assessment process. Therefore, the teacher must pay
attention to:
(1) the test;
(2) administration and scoring;
(3) pupil’s responses;
(4) the group and the criterion.
These factors are outlined below.

___________________________________________________________________________
7
VALIDITY:
Factors which may influence
Validity:
1. Factors in the test:
a. Unclear directions
b. Poor sentence structure
c. Inappropriate level of difficulty
of items
d. Poorly constructed test items
e. Ambiguity
f. Test items inappropriate for
items being measured
g. Test too short
h. Improper arrangement of items
i. Identifiable patterns of items
2. Factors in test administration and
scoring:
a. Insufficient time to complete
test
b. Unfair aid to individuals
c. Cheating
d. Unreliable scoring of items e.g.
essays
e. Adverse conditions (physical;
psychological)
3. Factors in pupils’ responses:
a. Invalid test interpretations
b. Emotional disturbances
c. Test anxiety
d. Set pattern of answering
4. Nature of the group and the criterion:
a. Age
b. Sex
c. Ability level
c. Educational background
d. Cultural background

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
8
SECTION 2:
PLANNING
THE
TEST
Why Test
Kinds Of Tests, Measurement And Evaluation
General And Specific Objectives
Testing And Non-Testing Devices
Table Of Specifications
As a preview to planning any test, the
assessment techniques should be clearly
related to the instructional plan. Thus
the teacher must ensure there is a link
between teaching, learning and
assessment.
Firstly, we must know the reason why
we are testing - the purpose or the
consequences. Secondly, we must
clearly specify the leaning outcomes
we wish students to achieve; and
thirdly, we must provide well-designed
instruments which parallel the
characteristics of effective instruction.

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
9
WHY DO WE TEST?
 To control the condition for all students: e.g.
 Same time;
 Same access or non access to resources;
 All students can rely on their own efforts.
Planning To Test
In this section we will focus on the main activities in planning a ‘fair’ test – the first step in the
assessment process.
1. Purpose and consequences;
2. General and specific objectives;
3. Instruments and devices.
1. PURPOSE AND CONSEQUENCES (KINDS OF TESTS):
The teacher must be aware of the kinds of test available, and which are most
suitable for the decisions which will be made. The major types of tests are
outlined below.
Kinds of Tests / Assessment:
(Mehrens and Lehmann 1984; Richardson,
1997; Linn & Gronlund 2000
Achievement Tests – Teacher-Made:
Concerned only about what is taught – or else the teacher must make provision for other extraneous
factors. For example: untidiness, lateness, incorrect spelling.
However, do not limit students’ education by teaching the test
Achievement Tests – Standardized:
These tests have been developed by educational and test specialists in relation to a clearly defined
achievement domain, pretested, revised and selected based on their difficulty and discrimination. There
are precise directions for administration. These are formal tests that allow the teacher to compare
students with other students in the country, who are representative of a “norm’ group. However, the
content of standardized test does not always match what is taught in a certain school or classroom.

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
10
Selection or Aptitude Tests:
Tests administered in order to:
(i) Select students on the basis of special aptitude; or
(ii) Identify top scorers especially when there is a lack of space; or
(iii) Predict future performance.
Diagnostic Tests:
Administered at the beginning of a course in order to pinpoint
the precise areas of the curriculum that students have or have not achieved.
The test items may be similar to those on an achievement test
but usually test a smaller area of knowledge.
Criterion-referenced interpretation is usually applied to the results of diagnostic tests.
This enables the teacher to:
(i) Plan future strategies or
(ii) Give more practice in an area before moving on to new work.
Placement Tests:
These types of tests are similar to achievement tests, but cover more than one subject area. They are
administered in the case of student transfers – from one school or country to another.
The main purpose is to ensure that a student is being placed in the grade level which is most appropriate
to the student’s present educational achievement.
Performance Tests:
Can be termed practical (laboratory work in Science subjects) or orals (Modern languages). These
procedures/processes are judged using specific criteria. In addition ‘end’ products are also judged.
They must also meet the ten criteria offered for a ‘good’ test.
Formative:
This kind of test is administered during instruction
to find out which learning outcomes students are handling or which they need help with;
Done in order to shape, and improve performance and behaviour.
Summative:
This kind of test is administered at the end of a specified period of time: -course, unit, year.
This is to identify whether students have achieved the objectives of the course.
Emphasis can be placed on assigning grades.
Norm-referenced:
This test is given to compare students’ score with the average score of the other students in the
class. The teacher can include a large number of easy items
Criterion-referenced:
This test is given to compare student performance against a standard or a set of performance
tasks. A student’s outcome is dependent on what he/she can do – what objectives each student
has mastered. The teacher can use some very easy and some very difficult items.

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
11
Below is a summary of three main kinds of test. The tests described above can be placed in
any of the three categories, as outlined in the table, depending on the purpose of the
exercise.
Table 2.1: Similarities and Differences Between:
KINDS OF TEST
DIAGNOSTIC FORMATIVE SUMMATIVE
TIME
 For placement at the outset of a unit,
semester, or year’s work
 During instruction when student
evidences repeated inability to profit fully
form instruction
 During instruction  At the end of a unit,
term or year’s work
INSTRU-
MENTATION
 Formative and summative instruments
for pretest
 Standardized achievement tests
 Standardized diagnostic tests
 Teacher-made instruments
 Observation checklists
 Specially designed
formative
instruments
 Final or summative
examination
SAMPLING
 Specific sample of each prerequisite
entry behaviour
 Sample of weighted course objectives
 Sample of physically, emotionally or
environmentally related behaviours
 Specific sample of
all related tasks in the
hierarchy of the unit
 A sample of
weighted objectives
ITEM
DIFFICULTY
 Diagnosis of prerequisite skills and
abilities: a large number of easy items,
65% difficulty or higher
 Cannot be specified
beforehand
 Average difficulty,
ranging from 35% to
70%, with some very
easy and some very
difficult item
An Adaptation of
Bloom et al., 1971
2. General and Specific Objectives
After you have decided on the purpose of your test, you must now clearly specify the
instructional outcomes you wish students to achieve.
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ccoouurrssee oobbjjeeccttiivveess,, bbeeccaauussee tthhee cchhooiiccee ooff tteexxttss,, tthhee sseelleeccttiioonn
aanndd oorrddeerr ooff aassssiiggnnmmeennttss,, tthhee cchhooiiccee ooff tteeaacchhiinngg
tteecchhnniiqquueess,, aanndd aallll tthhee ddeecciissiioonnss iinnvvoollvveedd iinn ccoouurrssee
ppllaannnniinngg sshhoouulldd ddeerriivvee ffrroomm yyoouurr oobbjjeeccttiivveess”” ((MMccKKeeaacchhiiee,,
11998866,, 88))..
"WHY DO YOU NEED LEARNING OBJECTIVES?"
Mager 1962 reiterates:
“Clear objectives can help the teacher design lessons that will be
easier for the students to understand and the teacher to evaluate.”

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
12
Therefore, objectives, as a guide to planning, are beneficial to the teacher as well
as the students. Generally, all stakeholders can have a yardstick with which to
measure the extent to which there is a valid link between teaching, learning and
assessment.
We can further classify the main reasons for writing objectives as follows:
1) They provide a sound basis for selection of learning materials, content, methods.
2) They provide a way to measure whether the learning has been attained.
3) They give the student an opportunity to organize their efforts and activities before
and during instruction.
Objectives can be classified as two main types a) General and b) Specific. Although useful in planning
instruction, they serve different purposes.
General Objectives: Non-behavioural expressions of learning outcomes to be achieved after a sequence
of teaching; denote general educational goals. ‘Action’ words are not used to denote non-behavioural
objectives.
The following are some covert (unobservable) verbs used when stating general objectives.
Appreciate
Believe
Comprehend
Understand
Value
Recognize
Students will appreciate
music.
Can you measure when a
child is appreciating,
enjoying, grasping, etc.?
AMBIGUOUS!!
AMBIGUOUS!!
Familiarize
Grasp
Indicate
Know
Imagine
Think
Students will grasp the
functions of the computer hard
drive
Do these verbs give you any
indication of the kind of changes
to look for in students to show
that they have achieved the
stipulated goal?
Students will understand
how to add, subtract,
multiply…
AMBIGUOUS!!
Students will enjoy
physical education
Realize
Cope
Learn
Enjoy
Apply
Like
Are these
performance
verbs?
DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
(Mager 1962; Moore, 1995)

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
13
Specific Objectives:Behavioural/instructional outcomes of units and lessons.
THEY SPECIFICALLY STATE THE OVERT BEHAVIOUR THAT STUDENTS WILL PERFORM IN ORDER
FOR THE TEACHER TO OBSERVE AND MEASURE TO WHAT EXTENT THE STUDENT HAS
MASTERED THE OBJECTIVES. FOR EXAMPLE WHAT BEHAVIOUR DO STUDENTS DEMONSTRATE
FOR THE TEACHER TO MEASURE UNDERSTANDING, APPRECIATION, AND ENJOYMENT ETC.?
Despite the benefits of writing specific objectives, there are several criticisms that must be considered:
SOME CRITICISMS ABOUT WRITING SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
1. They lead to neglect of important goals of education;
2. The emphasis on precision and observable student behaviour could cause the
number of objectives for almost any subject to be an unmanageable list; that is,
too long to complete for any given time;
3. Many of the more complex cognitive processes are not readily observable.
Several educators (Ward & Murray-Ward; Chatterji 2003; Anderson & Krathwohl 2001; Marzano 2001)
have proposed new taxonomies over the past five years. One that I find simpler as the functional
taxonomy of knowledge, skills and behaviours was designed by challerji (2003).
Factual Knowledge Reproduction of information in a different form
Application Involves one-step procedure
Complex Multi-step procedure – hypothesizing, reasoning, making
Procedural Skills judgement to make decisions to solve complex problems
Higher Order Thinking Combination of analysis, synthesis and evaluation
and Problem Solving
Attitude and Values Taking action based on his/her value system
Social Behaviour Demonstration of behaviours in line with social conventions
Motor Skills Demonstration of coordination, strength and skills related to
physical task
It seems, however, although some educators claim “better fit with current thinking and research”
each successive taxonomy or classification bears resemblance to Bloom’s taxonomy which has
significantly impacted the developmental activities in our classrooms.

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
14
Below is an outline of Bloom’s Taxonomy of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains
Bloom et al., 1956 classified behavioural objectives into three domains: (Savage & Armstrong 1987, 82 - 90;
Arends, 1994, 51 – 53)
Figure 1 Domains and Taxonomies
Cognitive: These objectives are
concerned with exposing
students to knowledge and
thinking skills. [Revised]
Levels of objectives:
Knowledge/Remember
Comprehension/Understand
Application/Apply
Analysis/Analyze
Synthesis/Evaluate
Evaluation/Create
Performance Verbs:
define distinguish identify
restate explain infer use
choose classify categorize
write design assess
compare contrast rearrange
sort
Affective: These objectives deal
with feelings, attitudes, values
and emotions.
Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organization
Characterization by value
Performance Verbs:
Act adopt greet help join
give recite follow accept
participate dispute relate
read defend challenge
complete perform
Psychomotor: These objectives
focus on the development or
manipulation of motor skills.
Perception
Set
Imitation
Manipulation
Precision
Adaptation
Origination
Performance Verbs:
Fix mix write connect
grip fasten construct
manipulate sketch compose
design assemble correct
paint repair create sew
As practitioners, teachers must be aware of the interrelationship between the three domains –
cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The focus of the assessment will be dependent on the
element within the exercise, which the teacher is most interested in for a particular purpose.
Therefore the teacher must consider: “What is the main learning outcome which I expect
students to achieve as I write this objective? For example, “Students will (i) draw and (ii) label
the parts of the hibiscus flower”. Is it the knowledge of the parts; the skill of drawing
accurately; or the value gained from doing the task? Taking the time to write the objective
specifically can help clarify the expected focus for someone else who might use the objective
another time.
Below are three tables which outline and describe the three main domains
and their levels of thinking, feeling or doing

Planning The Test
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15
Table 2.2:1 Cognitive Domain: Taxonomy/Descriptions
Taxonomy Description
Knowledge/Remembering
Recalling previously learned material;
definitions, specific facts, concepts theories
Comprehension/Explaining
grasping meaning, explaining, restating ideas.
Summarizing information from one form to
another; interpreting or deducing the
significance of data.
Application/Applying
Using learned material in new situations.
Applying knowledge to novel situations
presented in an unfamiliar way.
Analysis/Analysing
Separating material into component parts and
show relationships between parts.
Evaluation/Evaluating
Judging the worth of material against stated
criteria. …Checking, experimenting,
hypothesizing, critiquing.
Creating
Generating ideas, or the way things are
done…Planning, inventing, producing
Table 2.2:2 Affective Domain: Taxonomy/Descriptions
Receiving Becomes aware of an idea, process or thing;
Willingness to be exposed to new content,
behaviour with an open mind.
Approaching/Responding Suspend judgment until evidence has been
weighed carefully; Actively participates;
responds obediently.
Deciding/Valuing Arriving at personal decisions; Accepts worth
of belief, attitude, value or ideal.
Characterization/Sharing Allows values to guide or control behaviour;
deeply committed and share decisions
publicly without hesitation.
Table 2.2:3 Psychomotor Domain: Taxonomy/Descriptions
Awareness/Perception Becomes aware of actions to be performed;
must be able to correctly describe what is to
be done to perform a given psychomotor task
properly.
Set Becomes ready to act mentally, physically and
emotionally.
Guided Response /
Integration / Imitation
Performs action under supervision through
trial and error; the teacher should be available
to provide help
Mechanism/ Manipulation Performs action habitually with some degree
of confidence.
Complex overt Response/
Precision
Performs action automatically with a high
degree of skill
Adaptation Modify action and skill to suit problem
situations
Origination Creates new…to fit a particular situation or
problem
Note the
revised
Bloom’s
taxonomy

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
16
Components of a Specific Objective
Below are some views of how a specific objective can be identified or categorized.
Mager (1962) argued that:
“A meaningfully stated objective is one that succeeds in
communicating … the writer’s instructional intent”.
Such behavioural objectives require three parts (Arends, 1994, 49). These three parts are the (i)
Testing Condition, (ii) Student Behaviour, (iii) Performance Criteria. For this
purpose we may refer to these parts as TSP.
(T) Testing Condition: The condition under which the behaviour will be
observed or expected to occur. (Limitations or constraints which will affect the
students’ performance of the task).
(S) Student Behaviour: What the student will be doing or the kinds of behaviour
the teacher will accept as evidence that the objective has been achieved (the task –
identify the precise behavioural term to express the desired outcome).
(P) Performance Criterion: The standard or performance level defined as
acceptable. (Evidence which is desired in order to be confident that the learners have
achieved the objective).
Kibler, Barker and Miles, 1970 and Mager, 1984 also posit the view that a well-stated objective should include
FOUR components: Condition, Performance, Product, Criterion. …CPPC
There are similarities between TSP and CPPC
Condition  Testing condition
Performance  Student behaviour
[Product  Outcome, Task]
Criterion  Performance criterion
Debra Jones (1997) has suggested the following categorization:
To prepare an objective consider the ABCD:
Audience: plan for your learners.
Behavior: describe what they will be able to do.
Condition: specify the circumstances, limit or material.
Degree: how will the learner's performance be measured, and to what degree?

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
17
Example Of A Specific Objective:
"Given the measurements of three rectangles, the student will use a formula, to
calculate the area of at least two, correctly.
The cells below are filled in to identify the main parts of the specific
objective above.
Table 2.3 Identifying Components of a Specific Objective
Components of a specific
objective
Question to ask Example
Performance Do what? Calculate
Product What result? Area of three triangles
Condition Under what conditions? Limit? Given the measurements
Criteria How well? At least two correctly
The box below shows objectives from the three domains – cognitive, psychomotor and affective –
formulated to match a given general objective.
General Objective: Students will understand the
concept of growth.
Specific Objectives:
1. Given a diagramof a young seedling and
a mature pea plant, the student will
identify FOUR differences between them.
2. Students will draw diagrams showing the
stages of development in the frog.
3. Each pupil will explain, in one paragraph
of no less than fifty words, the importance
of ONE condition for successful growth of
plants.
WRITE
ONE
EXAMPLE
OF YOUR
OWN!!!
Table 2.4: Sample: General and Specific Objectives

Planning The Test
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18
Consider the exercise below. Can you improve on the specific objectives in any way?
The following exercise was done by a first year student (2002) - Temika Christian
For each of the general objectives given, formulate appropriate specific objective, as indicated, for each subject area.
Class: Grade 6 (10 –12 yrs)
Mathematics: After instruction, students will know how to find area of quadrilaterals.
Having formulated an algorithm for calculating the area of quadrilateral,
Cognitive: (Application)
Affective ( Receiving)
Psychomotor (free practice)
Pupils should be able to apply the formula to find the area of four quadrilaterals correctly
understand that knowing the formula is essential in order to calculate the area of quadrilaterals
construct a model quadrilateral, using specified measurements
Language: At the end of the term, students will grasp how to use the past tense appropriately
Given a list of six verbs
Cognitive: (Knowledge)
Affective ( Responding)
Psychomotor (Imitation)
Pupils should be able to state orally the past tense of each
pupils will practise to use the past tense of verbs correctly in their daily lives
Given written instructions pupils should be able to complete four sentences by correctly inserting the
past tense of the verbs in brackets
Social Studies: At the end of the unit, students will recognize the purpose of street signs and other signs that are designed to
protect children.
Having observed a video presentation on the purpose of street signs
Cognitive: (Evaluation)
Affective ( Valuing)
Psychomotor (Awareness)
Pupils should be able to give four reasons to justify the usefulness of street signs
express in writing three reasons why it is important for streets to have signs
draw two street signs which they think are very important, using given materials.
Science: Before entering Grade 7, students will appreciate that the development of amphibians is essential
After studying pictures showing the development of amphibians
Cognitive: (Knowledge)
Affective ( Responding)
Psychomotor (Imitation)
Pupils should be able to explain in their own words, each stage of development
pupils will use a column in the school’s newspaper to inform people about the development of
amphibians
sketch the first two stages of development with accuracy, using a pencil and drafting paper
============================================================================================

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
19
After the teacher has compiled the topics/content and classified the list of objectives, the
next step is to design a table of specifications.
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS:
In its simplest form, the table of specifications is a two-way chart or test blueprint.
It is useful in guiding instruction and assessment – the time spent on a
topic/content in terms of its importance and the demands of the curriculum and the
match between levels of thinking, feelings and skills and the type of items on the
test.
What is the Purpose of the Table of Specifications?
To ensure that the test is a valid measure of instructionally relevant tasks/course content and
objectives:
 The emphasis in the test should be reflected in the table of specifications: re:
weighting of topics and levels/taxonomies;
 Avoid the tendency to overload the test with lower order items and ignore more
complex outcomes;
 Aids in obtaining an adequate sample of tasks which represents the set or domain
of content and objectives.
Figure 2 Designing a Table of Specifications
1. List the content areas /topics
2. List the objectives
3. Classify the objectives - domains & taxonomies
4. Prepare a grid
5. Total scores for each content area
6. Weight each objective
7. Total scores for each level

Planning The Test
___________________________________________________________________________
20
Table 2.5:A Sample (Two-way) Table of Specifications For A
Summative Test:
Cognitive Domain/ Taxonomies (only);
Content Areas and Weighting of Objectives
There may be variations in the stipulation of domains and levels of thinking for specific
core areas.
 Social Studies: –Cognitive: all levels especially Comprehension, Application and
evaluation; however, there is also focus on the affective and psychomotor
domains
 Mathematics: - Recall / Comprehension, Computation / Algorithm, Problem
Solving
 Science: - Recall, Comprehension, Use of Knowledge
 Language Arts: - Recall, Comprehension, Analysis and Synthesis
3. Instruments and Devices: When conducting assessment activities, do remember that
you can utilize a “… range of procedures” to gain information concerning student performance and
patterns of behaviour.
Level
Content
Knowledge Compre
hension
Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total
Marks
Types of
Items
Obj. (i)
(12)
Obj.
(ii)
(8)
20
Kinds of
Tests
Obj. (iii)
(10)
Obj. (v)
(8)
Obj. (iv)
(5)
Obj. (vi)
(5)
28
Total
Marks 22 8 8 5 5 48

Planning The Test
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21
Table 2.6 Testing Methods For Varying Purposes
(Ebel & Frisbie, 1991, 29)
Type of
Information
LEVEL OF INSTRUCTION
Course Unit Daily Lesson
Entering
Behaviour
Formative
Evaluation
Summative
Evaluation
Cumulative folders,
questionnaires, observation,
oral questioning
Unit tests, projects, papers,
observation, participation
patterns
Final examination,
comprehensive project,
research paper,
performance ratings
Pretest,
oral questioning, checklist,
observation
Quizzes,
oral questioning,
results
participation records
Unit test,
Written project,
Work product,
Presentation,
Participation record,
Performance checklist
Observation,
oral questioning,
homework results
Teacher questioning
student questioning
quizzes
activity observation
nonverbal observation
(Not applicable)
Table 2.7 Testing And Non-Testing Devices.
These “… range of procedures” to gain information concerning student performance and patterns
of behaviour can be categorized as Testing and Non-Testing devices.
N.B. The testing devices are most useful when assessing traditional student achievement/behaviour
The non-testing devices are most useful when assessing performance tasks
TESTING DEVICES NON-TESTING DEVICES
o Standardized tests
o Achievement tests
o Intelligence tests
o Personality tests
o Creativity tests
o Learning style /cognitive
style inventories
o Teacher made-tests
(essays, objective,
diagnostic)
o Questionnaires
o Direct observation
(schedules)
o Anecdotal records
o Case studies
o Check lists
o Rating scales
o Journals
o Portfolios
o Profiles

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
22
Section 3:
Designing The
Test
Types of items
Making meaningful assignments/tests
Steps in preparing assignments/tests
Monitoring

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
23
THE KINDS OF QUESTIONS A TEACHER ASKS WILL REVEAL TO THE
STUDENTS THE LEVEL OF THINKING WHICH IS REQUIRED OF THEM!!!!
Figure 3
OBJECTIVE this is in reference to marking SUBJECTIVE
one correct response variety of responses & marks
may be influenced by bias,
handwriting, mood, student…
SELECT student chooses one correct response SUPPLY student supplies the full
response from a number of choices
-short or extended
Multiple Choice students can
True/False ESSAY organize, integrate ideas
Matching [COMPLETION]
Fill In The Blanks may be select or supply

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
24
Here is a brief description of selected item types.
These types of items represent the traditional way of testing.
That is, the sit-down-at-the-desk-paper-and-pencil-test.
However, the essay item can also be classified as a performance
task.
Multiple-choice: Student selects the correct answer from among
some possible answers. (E.g. A B C D) - Consists of the STEM;
OPTIONS (possible answers or choices); DISTRACTORS
(incorrect responses); KEY (correct response).
True/False: (alternate response) Contains a statement about
which the student is asked to make a judgment – right/wrong;
correct/incorrect; yes/no; agree/disagree; smile/frown.
Matching: Consists of two parallel lists/columns – words, phrases
or sentences. Matching column contains premises; selection
column contains responses.
Completion – Fill in the blanks: Students are expected to
complete a statement by supplying a word, phrase, number or
symbol in the blanks provided.
Essays: Classified into two types: Extended and Restricted. Give
students the opportunity to organize, integrate and evaluate ideas.
N.B.
Stimuli – picture, diagram, paragraph, map, etc. can be used with
the above types of items in order to create an interpretive
exercise.

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
25
REVIEWSUGGESTIONS FOR EACH OF THE ABOVE ITEM TYPES
“The goal … to write clear, concise, unambiguous items.”
Table 3.1:1
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Make the stem meaningful.
2. Phrase the stem so that it presents a definite problem or task.
3. Do not repeat words or phrases in each option.
4. Avoid clues.
5. Write items at an appropriate reading level.
6. Highlight negative phrases. E.g. NOT LEAST
7. Make all options grammatically consistent with the stem of the
item.
8. Ensure only ONE correct or clearly BEST answer.
9. Make all options about the same length.
10. Use special options such as ‘none of the above’ or ‘all of the
above’ sparingly.
Tick the correct answer.
Which of the following is an advantage of multiple-choice items on a test?
They:
A. assess how well a student can organize knowledge
B. can cover a wide range of knowledge
C. promote guessing
D. lend themselves easily to testing complete problem-solving skills

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
26
Table 3.1:2
TRUE/FALSE
1. Do not use broad general statements.
2. Avoid the use of trivial statements.
3. Do not use negative statements.
4. Avoid long complex sentences.
5. Avoid including two ideas.
6. Make all statements equal length.
7. Avoid patterns.
Write True or False in the space provided at the end of
the following statement.
For the majority of people, normal body
temperature is 98.6ºF. __________
Table 3.1:3
MATCHING
1. Use only homogeneous or related materials.
2. Clearly indicate the basis for matching.
3. List of responses – on the right – should consist of
single words or short phrases.
4. Arrange responses in chronological or alphabetical
order.
5. Limit choices: from five (5) to ten (10).
6. Set items to hold on one page.
Table 3.1:4

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
27
FILL IN THE BLANKS/COMPLETION
1. Word the item so that the required answer is
definite.
2. Do not use direct statements from
textbooks/notes.
3. Make the blanks for the responses equal in
length.
4. Limit the number of blanks.
5. Place blanks preferably towards the end.
E.G. Fill in each blank with the most appropriate word to complete
the following sentences about objective type items.
When we measure factual information based on simple associations, it
is important to use homogeneous premises and __________.
Table 3.1:5
ESSAYS
1. Restrict the use to learning outcomes that
cannot be satisfactorily measured by objective
items.
2. Formulate questions that will measure the
specified learning outcome.
3. Phrase each question so that the task is clearly
indicated.
4. Indicate the approximate time limit for each
question.
5. Avoid the use of optional questions.
Answer each of the following questions
a. Describe a table of specifications. (5 Marks)
b. State THREE main reasons why the TOS is important to
the classroom teacher. (3 marks)
WHICH TYPE DO
YOU PREFER?

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
28
N.B EACH TYPE HAS ITS STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
Table 3.2: A COMPARISON TABLE
(Gronlund, 1998, 101)
SELECTION-TYPE ESSAYS
Learning outcomes
measured
Sampling content
Preparation of items
Scoring
Factors distorting
scores
Probable effect on
learning
Good for measuring outcomes at the knowledge,
comprehension and application levels of learning;
inadequate for organizing and expressing ideas.
The use of a large number of items results in broad
coverage, which makes representative sampling
feasible.
Preparation of good items is difficult and time
consuming.
Objective, simple and highly reliable
Reading ability and guessing
Encourages students to remember, interpret and
use the ideas of others.
Inefficient for measuring knowledge outcomes;
best for ability to organize, integrate and express
ideas.
The use of a small number of items limits
coverage, which makes representative sampling of
content infeasible.
Preparation of good items is difficult but easier
than selection-type
Subjective, difficult and less reliable.
Writing ability and bluffing
Encourages students to organize, integrate and
express their ideas.

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
29
LEARN DETAILS INVOLVED IN MAKING
MEANINGFUL AND FAIR EXAMS/TESTS.
KNOW HOW TO MAKE MEANINGFUL
ASSESSMENT
_________________________________
____________________________
CLASSROOM TESTING
KKNNOOWW WWHHYY YYOOUU AARREE TTEESSTTIINNGG!!
TTHHEE TTEESSTT SSHHOOUULLDD AASSSSEESSSS
WWHHEETTHHEERR TTHHEE SSTTUUDD EENNTTSS HHAAVVEE
MMAASSTTEERREEDD TTHHEE PPRRIIMMAARR YY
CCOOUURRSSEE OOBBJJEECCTTIIVVEESS..
TThhoossee wwhhoo ssttuuddyy aasssseessssmmeenntt aanndd eevvaalluuaattiioonn
tteecchhnniiqquueess aarree qquuiicckk ttoo ppooiinntt oouutt tthhaatt tthhee rroollee ooff
ssttaannddaarrddiizzeedd tteessttiinngg hhaass rreecceeiivveedd ccoonnssiiddeerraabbllyy
mmoorree rreesseeaarrcchh aatttteennttiioonn tthhaann hhaavvee ccllaassssrroooomm
tteessttiinngg aanndd ootthheerr ccllaassssrroooomm--lleevveell aasssseessssmmeenntt
mmeetthhooddss.. TThhee eexxiissttiinngg rreesseeaarrcchh ddooeess iinnddiiccaattee,,
hhoowweevveerr,, tthhaatt wweellll--ddeessiiggnneedd ccllaassssrroooomm tteessttiinngg
pprrooggrraammmmeess bbeeaarr aa ppoossiittiivvee rreellaattiioonnsshhiipp ttoo llaatteerr
ssttuuddeenntt aacchhiieevveemmeenntt..
BBeenneeffiicciiaall eeffffeeccttss aarree nnootteedd wwhheenn
tteessttss aarree::
 AAddmmiinniisstteerreedd rreegguullaarrllyy aanndd
ffrreeqquueennttllyy..
 AAnn iinntteeggrraall ppaarrtt ooff tthhee iinnssttrruuccttiioonnaall
aapppprrooaacchh ((ii..ee..,, wweellll aalliiggnneedd wwiitthh tthhee
mmaatteerriiaall bbeeiinngg ttaauugghhtt))..
 CCoolllleecctteedd,, ssccoorreedd,, rreeccoorrddeedd aanndd
rreettuurrnneedd ttoo ssttuuddeennttss pprroommppttllyy ssoo tthheeyy
ccaann ccoorrrreecctt eerrrroorrss ooff uunnddeerrssttaannddiinngg
bbeeffoorree tthhoossee bbeeccoommee iinnggrraaiinneedd..

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
30
TThhee pprroocceedduurreess aabboovvee aarree iimmppoorrttaanntt iinn eennssuurriinngg
tthheerree iiss aa hhiigghh ddeeggrreeee ooff vvaalliiddiittyy aanndd ffaaiirrnneessss..
FFAAIIRRNNEESSSS:: ……rreeffeerrss ttoo ssuucchh aassppeecctt ooff tthhee aasssseessssmmeenntt
pprrooggrraammmmee aanndd eevvaalluuaattiioonn ssyysstteemm aass::
 EEqquuaall ooppppoorrttuunniittyy ttoo aaccqquuiirree kknnoowwlleeddggee aanndd sskkiillllss ttoo
bbee aasssseesssseedd;;
 UUssee ooff ddeevveellooppmmeennttaallllyy aapppprroopprriiaattee aasssseessssmmeennttss;;
 SSoouunndd pprroocceedduurree;;
 AApppprroopprriiaattee uussee ooff eevvaalluuaattiioonn rreessuullttss;; aanndd
 RReeaassoonnaabbllee ddeemmaannddss oonn tthhee tteeaacchheerrss bbeeiinngg eevvaalluuaatteedd
iinn tteerrmmss ooff ssuucchh ffaaccttoorrss aass ttiimmee,, ccoosstt aanndd ppeerrssoonnaall
rreessoouurrcceess rreeqquuiirreedd..
FFaaiirrnneessss iinn eexxaammss iiss cchhaarraacctteerriizzeedd bbyy::
 AAbbsseennccee ooff bbiiaass;;
 PPrroocceedduurraall ffaaiirrnneessss;;
 AAddeeqquuaattee oorr eeqquuaall ooppppoorrttuunniittyy;;
 EEqquuaalliittyy ooff rreessuullttss..

Designing The Test
_____________________________________________________________________
31
MMAAJJOORR SSTTEEPPSS IINN DDEESSIIGGNNIINNGG
TTEESSTTSS//EEXXAAMMSS!!!!!!
11.. EEssttaabblliisshh tthhee ppuurrppoossee ffoorr tthhee
ttaasskk..
22.. IIddeennttiiffyy aanndd ddeeffiinnee tthhee
iinntteennddeedd lleeaarrnniinngg oouuttccoommeess..
33.. PPrreeppaarree tteesstt ssppeecciiffiiccaattiioonnss..
44.. RReevviieeww aanndd eeddiitt iitteemmss..
55.. AArrrraannggee tthhee iitteemmss..
66.. PPrreeppaarree ddiirreeccttiioonnss
KKnnooww wwhhyy yyoouu aarree tteessttiinngg!!
TTeessttss sshhoouulldd aasssseessss wwhheetthheerr tthhee
ssttuuddeennttss
hhaavvee mmaasstteerreedd tthhee pprriimmaarryy
oobbjjeeccttiivveess!!!!!!
SSuummmmaarryy
AAssssiiggnnmmeennttss sshhoouulldd
hheellpp ssttuuddeennttss
uunnddeerrssttaanndd tthhee mmaatteerriiaall
bbeetttteerr,, aanndd ccoommmmeennttss
oonn tthheeiirr wwoorrkk sshhoouulldd
aallssoo bbee uusseeffuull ttoo tthheemm..
PPlleeaassee NNoottee::
 TTeesstt iitteemmss sshhoouulldd
rreefflleecctt yyoouurr oobbjjeeccttiivveess
ffoorr tthhee uunniitt
 EEaacchh iitteemm sshhoouulldd
pprreesseenntt aa cclleeaarr ttaasskk
 SSttaattee eeaacchh iitteemm iinn
ssiimmppllee cclleeaarr llaanngguuaaggee,,
ffrreeee ooff bbiiaass
 OOnnee iitteemm sshhoouulldd nnoott
aaiidd iinn aannsswweerriinngg
aannootthheerr
 AAllllooww aammppllee ttiimmee
 AAssssiiggnn ppooiinnttss bbeeffoorree
aaddmmiinniisstteerriinngg tthhee tteesstt
 PPllaaccee ssiimmiillaarr iitteemm
ttyyppeess ttooggeetthheerr
 BBaallaannccee tthhee pprrooppoorrttiioonn
ooff ccoorrrreecctt aannsswweerrss;;
aavvooiidd ppaatttteerrnnss

Authentic Assessment: Alternatives To The Traditional Approach
___________________________________________________________________________
32
PPAARRTT 22
SSeeccttiioonn 44::
AAuutthheennttiicc
AAsssseessssmmeenntt::
AAlltteerrnnaattiivveess
TToo TThhee
TTrraaddiittiioonnaall
AApppprrooaacchh ttoo
TTeessttiinngg
DDeeffiinniinngg AAuutthheennttiicc AAsssseessssmmeenntt
SSttuuddeenntt EEvvaalluuaattiioonn FFoorrmm
PPeerrffoorrmmaannccee AAsssseessssmmeenntt.. WWhhyy??
PPeerrffoorrmmaannccee VVss.. TTrraaddiittiioonnaall AAsssseessssmmeenntt
PPoorrttffoolliioo AAsssseessssmmeenntt

___________________________________________________________________________
33
DDeeffiinniinngg AAuutthheennttiicc
AAsssseessssmmeenntt::
““AAnn aasssseessssmmeenntt iiss aauutthheennttiicc wwhheenn iitt
iinnvvoollvveess ssttuuddeennttss iinn ttaasskkss tthhaatt aarree
wwoorrtthhwwhhiillee,, ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt,, aanndd mmeeaanniinnggffuull..
SSuucchh aasssseessssmmeennttss …… ccoommmmuunniiccaattee ttoo
ssttuuddeennttss wwhhaatt iitt mmeeaannss ttoo wwoorrkk wweellll bbyy
mmaakkiinngg eexxpplliicciitt tthhee ssttaannddaarrddss bbyy wwhhiicchh wwoorrkk
wwiillll bbee jjuuddggeedd”” ((HHaarrtt,, 11999944,, 99))..
OOvveerr tthhee yyeeaarrss,, rreesseeaarrcchheerrss hhaavvee ccooiinneedd
sseevveerraall wwoorrddss oorr pphhrraasseess iinn aann aatttteemmpptt ttoo
ccllaarriiffyy tthhee mmeeaanniinngg oorr ppoowweerr ooff AAuutthheennttiicc
AAsssseessssmmeenntt:: PPeerrffoorrmmaannccee tteessttiinngg;;
aalltteerrnnaattiivvee tteessttiinngg ((HHaammbblleettoonn aanndd MMuurrpphhyy
11999922));; EExxhhiibbiittiioonn ooff mmaasstteerryy ((WWiiggggiinnss iinn
NNiicckkeell 11999922));; MMeeaanniinnggffuull aasssseessssmmeenntt
((AAddaammss aanndd HHaammmm 11999922));; NNaattuurraall
aasssseessssmmeenntt ((BBiieemmeerr 11999933))..
BByy ddeeffiinniittiioonn,, aauutthheennttiicc aasssseessssmmeenntt ((LLee
MMaahhiieeuu eett aall.. 11999955)) eennggaaggeess ssttuuddeennttss iinn
mmoorree ccoommpprreehheennssiivvee ttaasskkss,, wwhhiicchh pprroovviiddee
ddeettaaiilleedd eevviiddeennccee aabboouutt ssttuuddeennttss’’ tthhiinnkkiinngg
aanndd ‘‘eennccoouurraaggee ssttuuddeennttss ttoo ttaakkee aann aaccttiivvee
rroollee iinn aasssseessssmmeenntt ooff tthheeiirr wwoorrkk’’.. TThhiiss iiss
ssuuppppoorrtteedd bbyy AAddaammss aanndd HHaammmm ((11999922)) wwhhoo
bbeelliieevvee tthhaatt ssuucchh aaccttiivvee iinnvvoollvveemmeenntt iiss
nneecceessssaarryy ffoorr ssttuuddeennttss ttoo ffuunnccttiioonn iinn tthhee
ffuuttuurree.. IInn tthhiiss eexxeerrcciissee tthheeyy bbeeccoommee ppaarrttnneerrss
wwiitthh tthheeiirr tteeaacchheerrss iinn tthhee eevvaalluuaattiioonn pprroocceessss
((HHaarrtt 11999944)).. FFuurrtthheerrmmoorree,, HHaarrtt iiddeennttiiffiieess
tthhrreeee ccoommppoonneennttss ooff aauutthheennttiicc aasssseessssmmeenntt::
((ii)) tthhee ‘‘ddeessiiggnn’’ wwhhiicchh vvaalluueess tthhee mmuullttiippllee
aabbiilliittiieess ooff ssttuuddeennttss aanndd wwhhiicchh pprroommootteess
hhiigghheerr ssttaannddaarrddss ooff kknnoowwiinngg;; ((iiii)) tthhee
‘‘ssttrruuccttuurree’’ wwhhiicchh rreeqquuiirreess ssttuuddeenntt ttoo
ccoollllaabboorraattee oonn ttaasskkss wwhhiicchh aarree kknnoowwnn ttoo
tthheemm iinn aaddvvaannccee;; ((iiiiii)) tthhee ‘‘ggrraaddiinngg’’ wwhhiicchh
eemmpphhaassiizzeess ssccoorriinngg bbaasseedd oonn cclleeaarrllyy ssttaatteedd,,
sshhaarreedd ssttaannddaarrddss ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee ccrriitteerriiaa aanndd
eennccoouurraaggeess tthhee hhaabbiitt ooff sseellff aasssseessssmmeenntt,,
wwhhiicchh ccaann ffuurrtthheerr eennccoouurraaggee ppeeeerr
aasssseessssmmeenntt..
EEvviiddeennttllyy,, aauutthheennttiicc aasssseessssmmeenntt
mmaaggnniiffiieess aaccttiivviittyy aanndd ddyynnaammiissmm.. TThhiiss
aapppprrooaacchh ssuuppppoorrttss tteeaacchhiinngg,, lleeaarrnniinngg aanndd
eevvaalluuaattiioonn iinn aa pprroocceessss wwhhiicchh aalllloowwss tthhee
ssttuuddeenntt ttoo::
11.. PPeerrffoorrmm,, rreessppoonndd oorr pprroodduuccee
kknnoowwlleeddggee iinn aa ggeennuuiinnee rraatthheerr tthhaann
ccoonnttrriivveedd ssiittuuaattiioonn,, tthhaatt iiss,, iinn rreeaall
wwoorrlldd ccoonntteexxtt;;
22.. EEnnggaaggee iinn ccaarreeeerr ddeevveellooppmmeenntt
aaccttiivviittiieess,, ssoo lleeaarrnniinngg hhaass
mmeeaanniinngg//vvaalluuee oouuttssiiddee ooff sscchhooooll;;
33.. CCoollllaabboorraattee oonn ccoommpplleexx eexxtteennddeedd
ttaasskkss,, uussiinngg ddiisscciipplliinneedd iinnqquuiirryy..
IInn tthhee eenndd,, tthhee ssttuuddeenntt iiss jjuuddggeedd oonn wwhhaatt
hhee oorr sshhee ccaann ddoo wwiitthh kknnoowwlleeddggee,, sskkiillllss
aanndd vvaalluueess aanndd tthhee aabbiilliittyy ttoo ““mmaakkee
ddeecciissiioonnss,, ssoollvvee pprroobblleemmss,, tthhiinnkk
ccrriittiiccaallllyy,, sseeppaarraattee ffaaccttss ffrroomm ooppiinniioonnss
…… ggeett((ttiinngg)) aalloonngg wwiitthh ootthheerr ppeeooppllee””
((BBiieemmeerr 11999933,,8811..
TThhuuss OOrrssmmoonndd eett aall.. ((11999966)) ssttrreessss iiff
““ssttuuddeennttss aarree ttoo bbeeccoommee mmoorree sseellff-- rreelliiaanntt
wwiitthh rreeggaarrdd ttoo tthheeiirr aaccaaddeemmiicc ddeevveellooppmmeenntt,,
cchhaannggeess iinn ssttaaffff aasssseessssmmeenntt pprraaccttiicceess wwiillll
hhaavvee ttoo bbee mmaaddee,, iinn tthhaatt ssoommee ppoowweerr wwiillll
hhaavvee ttoo bbee hhaannddeedd oovveerr ttoo ssttuuddeennttss””.. TThhiiss
iinnvvoollvveess ttuurrnniinngg ttoo aalltteerrnnaattiivveess ssuucchh aass ppeeeerr--
aanndd sseellff--aasssseessssmmeenntt..
AAuutthheennttiicc aasssseessssmmeenntt ggiivveess ooppppoorrttuunniittyy ffoorr
ssttuuddeennttss ttoo::
 LEARN HOW TO EVALUATE THEMSELVES
OBJECTIVELY
 HANDLE STUDENT AND TUTOR
EVALUATIONS

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34
Self-assessment:
Self-assessment refers to the ‘involvement of
learners in making judgment about their own
learning, particularly about their achievement
and the outcomes of their learning” (Boud and
Falchikov, 1989, 529).
The term self-assessment can be used
interchangeably with self-marking, self-ratings
or self-evaluations. The basic understanding of
this practice is that students engage in a process
to review, rate or mark their performance or
evaluate their own learning. In effect, there has
been increasing interest in ways to encourage
students to take responsibility for their learning.
The literature shows that they should be able to
work independently and also assess their own
performance (Boud and Falchikov, 1989). Since
students need to be involved actively in
evaluating and providing examples of their own
learning, Adams and Hamm (1992, 105) believe
they should be given the opportunity, among
other things, to identify their thoughts and
reflect on what they understand; this allows
them to ‘create, evaluate and act upon matters
that they and others value’.
Two main motives for promoting student self-
assessment have been identified by Boud and
Falchikov, (1989). The first is educational, as
students become involved in assessing their
competence; the second is expedience or
practicality, influenced by the need to give
teachers more time to plan, monitor and
moderate assessment activities, therefore
promoting more effective use of resources.
It is apparent that these motives are also
applicable to peer assessment, which
Sommervell (1993) sees as part of the self-
assessment process as it ‘serves to inform self-
assessment’.
Peer Assessment
Peer assessment is based on the same premise
of students’ involvement in grading, but engages
students in making judgement about the work of
other students.
Such an exercise has a two-pronged effect, for as
Zariski (1996) posits, the process allows
students to practise assessment and also observe
how others evaluate the results of learning.
Teachers have always witnessed informal peer
assessment in their classrooms. For example,
when teachers return papers, students usually
evaluate their performance against another
pupil’s. There are instances when they have
been bold enough to point out teachers’
shortcoming. Or, sometimes when work is put
on display, they too can determine and
appreciate what is appropriate and acceptable
(Hart, 1994).
Sommervell (1993) believes that peer review as
part of summative assessment helps not only to
develop students’ skills of reflection but also to
develop attitudes of responsibility towards other
members of the group.

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35
Student Evaluation Form:
This is a form used to solicit student
evaluations of a course since it is now
commonplace to find out what students
think about their experiences in the class
over the term / semester / course.
Davis (1993) notes the following based on
research:
 Ratings of overall teaching effectiveness
are moderately correlated with
independent measures of student
learning and achievement.
 Ratings tend to be relatively constant.
 There is little or no relation between
student evaluation and age; years in
college; or amount of homework.
 Gender of instructor may have an
impact.
GUIDELINES FOR
CONSTRUCTING A STUDENT
EVALUATION FORM:
Use forms that give students the opportunity
to provide quantitative ratings and to
comment narratively on an instructor’s
performance.
Select items that reflect the criteria of
effective teaching of the department or
institution and that are within students’
range of judgment.
State each item clearly.
Provide numerical rating scale.
Include at least one item that asks students
the effects of the course.
At least one quantitative measure on the
overall effectiveness of the instructor.
Limit the number of questions about student
characteristics.
Keep the form short.
S
K
I
L
L
S
A
T
T
I
T
U
D
E
K
N
O
W
L
E
D
G
E

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36
Table 4.1: Tick () the most appropriate choice, which represents your perception
STATEMENTS SA A U D SD
A.
My instructor:
includes everyone by encouraging them to speak
does all the talking and directing
makes the whole class revolve on class activities
is not fair in comments on writing
always gives instructive and helpful comments
is well prepared for class
runs the class very well in every way.
B.
Lectures seem too boring
Class time is long
A great deal of my papers had no comments on them
I would like to see more conference time
I feel peer evaluation helps
C. Write a comment, which BEST describes your view of
your teacher’s effectiveness in the classroom.

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37

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT: WHY?
Teachers consider the following thought provoking questions!!
Have you ever given students a project to complete individually or in groups?
Did you give the students a mark scheme? Checklist? Rating scale? Specific criteria? so they could
reflect on task(s) as the project progressed?
Did the students work feverishly and diligently to research and complete this project?
Did groups or individuals present the finished project to the class?
Did you assign a mark or grade for end product? for the presentation? for group work? for the outline of
the process?
Or, did you just tell the students to prepare the information for a written test on the same topic another
time?
Why is the answer to each of the above questions important?
There is great emphasis on testing in our schools. Regrettably, a very high percentage of testing is the
“sit-down-at-the-desk-paper-and-pencil” test. That is, the testing is mainly concerned with measuring
students’ ability to recall enormous amounts of information at one sitting, preferably at the end of the
term, at the end of the school year, or at the end of their five – six year stint in primary school. However,
educators advocate the use of other types of assessment to balance the emphasis on paper and pencil tests.
These include:
1. Performance Assessment: This requires pupils to demonstrate their achievement of
understandings and skills by actually performing a task or set of tasks - for example, writing
a story, giving a speech, conducting an experiment, operating a machine.
2. Alternate Assessment: A title for performance assessment that emphasizes that these
assessment methods provide an alternative to traditional paper and pencil testing.
3. Authentic Assessment: A title for performance assessment that emphasizes the importance of
focusing on the application of understanding and skills to real problems in ‘real world’
contextual settings.
(Gronlund, 1998, 2)

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38
Of the three types of assessment described above, performance assessment is the all-inclusive category.
Consider the following definition!!!
To summarize, performance assessment can be defined as an innovative view to the structure of
learning. Teaching, learning and evaluation are connected in a variety of extended tasks, subject to
students’ differing backgrounds. The students engage in critical thinking, exposed to real-life
situations, and are given opportunity to utilize all their senses to generate knowledge. On-going
assessment of the process or performance is based on human judgement, whose subjectivity is controlled
by specific criteria of standards.
NOTE WELL:
PERFORMANCE TASKS ASK STUDENTS TO:
 Restructure information rather than simply recall and reproduce.
 Understand and use information in new and unfamiliar contexts.
 Integrate and connect their conceptual understanding as they
 Observe
 Reason
 Experiment
 Interpret
 Make decisions
 Draw conclusions.
 Demonstrate persistence, imagination and creativity.
 Approach a problem in novel ways.
(Capper, 1996, 53,57)
Limitations of performance assessment: (Gronlund, 1998, 137)
1. Time consuming - evaluation must frequently be done individually, rather than in groups.
2. Judgment and scoring performance is subjective, burdensome and typically has low reliability.
USING GUIDELINES TO CONSTRUCT WELL DESIGNED
PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENTS:
(Gallagher, 1998, 279-280)
The steps in designing a performance assessment are:
1. Determine the purpose of the assessment.
2. Determine what skills and outcomes the assessment will cover and specify in detail, including
taxonomic domain and level.
3. Develop a task that is illustrative of and calls for the behaviour specified in the outcomes.
Record the task and write directions for the students.
4. Determine judging criteria.
5. Create the scoring scheme.
6. Pilot test the assessment.
7. Revise the outcomes, the task, the judging criteria and the scoring scheme as necessary based
on pilot-test data.

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39
The following common scoring schemes can be used:
 Checklist – A set of phrases or statements that describe either the sequential steps in a
procedure or the most important elements of a product. …Enables the assessor to identify
whether a student has demonstrated a characteristic or not.
 Rating scale – A method of recording how frequently a (certain) behaviour occurs or
how high in quality a characteristic seems to be. …Allows the assessor to indicate the
level at which the student has demonstrated the characteristic; can assess product or
procedure.
 Anecdotal records – Brief description of observed behaviour, the settings in which they
occurred and an interpretation of the events. …Allow the assessor to provide a narrative
account/comment of the students’ progress with each demonstration/behaviour.
 Rubric: enables the assessor to evaluate students’ work (a performance or a product)
using a printed set of scoring guidelines. It is also useful for giving feedback.
The critical components of a rubric: (Easy to use rubric and assessment software.
File:///A|/1_1.html.)
1. Performance element: the major, critical attributes which focus on best
practice.
2. Scale: The possible points to be assigned. Can be numerical or verbal.
3. Criteria: The conditions of a performance that must be met for it to be
considered successful.
4. Standard: A description of how well the criteria must be met for the
performance to be considered “good”.
5. Descriptors: statements that describe each level of the performance.
6. Indicators: specific, concrete examples of what we look for at each level of the
performance.
Please note that the characteristics/criteria on the scoring
schemes can vary; and importantly, the students must be
aware of the criteria.

___________________________________________________________________________
40
Some guidelines for scoring schemes are:
1. Make the scoring approach (either analytic or holistic) congruent with the assessment purpose.
2. Base the scheme on judging criteria for the performance task.
3. Use observation instruments to record assessment of performance where possible.
4. Familiarize judges with the scheme and any related observation instruments.
5. Ensure agreement among judges on meaning of criteria.
The set of judging criteria associated with a performance assessment should:
1. Be present for each outcome assessed.
2. Sufficiently describe the critical aspects of performance – what is necessary to observe to determine
successful performance.
3. Be shared with students when appropriate.
CHECKLISTS AND RATING SCALES ARE THE TWOMOST COMMON SCORING SCHEMES FOR
BOTH ADULTS AND CHILDREN. A THIRD, LESS COMMON OBSERVATIONAL TOOL IS THE
ANECDOTAL RECORD
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE AND FAIR GRADING

1. Inform students at the beginning of instruction what grading procedures will be used.
2. Base grades on student achievement, and achievement only.
3. Base grades on a wide variety of valid assessment data.
4. When combining scores for grading, use a proper weighting technique.
5. Select an appropriate frame of reference.
6. Review borderline cases by re-examining all achievement evidence.
LET’S
OBSERVE
FAIRLY!

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41
Below is an example of a performance task prepared by a group of Primary school teachers at a measurement and
evaluation workshop –2000 – targeting the design of performance tasks. This was a first but commendable attempt.
LISTENING:
LEVEL 1 – GRADES k –1
Nursery rhymes:
Boys’ boots are big
So when boys jump
Boys’ big boots go
Bump, Bump, Bump.
Objectives:
 To develop auditory and discriminating skills (Cognitive; understanding)
 To appreciate the rhythmic expressions of language (Affective; appreciation)
Students will: listen to and recite the nursery rhyme
Identify similarities and differences
E.g. What words begin with the same sound?
What is the difference between these words? – bump/jump
Call all the word that end with the ‘s’ sound
Give a list of other words with the following:
‘B’ as initial sound
‘IG” ending
‘UMP’ ending
Fill in the blanks (orally)
E.g. Ben sleeps on a _ig _ed.
I _ig a hole
Table 4.2 Speaking Checklist / Rating Scale - Nursery Rhymes
3 – Very good 2 – Satisfactory 1 – Needs Improving
YES NO COMMENTS
TASKS: Ability to 1 2 3
Identify similarities
Identify differences
Identify beginning sounds
Identify ending sounds
Give other words with the
same ending sound
Give other words with the
same beginning sound
Can you identify other characteristics/criteria that could be assessed for
this exercise?
Would the above approach to assessment change any of the answers you
gave at the beginning of this article? (Page 43)
Now Design An Example Of Your Own!!!

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42
Below is an example of a rubric designed by Utoh & Hanley 2002. (One criterion –
Teaching Act - is described). The other criteria are Organization, Teaching Materials and
Aids, Classroom Management, Manner and Deportment.
Table 4.3
EVALUATION RUBRIC:
SOCIAL STUDIES PRACTICUM
CRITERIA PROFICIENT (4) SATISFACTORY (3) LIMITED (2) POOR (1)
Demonstrates
mastery of the
strategies and
skills
Carries out the
important strategies
and skills without
significant errors and
with relative ease
Displays an
incomplete
understanding
of the strategies
and skills
Little or no
evidence of
how to perform
strategies and
skills. -Makes
many critical
errors
TEACHING ACT
 Student
Readiness
 Interest
 Preparation/
Subject
Matter
 Evaluation
Adequately ensures
readiness of all
pupils for
instruction
Maintains students’
interest throughout
the lesson
Demonstrates
effective preparation
in the delivery of
information
Links evaluation to
all objectives stated
Makes significant
attempt to ensure
readiness of all pupils
for instruction
Maintains students’
interest for most of the
lesson
Demonstrates adequate
preparation in the
delivery of information
Links evaluation to two
objectives stated
Makes minimal
attempt to ensure
readiness of all
pupils for
instruction
Maintains
students’ interest
for a small
portion of the
lesson
Demonstrates
limited
preparation in the
delivery of
information
Links evaluation
to one of the
objectives stated
Makes no
attempt to
ensure readiness
of pupils for
instruction
Makes no effort
to maintain
students’
interest
Demonstrates
little preparation
in the delivery
of information
Makes no link
between
evaluation and
objectives
Can you identify the components of the rubric?

___________________________________________________________________________
43
PPEERRFFOORRMMAANNCCEE VVEERRSSUUSS TTRRAADDIITTIIOONNAALL AASSSSEESSSSMMEENNTT
PPeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt hhaass ggaaiinneedd ppooppuullaarriittyy mmaa iinnllyy bbeeccaauussee ooff oovveerraallll ddiissssaattiissffaaccttiioonn wwiitthh ttrraaddiittiioonnaall
ssttaannddaarrddiizzeedd tteessttiinngg pprroocceedduurreess ((DDuunnbbaarr,, KKoorreettzz aanndd HHoooovveerr,, 11999911)) aanndd ssppeecciiffiiccaallllyy ffaaccttuuaall oorriieenntteedd
mmuullttiippllee--cchhooiiccee tteessttss ((SSwwaannssoonn,, NNoorrmmaann aanndd LLiinnnn,, 11999955)).. OOtthheerr ttyyppeess ooff ttrraaddiittiioonnaall tteessttiinngg wwoouulldd
iinncc lluuddee tthhee bbaassiicc ssiitt--ddoowwnn--aatt--tthhee--ddeesskk--ppaappeerr--aanndd--ppeenncciill--tteessttss ssuucchh aass tthhee ffiillll iinn tthhee bbllaannkkss,, mmaattcchhiinngg,, aanndd
ttrruuee//ffaallssee iitteemmss.. IInn tthhee AAnnttiigguuaann ccoonntteexxtt,, tthheerree iiss mmuucchh ccoonncceerrnn rreeggaarrddiinngg tthhee llooccaall hhiigghh ssttaakkeess
eexxaammiinnaattiioonnss ssuucchh aass tthhee pprriimmaarryy aanndd ppoosstt pprriimmaarryy eexxaammiinnaattiioonnss.. MMuucchh rreesseeaarrcchh hhaass bbeeeenn ddoonnee iinn
ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt iinn aann aatttteemmpptt ttoo ccoouunntteerr ssoommee ooff tthheessee ccoonncceerrnnss..
TThhee ffoolllloowwiinngg aarreeaass ooff ccoonncceerrnn eemmeerrggeedd ffrroomm tthhee lliitteerraattuurree::
11.. SSaammpplliinngg aanndd ffoorrmmaatt
22.. FFaaiilluurree ttoo lliinnkk tteesstt ttoo ssppeecciiffiicc ccuurrrriiccuullaarr;;
33.. TTeessttss wwhhiicchh aarree eexxtteerrnnaall ttoo sscchhoooollss;;
44.. UUnnddeerr rreepprreesseennttaattiioonn ooff tthhee ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee ooff llooww ssoocciiooeeccoonnoommiicc eexxaammiinneess..
11.. SSaammpplliinngg aanndd FFoorrmmaatt::
FFiirrsstt ooff aa llll,, BBaakkeerr ((11999966)) iiss ooff tthhee ooppiinniioonn tthhaatt ccoommmmeerrcciiaalliizzeedd ssttaannddaarrddiizzeedd tteessttss rreellyy ttoooo mmuucchh oonn
ssaammpplliinngg ooff bbrrooaadd ccoonntteenntt aarreeaass.. TThhee rreessuulltt iiss tthhaatt iinnssttrruuccttiioonn iiss ffooccuusseedd oonn ccoovveerriinngg aa wwiiddee kknnoowwlleeddggee
bbaassee ssuuppeerrffiicciiaallllyy.. TThheerree iiss aallssoo tthhee nneeggaattiivvee iimmppaacctt oonn tteeaacchhiinngg,, eessppeecciiaallllyy bbeeccaauussee ooff tthhee mmuullttiippllee--
cchhooiiccee ffoorrmmaatt.. TThhiiss iiss ccrriittiicc iizzeedd oonn tthhee ggrroouunnddss tthhaatt mmuullttiippllee cchhooiiccee iitteemmss lliimmiitt ssttuuddeennttss tthhiinnkkiinngg
pprroocceesssseess,, ffooccuussiinngg oonn lloowweerr oorrddeerr iitteemmss ((HHaammbblleettoonn aanndd MMuurrpphhyy,, 11999922)) –– MMAAIINNLLYY RREECCAALLLL AANNDD
CCOOMMPPRREEHHEENNSSIIOONN.. TThhiiss oonnllyy eennccoouurraaggeess tteeaacchheerrss ttoo ffooccuuss oonn tthhee ffaacctt--oonnllyy aapppprrooaacchh ((BBeeiimmeerr,, 11999922))
ssoo ssttuuddeennttss mmaayy bbee oovveerreexxppoosseedd ttoo ddrriillll ttyyppee lleeaarrnniinngg ttoo eennssuurree tthheeyy mmaasstteerr tthhee ffaaccttss.. TThheenn,, tthheeiirr
ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee wwiillll bbee jjuuddggeedd oonn ssccoorreess ddeerriivveedd ffrroomm ssiimmppllyy aa ppeenn aanndd ppaappeerr tteesstt..
WWiiggggiinnss ((NNiicckkllee,, 11999922)) rreemmiinnddss uuss tthhaatt ppuuppiillss’’ eexxppeerriieennccee iinn tthhee rreeaall wwoorrlldd wwiillll nnoott bbee wwiitthh mmuullttiippllee
cchhooiiccee,, bbuutt hhooww ttoo aacctt aass pprrooffeessssiioonnaallss aanndd pprroodduuccee iinn tthhee wwoorrkk ppllaaccee.. HHee tthheerreeffoorree bbeelliieevveess ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee
aasssseessssmmeenntt wwiillll cchhaalllleennggee ssttuuddeennttss ttoo mmaakkee tthheemm uussee kknnoowwlleeddggee,, aass tthheeyy wwoouulldd bbee eexxppoosseedd ttoo aannaa llyyzziinngg
iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn aanndd uussiinngg ccrriittiiccaall tthhiinnkkiinngg aanndd pprroobblleemm ssoollvviinngg sskkiillllss ttoo pprroodduuccee rraatthheerr tthheenn rreepprroodduuccee..
DDuunnbbaarr eett aall.. ((11999955)) jjuussttiiffyy tthhee ssccooppee ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt ttoo pprroovviiddee iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn aabboouutt
pprrooffiicciieennccyy oovveerr tthhee ttrraaddiittiioonnaa ll mmeetthhoodd.. AAss ssttaatteedd bbyy tthhee NNaattiioonnaall CCoommmmiitttteeee ffoorr SSoocc iiaall SSttuuddiieess ((NNCCSSSS,,
221166)),, ccllaassssrroooomm iinnssttrruuccttiioonn ““wwoouulldd ffooccuuss oonn ssuussttaaiinneedd iinn--ddeepptthh eexxaammiinnaattiioonn ooff ffeeww iimmppoorrttaanntt ttooppiiccss tthhaann
oonn tthhee ssuuppeerrffiicc iiaa ll ccoovveerraaggee ooff mmaannyy””.. AAllssoo aaddmmiinniissttrraattiioonn ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee tteessttss iiss ddyynnaammiicc aanndd pprroovviiddeess

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44
ssccooppee ffoorr cchhaannggee aanndd ccoonnttiinnuuoouuss rreeccoorrddiinngg ooff bbeehhaavviioouurrss iinn aanndd oouutt ooff tthhee ccllaassssrroooomm.. AAddddiittiioonnaa llllyy,, tthheeyy
pprroovviiddee iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn ttoo ppaarreennttss aabboouutt tthheeiirr cchhiillddrreenn’’ss ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee oovveerr ttiimmee..
22.. FFaaiilluurree ttoo lliinnkk tteesstt ttoo ssppeecciiffiicc ccuurrrriiccuullaarr..
NNeexxtt,, tteesstt ddeevveellooppeerrss ddoo nnoott lliinnkk tteessttss ttoo ssppeecciiffiicc ccuurrrriiccuullaa ((NNiittkkoo,, 11999955)).. HHee nnootteess iinn tthhee lloonngg rruunn,, tthheeyy
pprroodduuccee ppoooorr qquuaa lliittyy tteessttss.. TThhuuss,, tthhee iinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn ooff tthhee tteesstt ssccoorreess ddooeess nnoott pprroovviiddee aannsswweerraabbllee
iinntteerrpprreettaattiioonnss,, ssoo ggeenneerraalliizzaabbiilliittyy iiss lliimmiitteedd.. TThhee vvaalliiddiittyy ooff aannyy tteesstt iiss ddeeppeennddeenntt oonn tthhee eexxtteenntt ttoo wwhhiicchh
wweellll--ddeeffiinneedd oobbjjeeccttiivveess aarree ssuuppppoorrtteedd bbyy rreepprreesseennttaattiivvee iitteemmss//ttaasskkss,, ssoo tteeaacchheerrss mmuusstt bbee aawwaarree ooff tthheessee
ggooaallss,, aanndd tthhee ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee tthhaatt iiss rreeqquuiirreedd.. WWiitthh ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt,, tteeaacchheerrss aarree eexxppeecctteedd ttoo kknnooww
tthhee ssttaannddaarrddss.. IInn aaddddiittiioonn,, tthhee aaddvvooccaatteess iinnssiisstt tthhee tteeaacchheerrss bbee aa ppaarrtt ooff tteesstt ddeevveellooppmmeenntt aass tthheeyy kknnooww
tthheeiirr ssttuuddeennttss,, aanndd tthhiiss ccoouulldd eennhhaannccee bbootthh iinnssttrruuccttiioonn aanndd lleeaarrnniinngg aanndd eevvaalluuaattiioonn..
33.. TTeessttss wwhhiicchh aarree eexxttee rrnnaall ttoo sscchhoooollss
TThheenn,, ccoouupplleedd wwiitthh tthhee tteesstt ccuurrrriiccuullaarr lliinnkk,, iiss tthhee ccoonncceerrnn tthhaatt ttrraaddiittiioonnaa ll ssttaannddaarrddiizzeedd tteessttss aarree eexxtteerrnnaall ttoo
aannyy ppaarrttiiccuullaarr sscchhooooll ssyysstteemm.. TThheerree iiss sshhoorrttccoommiinngg iinn tthhee nnaattiioonnaall aasssseessssmmeenntt bbaasseedd ccuurrrriiccuulluumm.. SScchhoooollss
mmaayy hhaavvee tthhee iirr oowwnn pprrooggrraammmmee,, bbuutt aarree eexxppeecctteedd ttoo mmeeeett sseett ddeemmaannddss iinn tthhee nnaattiioonnaa ll tteessttss;; ffoorr eexxaammppllee,,
1111++ eexxaammiinnaattiioonnss –– uunnlleessss aa lliinnkk iiss mmaaddee tthhrroouugghh aa NNaattiioonnaall HHaarrmmoonniizzeedd CCuurrrriiccuulluumm hhooww ddoo wwee kknnooww
wwee aarree tteessttiinngg wwhhaatt iiss ttaauugghhtt iinn oouurr cc llaassssrroooommss.. TThhuuss,, tthhee ffooccuuss ooff wwhhaatt tteessttss ddeemmaanndd hhaass aa ddiissttoorrttiinngg
eeffffeecctt oonn sscchhooooll ccuurrrriiccuullaarr,, nnaarrrroowwiinngg iitt ffuurrtthheerr ttoo bbaassiicc llooww--lleevveell sskkiillllss.. CCoonnsseeqquueennttllyy,, tteeaacchheerrss aarree
ffoorrcceedd ttoo tteeaacchh ttoo tthhee tteesstt,, tthhaatt iiss,, tthhee iirr iinnssttrruuccttiioonnss aarree mmiirrrroorr iimmaaggeess ooff tthhee tteesstt ffoorrmmaatt ((BBaakkeerr,, 11999966))..
IImmppoorrttaanntt kknnoowwlleeddggee aanndd sskkiillllss aanndd eevveenn ssoommee ooff tthheeiirr ssttaatteedd oouuttccoommeess aarree iiggnnoorreedd ((NNiicckkeell,, 11999922))..
PPeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt pprroovviiddeess gguuiiddeess ttoo ffoosstteerr eeffffeeccttiivvee iinnssttrruuccttiioonnaa ll tteecchhnniiqquueess.. AAlltthhoouugghh tthhee rraannggee
aanndd ssccooppee ffoorr ccuurrrriiccuulluumm--bbaasseedd oobbjjeeccttiivveess lliinnkkeedd ttoo tthheessee ssttrraatteeggiieess aarree ffoorrmmiiddaabbllee ttaasskkss,, oonnee hhooppeess tthhaatt
tthhee ssttaattee ccaann aaddoopptt aa sseett ooff ssttaannddaarrddss,, tthheenn ssaannccttiioonn llooccaall aauutthhoorriittiieess ttoo eennssuurree ssttuuddeennttss aanndd tteeaacchheerrss kknnooww
tthheessee ssttaannddaarrddss ((NNiittkkoo,, 11999955)).. IItt iiss tthhee wwrriitteerr’’ss vviieeww tthhaatt tthhee aaddvvaannttaaggeess ttoo ssttuuddeennttss wwoouulldd bbee lleessss tteesstt
aannxxiieettyy,, aanndd ggrreeaatteerr ssttuuddeenntt iinnvvoollvveemmeenntt iinn hhiigghheerr--lleevvee ll tthhiinnkkiinngg aanndd mmeettaaccooggnniittiivvee sskkiillllss –– iinn wwhhiicchh tthheeyy
wwoouulldd bbee iinnvvoollvveedd iinn ‘‘ppllaannnniinngg aanndd mmoonniittoorriinngg tthhee iirr ccooggnniittiivvee ssttrraatteeggiieess aanndd aawwaarreenneessss’’..

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45
44.. UUnnddee rr rree pprreesseennttaattiioonn ooff tthhee ppee rrffoorrmmaannccee ooff llooww ssoocciiooeeccoonnoommiicc eexxaammiinneess
FFiinnaallllyy,, ssttaannddaarrddiizzeedd tteessttss llaacckk ffaaiirrnneessss ((BBaakkeerr,, 11999966)).. SSppeecciiffiiccaallllyy,, tthheeyy hhaavvee uunnddeerrrreepprreesseenntteedd tthhee
ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee ooff llooww--ssoocciiooeeccoonnoommiicc ssttuuddeennttss,, wwhhoo hhaavvee aallwwaayyss ppeerrffoorrmmeedd lleessss wweellll tthhaann tthhee ssttuuddeennttss iinn
tthhee hhiigghheerr ssoocciioo--eeccoonnoommiicc ggrroouuppss.. SSoommee aarreeaass ooff ccoonncceerrnn aarree tthhee nnoorrmmss ffoorr iinntteerrpprreettiinngg tthhee tteessttss,, ccoonntteenntt
bbiiaass,, aanndd llaanngguuaaggee ddeemmaannddss ooff tthhee iitteemmss.. SSoommee ggrroouuppss ooff ssttuuddeennttss aarree aatt aa ddiissaaddvvaannttaaggee –– mmaannyy hhaavvee
bbeeeenn tteerrmmeedd ‘‘aatt--rriisskk’’ ((HHaammbblleettoonn aanndd MMuurrpphhyy,, 11999922)) aanndd iinn ssoommee ccaasseess ssttuuddeennttss hhaavvee bbeeeenn ppllaacceedd iinn
ccllaasssseess ffoorr tthhee mmeennttaallllyy rreettaarrddeedd.. AAss BBiieemmeerr ((11999933)) ssttaatteess,, tthhee vvaalliiddiittyy ooff ssttaannddaarrddiizzeedd nnoorrmm--rreeffeerreenncceedd
tteessttss wweerree ssuucchh tthhaatt iitt wwaass ttaakkeenn ffoorr ggrraanntteedd ““cchhiillddrreenn ddoonn’’tt kknnooww vveerryy mmuucchh””.. AAllll wwee ggeett aaccccoorrddiinngg ttoo
BBoonndd ((11999955)) iiss aa ssnnaapp sshhoott ooff tthheeiirr aacchhiieevveemmeenntt.. OOnn tthhee ootthheerr hhaanndd,, ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt ssttrraatteeggiieess
hhaavvee bbeeeenn uusseedd aammoonngg ‘‘aatt rriisskk’’ ssttuuddeennttss wwiitthh pprroommiissiinngg rreessuullttss.. TThheerree iiss eevviiddeennccee ttoo sshhooww tthhaatt pprroojjeecctt
bbaasseedd aassssiiggnnmmeennttss aanndd ppoorrttffoolliioo ccaann mmoottiivvaattee ssttuuddeennttss aanndd iimmpprroovvee tteeaacchhiinngg aanndd lleeaarrnniinngg ((AAddaammss aanndd
HHaammmm,, 11999922;; LLee MMaahhiieeuu,, GGiittoommeerr aanndd EErraasshh,, 11999955)).. GGeenneerraallllyy,, tthhee iirr sseellff--eesstteeeemm aanndd sseellff ccoonnffiiddeennccee aarree
eennhhaanncceedd,, aass eevvaalluuaattiioonn ooff tthheeiirr wwoorrkk iinnddiiccaattee iimmpprroovveemmeenntt iinn ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee..
IItt iiss wwiiddee llyy aacccceepptteedd tthhaatt eevveenn iiff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt ddooeess nnoott rreeppllaaccee ttrraaddiittiioonnaall tteessttiinngg mmeetthhooddss,, tthhee
aapppprrooaacchh ccaann hhaavvee aa mmoorree ppoossiittiivvee eeffffeecctt oonn tteeaacchhiinngg lleeaarrnniinngg aanndd eevvaalluuaattiioonn.. TThhee CCaarriibbbbeeaann
EExxaammiinnaattiioonnss CCoouunncciill ((CCXXCC)) hhaass uusseedd bbootthh tthhee ttrraaddiittiioonnaall aanndd tthhee aalltteerrnnaattiivvee aapppprrooaacchh iinn tthhee aasssseessssmmeenntt
ooff sseevveerraall ooff tthheeiirr eexxaammiinnaattiioonnss wwiitthh ppoossiittiivvee bbeenneeffiittss.. HHoowweevveerr,, tthheerree aarree pprroobblleemmss,, wwhhiicchh nneeeedd ttoo bbee
ccoonnssiiddeerreedd wwhheenn uussiinngg ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt ssttrraatteeggiieess.. AAmmoonngg tthheessee pprroobblleemmss aarree eessttaabblliisshhiinngg ((ii))
rree lliiaabbiilliittyy,, ((iiii)) ccoommppaarraabbiilliittyy aanndd ((iiiiii)) ffaaiirrnneessss..
PPaarrtt 22::
((ii)) RRee lliiaabbiilliittyy
IInn tthhee ccoonntteexxtt ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt,, rreelliiaabbiilliittyy rreellaatteess ttoo tthhee eexxtteenntt tthhaatt mmeeaassuurreess ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee
aasssseessssmmeenntt aarree ccoonnssiisstteenntt oorr aaggrreeeeaabbllee bbeettwweeeenn rraatteerrss oonn tthhee ssaammee ttaasskk,, oorr oonn sseevveerraall iinnddeeppeennddeenntt ssccoorreess
ooff tthhee ssaammee rraatteerr ((DDuunnbbaarr,, KKoorreettzz aanndd HHoooovveerr 11999911)),, oorr tthhee aaccccuurraaccyy ooff tthhee mmeeaassuurriinngg iinnssttrruummeenntt
((KKeerrlliinnggeerr 11998866)) wwhhiicchh iinncc lluuddeess tthhee aaddeeqquuaaccyy aanndd tthhee aapppprroopprriiaatteenneessss ooff ccoonntteenntt ttoo bbee uusseedd oovveerrttiimmee oorr
bbeettwweeeenn ffoorrmmss.. TThhuuss ssccoorriinngg pprroocceedduurreess aanndd tthhee iinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn ooff tthhee ssccoorreess ((SSwwaannssoonn,, NNoorrmmaann,, LLiinnnn
11999955)) aarree vveerryy iimmppoorrttaanntt..

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46
RRaatteerrss ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt ccaann bbee tteeaacchheerrss,, bboosssseess,, ppeeeerrss oorr tthhee eexxaammiinneess tthheemmsseellvveess.. TThhiiss
rraattiinngg//ggrraaddiinngg ccaannnnoott bbee ddoonnee bbyy mmaacchhiinneess,, nnoorr iiss tthheerree oonnee--rriigghhtt aannsswweerr rreessppoonnssee aass rreeqquuiirreedd ooff
oobbjjeeccttiivvee ttyyppee tteessttss.. SSuubbjjeeccttiivviittyy -- oonn aaccccoouunntt ooff bbiiaass,, iinneexxppeerriieennccee,, llaacckk ooff ttrraaiinniinngg,, ssee llff--iinntteerreesstt,,
eemmoottiioonnaa ll iinnvvoollvveemmeenntt oorr llaacckk ooff ccoonnffiiddeennccee -- iiss aa llaarrggee ppaarrtt ooff hhuummaann jjuuddggmmeenntt,, aanndd tthhuuss,, hhaass aa ggrreeaatt
iimmppaacctt oonn tthhee rreelliiaabbiilliittyy ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt.. TThheerreeffoorree iitt iiss aaddvviisseedd tthhaatt rraatteerrss bbee ttrraaiinneedd aanndd
ggiivveenn tthhee eexxppeerriieennccee iinn ssttaannddaarrddiizzeedd sseessssiioonnss wwhhiicchh ffooccuuss tthhee iirr sskkiillllss oonn tthhee ccrriitteerriiaa ffoorr mmeeaassuurriinngg
ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee.. HHaarrtt ((11999944)) aallssoo ssuuggggeessttss ggrroouupp ggrraaddiinngg iinnsstteeaadd ooff rreellyyiinngg oonn oonnee ssccoorree ttoo aasssseessss ssttuuddeennttss’’
ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee..
IInn rreellaattiioonn ttoo nnuummbbeerr ooff rraatteerrss,, rreessppoonnssee ssttyylleess ccaann bbee aass ddiiffffeerreenntt aass tthhee nnuummbbeerr ooff eexxaammiinneeeess.. SSoo tthheerree iiss
ccoonncceerrnn iinn ddeevvee llooppiinngg ssccoorriinngg kkeeyyss ttoo mmeeaassuurree ssaattiissffaaccttoorryy ssaammpplleess ooff tthheessee ppoossssiibbllee
bbeehhaavviioouurrss//rreessppoonnsseess ccoommppeetteennttllyy ((SSwwaannssoonn,, NNoorrmmaann,, LLiinnnn 11999955)).. KKoonn aanndd MMaarrttiinn--KKnniieepp ((11999922))
ssuuggggeesstt tthhaatt tthhee rraannggee ooff aacccceeppttaabbllee rreessppoonnsseess ccaann bbee ddeeffiinneedd oonn aa pprreeccooddeedd lliisstt aatt tthhee oonnsseett.. TThhiiss wwoouulldd
mmiittiiggaattee tthhee vvaarriiaannccee aass aa rreessuulltt ooff ddiiffffeerriinngg iinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn ooff uunneexxppeecctteedd rreessppoonnsseess.. TThhee pprroobblleemm bbee iinngg
tthhaatt iitt iiss nnoott ppoossssiibbllee ttoo lliisstt aallll ppoossssiibbllee rreessppoonnsseess ffoorr aannyy oonnee--tteesstt sseessssiioonn..
AAddddiittiioonnaa llllyy,, llooww rreelliiaabbiilliittyy ccaann rreessuulltt ffrroomm tthhee uussee ooff tthhee mmeeaassuurriinngg iinnssttrruummeenntt -- cchheecckklliisstt,,
qquueessttiioonnnnaa iirree,, oorr oobbsseerrvvaattiioonn sscchheedduullee.. TThhiiss ccaann bbee aaffffeecctteedd bbyy tthhee llaacckk ooff ssppeecciiffiicc ccrriitteerriiaa;; tthhee ccoonnddiittiioonnss
uunnddeerr wwhhiicchh tthhee tteesstt iiss ccoonndduucctteedd aanndd tthhee nnuummbbeerr ooff ppooiinnttss oonn tthhee ssccaalleess ((DDuunnbbaarr,, KKoorreettzz,, HHoooovveerr 11999911;;
KKoonn aanndd mmaarrttiinn--KKnniieepppp 11999922)).. TThhee hhoolliissttiicc mmeetthhoodd hhaass bbeeeenn pprroovveenn ttoo bbee lleessss rreelliiaabbllee :: tthhee gguuiiddee lliinneess ffoorr
mmaarrkkiinngg aarree bbrrooaadd oorr nnoonn--eexxiisstteenntt ssoo ssccoorriinngg iiss mmoorree ssuubbjjeeccttiivvee tthhaann iiff tthhee ccrriitteerriiaa ffoorr ssccoorriinngg eeaacchh
bbeehhaavviioouurr//rreessppoonnssee wweerree vveerryy ssppeecciiffiicc.. AA ggoooodd eexxaammppllee ccaann bbee ttaakkeenn ffrroomm tthhee uussee ooff mmaarrkkiinngg sscchheemmeess
ffoorr mmaarrkkiinngg eessssaayyss,, wwhhiicchh pprroodduuccee mmoorree rreelliiaabbllee ssccoorreess tthhaann mmaarrkkiinngg eessssaayyss bbyy jjuusstt rreeaaddiinngg hhoolliissttiiccaallllyy
((GGrroonnlluunndd 11998811)).. DDuunnbbaarr eett aall.. ((11999911)) ffoouunndd tthhaatt aa tteesstt wwiitthh ssppeecciiffiicc ccrriitteerriiaa ,, wwhhiicchh hhaadd rreelliiaabbiilliittyy ccoo--
eeffffiicciieenntt ooff ..9911 iinn aa ccoonnttrroolllleedd eexxppeerriimmeennttaall ccoonnddiittiioonn,, wwaass ..6677 ffoorr aa ffiieelldd ssttuuddyy;; aa 1100--ppooiinntt hhoolliissttiicc ssccaallee
iinn tthhee ssaammee ccoonnddiittiioonn ggaavvee aa ccoo--eeffffiicciieenntt ooff ..3333..
TThhee lleennggtthh ooff tthhee tteesstt,, tthhee ttaasskk ssaammppllee,, aanndd aaddddiittiioonnaa ll rraatteerrss aarree ccrriittiiccaa ll iissssuueess iinn tthhee rreelliiaabbiilliittyy ooff tthhee tteesstt
((DDuunnbbaarr eett aall.. 11999911)).. TThhee mmaaiinn ccoonncceerrnn hheerree iiss tthhee ddeeggrreeee ttoo wwhhiicchh tthhee rraatteerr ccaann ‘‘gguueessss’’ hhiiss wwaayy oouutt ((aass
tthhee eexxaammiinneeee)) iinn aann oobbjjeeccttiivvee tteesstt –– ppaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy aa mmuullttiippllee cchhooiiccee tteesstt.. AA lloonnggeerr tteesstt wwiillll ccuutt ddoowwnn oonn tthhee
cchhaannccee ooff eerrrroorr ffrroomm gguueessssiinngg.. DDuunnbbaarr eett aall.. ((11999911)) iinnddiiccaattee tthhaatt tthhee aaddddiittiioonn ooff ttaasskkss ccaauusseess tthhee
ttrruussttwwoorrtthhiinneessss ooff aa tteesstt ttoo iimmpprroovvee aass ssccoorree rreelliiaabbiilliittiieess iinnccrreeaassee sstteeaaddiillyy.. HHoowweevveerr,, tthhee iinnccrreeaassee ooff
rreelliiaabbiilliittyy ooff aaddddiittiioonnaa ll rraatteerrss ddeeppeennddss aa ggrreeaatt ddeeaall oonn tthhee ccoommppaarraattiivvee aannaallyyssiiss ooff rraatteerrss aanndd ssccoorreess.. TThhee
nnaattuurree ooff ppeerrffoorrmmaannccee aasssseessssmmeenntt wwoouulldd ccaauussee tthhee pprroocceesssseess ttaakkeenn ttoo iimmpprroovvee rreelliiaabbiilliittyy ttoo bbee vveerryy ccoossttllyy
aanndd ttiimmee ccoonnssuummiinngg ((SSwwaannssoonn eett aall.. 11999955)).. IItt iiss nnoott aass eeaassyy aass ttaakkiinngg iitteemmss ffrroomm aann iitteemm bbaannkk oorr jjuusstt

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