Roman Emperors Before Marcus Aurelius

What can we learn from reflecting on the Roman Emperors
before Marcus Aurelius?
What was the balance of power between the Senate and the
Emperors?
How could a rogue emperor be removed?
What role did the Roman Army play in politics and succession?
Why were there five good emperors in a row?
Why did Hadrian consolidate rather than expand the empire?
What effect did this policy have on the Roman Empire?
Could Hadrian sometimes be just as cruel as Commodus?

Please, we welcome interesting questions in the
comments. Let us learn and reflect together!
At the end of our talk, we will discuss the sources
used for this video.
Please feel free to follow along in the PowerPoint
script we uploaded to SlideShare.

Roman Emperors Through Marcus Aurelius
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When examining the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the
last of the five good Roman Emperors, we need to
understand the broad sweep of the early history of
the Roman Empire that succeeded the Roman
Republic. The Roman state celebrated the 900th
anniversary of its traditional founding by the
mythical Romulus and Remus shortly after Marcus
Aurelius was born.

According to legend, Romulus and Remus, founders of Rome,
were raised by wolves. Capitoline Wolf, 13th century, twins
are 15th century addition / The Shepherd Faustulus Bringing
Romulus and Remus to His Wife, by Nicolas Mignard, 1654

Marcus Aurelius is a fascinating figure in history. He was one of the great
Roman Stoic philosophers, based on his Meditations, and he was also
the last of the Five Good Roman Emperors, emperors who did not inherit
their position, but were chosen for their temperament and abilities.
Some of his Meditations extol Christian principles, but they also have
references against Christians. But yet many historians, ancient and
modern, say he persecuted Christians. What is more remarkable is that
not only modern Christians want to believe that he didn’t persecute
Christians, but many ancient Christians admired his philosophy and felt
the same way, and this may have included St Justin Martyr.

The early Roman emperors, and the Five Good Emperors through Marcus
Aurelius, had very little to do with Christians, and had almost no personal
contact with Christians. Nero famously viciously persecuted Christians,
but there was little desire by succeeding emperors in this period to seek
out Christians for active persecution. Emperor Diocletian would viciously
persecute the Christians, but that would be centuries after Marcus
Aurelius.
After reviewing the biographies of Marcus Aurelius, and his son and
successor, Commodus, an emperor as bloodthirsty as Nero, but who did
not persecute the Christians, we will reflect on the history of Christian
persecutions through the reign of Marcus Aurelius and his son,
Commodus. We will also reflect on the ordinary lives of Romans in the
time of Marcus Aurelius.

Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, by Adophe Yvon, 1875
Julius Caesar and Early Roman Emperors

One weakness of the late Roman Republic is the troops owed their
allegiance not to the Roman Republic, but to the general they served
under. Because of this, the Roman Senate passed a law requiring generals
to enter the city of Rome unattended, their troops had to remain on the
other side of the Rubicon. The politics of the late Roman Republic under
Cato and Cicero and many lesser senators were violent and unstable,
Julius Caesar resolved the chaos of the Roman Republic when his troops
crossed the Rubicon, which, in the short run, meant civil war.
The important political questions in the Roman Empire were: how much
power would the Roman Senate retain in the empire? How can you
remove a bad emperor?

Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, by Adophe Yvon, 1875

Julius Caesar arrives at the Rubicon, by Gustave Boulanger, 1854 / Crossing the Rubicon, by Jacob Abbott, 1849

REIGN
Julius Caesar assassinated 44 BC
Octavian consolidated power of emperor 27 BC-14 AD
Dramatically enlarged the empire, annexes Egypt
Nero committed suicide at end of reign 54-68 AD
First official persecution of Christians, only in Rome
Year of Four Emperors 69 AD
Vespasian and his sons, Titus and Domitian 69-96 AD
Roman Empire expanded through conquest
Domitian was assassinated by Praetorian Guard
The Five Good Emperors, 96-180 AD
selected for adoption by ability, crown not inherited.
Marcus Aurelius, last of the good emperors 161-180 AD
Commodus, perhaps worse than Nero 177-192 AD
Julius Caesar Crossing the Rubicon, by Jacob Abbott, 1849

A conspiracy of over sixty senators plotted the
assassination of Julius Caesar, his friend Brutus was
among those who stabbed him to death on the floor
of the Senate in 44 BC. His family was descended
from the Brutus who had expelled the kings from
Rome nearly five centuries earlier at the birth of the
Roman Republic.

Death of Caesar, by Vincenzo Camuccini, 1805

Surprisingly, in his will Julius Caesar declared his
nephew Octavian, who would also be known as
Caesar Augustus, as his heir. His assassination was
controversial, but Octavian eventually prevailed after
winning the War of Actium, a civil war fought against
Marc Antony and Cleopatra, he became the sole
Emperor of Rome.

.
The Battle of
Actium, by
Laureys a
Castro, 1672

The remarkable last Greek Queen of Egypt, Cleopatra, had
successfully seduced both Julius Caesar, then Marc
Anthony, who were both married, and later many painters.
When in Egypt, those around Julius Caesar did not want
them to meet, she had her attendants smuggle her into his
quarters rolled in a rug. After his death, she next seduced
Marc Antony, but in the naval Battle of Actium, she and
her fleet fled and sailed way, guaranteeing defeat.

The Triumph of
Cleopatra, by
William Etty, 1821

Cleopatra
waiting for a visit
from Mark
Antony, by Don
Pelegrin Casabo
Y Pages, 1882

Many millennia later, Cleopatra in the guise of Elizabeth Taylor nearly
bankrupted Twentieth Century Fox when her movie went over budget, it
was the most expensive film at that time. Cleopatra, in character, started
an adulterous affair with Richard Burton, attracting scandalous headlines.
Back in the first century, wisely, Octavian refused to meet with Cleopatra
in private, guaranteeing that he, too, would not be seduced.
We are in luck, Plutarch has written biographies of Julius Caesar, Brutus,
Crassus, Pompey, and Marc Antony, as have other ancient historians, so
sometime later we will reflect on these Lives of these noble Romans.

Anthony and
Cleopatra, by
Lawrence Alma-
Tadema, 1885

Although he was deferential to the Senate, Octavian was reluctant to
adopt the customary grandiose titles of an emperor, although he did hold
the real absolute power. This public humility dissuaded the senators from
plotting to assassinate him like they did his uncle, though he certainly
never gave them the chance. Octavian drastically expanded the frontiers
of the empire, which meant lower taxes for the Italians, since these
conquests flooded the labor market with slaves, and large amounts of
booty were appropriated.
As time passed, the Roman Senate lost more and more of its residual
power. But the emperor could not run the empire by himself. Even when
the senate itself was powerless, many of the Roman bureaucratic officials
were drawn from the senatorial and equestrian ranks.

Augustus as Jupiter, First century AD / Ancient Statue

During the first century of the Roman Empire, some
emperors were good, some were bad, and some were
mad, including Caligula, who, in addition to proclaiming
himself divine, may have planned to appoint as consul his
horse. Caligula was incredibly unpopular, since he
murdered many senators, and finally the ancient version of
the Secret Service, the Praetorian Guard, assassinated
Caligula. The Roman soldiers found his successor Claudius
hiding in the curtains. Surprisingly, Claudius was a
somewhat competent emperor.

Assassination of the Emperor Caligula, by Lazzaro Baldi, around 1700 / Claudius receives the homage as the new
emperor after the killing of Caligula, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1871

Proclaiming Claudius
Emperor, by Lawrence
Alma-Tadema, 1867

Under the guidance of his wise Stoic tutor Seneca,
the first few years of Nero’s reign suggested that he
would be a good emperor. But his megalomania and
cruelties consumed him, he martyred Christians as
scapegoats after Rome burned, he also murdered
senators and opponents. In retirement, Seneca often
pondered the topic of suicide, because he knew one
day Nero’s soldiers would be at his door.

After Nero was compelled to commit suicide, the Roman Empire
endured the chaotic year of four emperors. The eventual victor,
General Vespasian, brought stability to the empire, though he
refused to share power with the Senate, and was succeeded by
his son Titus, then his son Domitian. Vespasian and Titus were
effective and popular emperors, gaining the approval of the
Senate. Though Domitian started out in their footsteps, he
attracted opposition and was assassinated. Vespasian and Titus
were the generals who suppressed the Jewish rebellion, which
ended in the famous siege at Masada.

Problems of Succession, Roman Army

The only way to rid the empire of a bad emperor was by death, either by
natural causes or by assassination. Usually when an unpopular emperor
was assassinated, there were periods of instability where multiple
emperors were in power for only a few months before they were
overthrown in short civil wars. Usually, these civil wars were waged
among the various Roman legions for the generals competing for power.
These civil wars did affect many ordinary people in Rome, but these
legions did not typically lay siege to cities or plunder or kidnap ordinary
citizens as they did when expanding the borders of the empire. Of course,
there likely was some plundering and kidnapping, that always happened
in battles in the ancient world.

Historical Roman re-enactors: Testudo formation / Christian Chi-Rho standard / Roman Cavalry

The composition of the Roman army itself changed during
the centuries of the Roman Emperors. The Roman legions
were manned by professional soldiers. If they served for
twenty-five years, they earned a cash bonus of thirteen
years salary. This was like a lottery as about half of these
soldiers died before retirement, but those who did retire in
the first century bought land in Italy and caused much
political instability. In later centuries, many retired soldiers
settled in towns in the provinces, binding them more
tightly to Rome.

Roman soldier reenactors in Great Britain, on the Wall of Hadrian

The percentage of Italians in the Roman legions
likewise declined. Under Octavian about seventy
percent of legionnaires were Italian, this declined to
around a quarter of the legions by the year 100. By
the time Marcus Aurelius was emperor, only two
percent of the legionnaires were Italian. This also
applied to leaders, though the top leadership
positions were only open to Roman citizens.

Historical re-enactors: one wearing replica equipment of a Roman legionary, AD 75; one dressed as a Praetorian
vexillarius, one replica equipment of a late 1st-century centurion

As McLynn, the biographer of Marcus
Aurelius, observes, “The Roman Empire
was an empire of conquest, and this simple
fact had profound consequences for
society at every level. The empire’s main
sources of income were tribute paid by the
conquered, indirect taxes on the sale of
slaves, customs duties, and revenues from
estates, mines, and other properties.
Roman taxation was always relatively low,”
“since the taxpayers were the defeated.” A
land tax would not be passed until the
fourth century.

Nerva and Trajan: 1st of Five Good Emperors
Statue of Nerva / Trajan’s Column in Trajan’s Forum / Statue of Trajan.

Domitian’s successor, Emperor Nerva, was well-connected
to both the Senate and the Emperors, and was the first of
the five good emperors, all of whom were selected as the
best Roman for the post, none of whom inherited their
position. He was an old man when he was elevated to be
emperor, he promised the Senate he would consult with
them on all decisions, and that he would not put to death
any senator. He recalled those whom Domitian had exiled,
he distributed much land to the poor of Italy, and annulled
many taxes.

We cannot improve upon Will
Durant’s description of Nerva:
“With the assassination of Domitian,
the principle of heredity disappeared
for a century from Roman monarchy.
The Senate had never recognized
inheritance as a source of
sovereignty; now, after 123 years of
submission, it reasserted its
authority; and as in Rome’s
beginnings it had chosen the king,
now it named one of its own
members princeps and imperator.”

But the Praetorian Guard was not happy,
after less than a year after he was named
emperor, they besieged the palace, killing
several of the emperor’s councilors. Will
Durant said that “Nerva offered his throat
to the swords of the soldiers, but they
spared him. Humiliated, Nerva offered to
abdicate, but his friends persuaded him,
instead, to return to Augustus’ example
and adopt as his son and successor a man
acceptable to the Senate and capable of
ruling not only the Empire, but the
Praetorian Guard as well.”
Trajan's Justice, by Eugène Delacroix, 1840

Nerva thus adopted as his son and successor the popular general
Trajan. The stress must have been too much for Nerva, he died
shortly afterwards after a reign of only sixteen months.
The Roman Empire was at its zenith after the conquests of
Emperor Trajan, he expanded the Roman Empire into England,
expanded the provinces in North Africa and Egypt, and expanded
eastward into Romania and Parthian Persia. The Senate gave him
the title of Optimus, the best of emperors.
The reign of the Five Good Emperors lasted for nearly a hundred
years.

Roman auxiliary
infantry crossing a
river, probably
the Danube, on a
pontoon bridge
during the
emperor Trajan's
Dacian Wars
(101–106)

Roman Ruins, with Arch of Constantine, Trajan’s Column,
the Colosseum, and the Statue of Marcus Aurelius, 1751
THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS REIGN
The Five Good Emperors selected for adoption by ability.
Nerva, died of natural causes 96-98 AD
Trajan, Roman Empire at its peak 98-117 AD
Hadrian, pulled back and consolidated 117-138 AD
Hadrian picked next two sets of emperors through adoption
Antoninus Pius, not ambitious, competent 138-161 AD
Lucius Veras, co-emperor 161-169 AD

Will Durant describes his
character: “Trajan never ceased
to be a general. His carriage
was military, his presence was
commanding; his features were
undistinguished but strong. Tall
and robust, he was wont to
march on foot with his troops
and ford with full armament
the hundred rivers they had to
cross. His courage showed a
stoic impartiality between life
and death.” Justice of Trajan, by Eugène Delacroix, 1858

Will Durant continues, “Trajan asked
the Senate’s opinion on all matters of
moment and discovered that he might
wield nearly absolute power if he
never used absolute speech. The
Senate was willing to let him rule if he
would observe the forms that
maintained its dignity and prestige; like
the rest of Rome, it now loved security
too much to be capable of freedom.”
Statue of Trajan

Hadrian Consolidates the Roman Empire
Hadrian returns from Tivoli, by Ettore Forti, before 1897

When Trajan died during campaign in the east in August 117 AD,
Hadrian, commander of the Syrian troops, readily gained their
support. But Hadrian felt threatened, he was unable to wait for
the support of the Senate, so he executed those he thought
would oppose him. This included several senators, which earned
him the everlasting hostility and suspicion of the Senate. On the
other hand, the historian Will Durant states that these opposing
generals were executed by orders of the Senate, and that Hadrian
objected that he had nothing to do with this. Which means this
history is a bit foggy.

These are miniature figures of Roman auxiliary cavalry. Auxiliary soldiers, including the cavalry,
were the ones stationed on Hadrian's Wall and its associated forts.

Trajan’s successor Hadrian contracted the Empire
slightly, abandoning some of Trajan’s eastern
conquests to more defensible borders. He built the
famous Hadrian Wall across Northern England.

Sections of Hadrian's Wall still
remain, particularly in its hilly central
sector. Little remains in lowland
regions, where it was used as a
source of stone for new buildings.

Hadrian was a Jekyll-and-Hyde emperor. At his worst, he could be cruel
and heartless to those beneath him, though he never was insanely cruel
as the mad emperors Caligula, Nero, and Commodus. At his best, he was
both an excellent administrator and a savvy planner, seeking to ensure
the stability of the empire for the next two generations. Since Hadrian
had no heirs, he adopted as his successor Marcus Aurelius. But soon
before his death, he decided to also adopt a relative, Antoninus Pius, as
his son and immediate successor. Hadrian insisted that Antoninus Pius
would, in turn, adopt as his sons both young Marcus Aurelius and Lucius
Versus, and designate Marcus Aurelius as his successor, guaranteeing a
smooth succession for two generations.

In addition to his careful succession
planning, historians view these three
main aspects of the two-decade rule
of Hadrian:
• Hadrian’s open and predatory
homosexuality.
• Hadrian’s peace policy, reversing
the trend of Roman conquest from
the strong emperors from Julius
Caesar to his predecessor Trajan.
• Hadrian’s tireless travels
throughout the vast Roman
Empire.
Centurion supervising the building of Hadrian's Wall, by
William Bell Scott, 1857

Hadrian violated social norms by not marrying, and
pursuing both adolescent and grown male lovers
publicly, without discretion. His most famous lover
was Antinous, who died mysteriously at age twenty,
many speculate it was a suicide. Since Antoninus Pius
and Marcus Aurelius were both practicing stoics, they
could not condone Hadrian’s behavior, though they
dare not object lest their adoptions be canceled.

Homosexuality, and pederasty, or men-boy love, was less tolerated in Roman culture
than it was in Greek culture. No doubt there were varying opinions on this in the
ancient world, but nobody conducted opinion polls back then. But many did
condone the Greek attitudes on sexuality.
What where these Greek standards? In Plato’s dialogues on love, Socrates reflected
on how divine love was superior to the often-predatory nature of romantic or carnal
love, which in Greek culture was often the homosexual love between the pursuing
older lover and a younger adolescent boy. Although Romans were not as accepting
of homosexuality as were the Greeks, they did tolerate homosexuality and
pederasty, or men-boy love. Once the younger boy became an adolescent at about
age twenty, he would graduate to a bisexual lifestyle, where he would eventually
marry and have children.

https://youtu.be/OIe5pn2S1Ls https://youtu.be/z6X3pwVTdrc
https://youtu.be/JFw5ThfwUAg https://youtu.be/BOtavup_N4g

Hadrian’s peace policy was controversial, he abandoned Trajan’s conquests in
Dacian Romania and Parthian Persia to concentrate on consolidating the Roman
Empire to more defensible borders. He changed the status of Armenia from a
Roman province to an independent client state. The problem was that the Roman
Empire needed continual expansion, including war booty and slaves, to fund the
empire and feed the growing populace of Rome. This policy certainly did not
prevent future conflict with Parthian Persia.
Historians debate whether Hadrian’s defensive posture was wise. Were there
prosperous provinces left to conquer on the frontiers? On the other hand, the
successful expansion of the empire by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian several
centuries later nearly bankrupted his Empire.

Roman
Empire at
117 AD,
beginning of
rule of
Hadrian

Finally, Hadrian constantly traveled through the Roman Empire.
Many of the provinces had never seen a Roman Emperor. This
certainly strengthened the bonds between Rome and her various
provinces, and he listened to and resolved many of their
complaints. These constant travels meant that he spent little time
in Rome, which meant that he had little contact with the senators
and Roman officials.
Hadrian spent lavishly on building programs both in Rome and
the provinces and, like previous emperors, kept the common
people quiet with bread and circuses, lavish gladiator and wild-
beast shows in the arena.

Hadrian returns from Tivoli, by Ettore Forti, before 1897

Hadrian saw himself as a polymath, and he was indeed
well-read in philosophy. He showed political acumen when
he forgave tax debts, making him popular with the Romans
in Italy, and he was generous in granting donatives, or
periodic bonuses, to his troops. But he had a dark side: he
foreshadowed the disastrous emperor Commodus, he
could be capricious, murdering senators at both the
beginning and end of his reign. Hadrian loved watching his
gladiators, and even fought in the arena himself to prove
his skill with arms.

Arch of Hadrian in Jerash, Transjordan, built to honor Hadrian's visit in 130 AD / Statue of Hadrian in military garb,
wearing the civic crown and muscle cuirass, from Antalya, Turkey

Although Hadrian’s reign was mostly peaceful, there were conflicts and rebellions in
England, Spain, Germania and North Africa. But his most challenging was the violent
Jewish Bar Cochba revolt near the end of his reign. The rebel’s meticulous planning
led to their conquest of Palestine, but the Romans were the inevitable victors in a
years-long war of attrition, where close to a thousand villages were razed with high
casualties on both sides, Jewish casualties may have been in the hundreds of
thousands.
Hadrian’s successors continued his policy of consolidating the Empire rather than
expanding through conquest. Though he had a long reign, Antoninus Pius became
emperor late in life and rarely left Rome. Marcus Aurelius had ambitions to expand
the empire in Germania, but he died before this conquest, and his son Commodus
wanted to simply secure his Northern borders so he could return to Rome and fight
with gladiators.

Bar Kochba revolt, by Arthur Szyk, 1927 / Knesset Menorah, Bar Kochvah, Jerusalem

Hadrian had originally intended for Marcus Aurelius
to succeed him as emperor. But near the end of his
reign, when his health was failing, Hadrian surprised
everyone by adopting as his son and successor,
Antoninus Pius, a relatively unknown senator.

Why did Hadrian choose Antoninus
Pius? The historian McLynn recounts
Hadrian’s answer: The main reason
was “Antoninus’ very lack of
distinction and his middle age, for an
older man might be senile and make
grievous mistakes, while a younger
one might be rash and headstrong.”
“Antoninus was a perfect blank slate:
he was a steady character, had no real
enemies or ongoing feuds, had no
siblings and just one daughter.”

Although Hadrian had ensured that Marcus Aurelius would be in
the line of succession to be Roman Emperor, Hadrian is missing
from his long list in his Meditations of those to whom Marcus
Aurelius feels a debt of gratitude. Quite likely this was due to the
years of terror he spent while forced to live in Hadrian’s
household, wondering if he would be a victim rather than a
future emperor. Prominent on that list is his predecessor
Antoninus, who also ensured his continuing Stoic education.
Antoninus was the opposite of Hadrian, he “put an end to the
cult of sex with young boys.”

Roman generals and emperors, National Galleries of Scotland, by William Brassey Hole, 1897

Perhaps Hadrian’s plan was that Antoninus would be a placeholder emperor,
reigning for half a dozen years until Marcus Aurelius was ready for the throne. But
God, rather than men, determines how long we will live on this earth, and he
reigned for over two decades. His first step was to convince the Senate to accept the
deification of the hated Hadrian, and to declare amnesty for all who were
condemned by Hadrian. He gained moral authority because he was willing to govern
with the Senate as a partner.
How did he govern differently from Hadrian? What reforms did he enact? Antoninus
separated the state funds from his personal wealth. He rejected Hadrian’s cult of
pederasty, or men-boy love. Like Marcus Aurelius, he detested sycophants. He was
willing to listen to experts and include senators in discussions on policy.

In McLynn’s words, like Marcus,
“Antoninus had a casual attitude to
privilege and wealth, treating them
both without arrogance and without
apology; if there was good food and
wine, he enjoyed them; but if not, he
did not miss them.” He was reliable
and predictable, he preferred
tradition, he disliked change. But like
Hadrian, he minimized taxation, at
one point forgiving debts to the state.

In his later years, Antoninus nominated Marcus as consul with the title of Caesar so
he could assist with administering the Empire, foreshadowing the Tetrarchy, or the
rule of four, two emperors, two Caesars, that Diocletian would set up many decades
letter. Later he appointed Lucius Verus as co-consul with Marcus. As his health
faltered, Marcus assumed more administrative duties. Although Antoninus
permitted Marcus to participate in introducing legislation before the Senate, he also
kept a close eye on him, in his entire reign Marcus spent only two nights away from
his company.
When Marcus was elevated to Roman Emperor, he soon made Lucius Veras as co-
emperor, perhaps an unwise decision, but Lucius never challenged his position, he
was more interested in carousing than governing.
In his memories of Antoninus Pius in his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius describes the
ideal emperor for his son Commodus:

Marcus Aurelius describes Antoninus Pius as
the perfect emperor in his Meditations:
“Take Antoninus as your model always. Think of
his qualities: energy in pursuit of the rational,
steadiness, calmness, gentleness, modesty,
sense of reverence, his intellectual curiosity
and his lust for life.” “He tolerated unfair
criticism,” “was contemptuous of informers,
never made snap judgements, was patient and
unhurried, an unrivaled judge of character. He
rejected jealousy and character assassination,
disdained empty rhetoric, knifed through to the
essentials, lived in a spartan way, worked hard,
often until dusk, and ate sparingly.”

Marcus Aurelius continues:
“He was a good friend who knew his own
mind and was not swayed by the last
person to speak. He was constant as was
not forever changing his mind or lacking a
fixed set of values. He was not a prima
donna, could tolerate criticism, and was
even pleased if his ideas could be
improved. He was deeply religious” but
was not “superstitious. Think on all of
this, so that when your time comes, your
conscience will be as clear as his.”

But in perhaps the most important aspect of their
rules, Hadrian did outshine Marcus Aurelius. Hadrian
set in place a succession guaranteeing that the last
two good emperors would govern the Roman Empire
wisely, with justice. Unfortunately, Marcus Aurelius
spent the latter years of his reign as emperor fighting
rebellious German tribes on Rome’s northern
frontier.

This video shows the prehistory for our video on the biography of
Marcus Aurelius.
Marcus Aurelius put his love for his son, Commodus, over his
obligations to ensure that the best man would succeed him as
emperor. His son would turn out to be one of the most
sadistically cruel Roman emperors in history, equaling Nero, in
the end plunging the Empire into chaos when he was
assassinated by his Praetorian Guard, backed up by senators who
feared for their lives.

As was the case for Nero, the assassination of Commodus
led to the chaotic year of five emperors. This was followed
more than four decades of emperors, some good, some
bad, some forgettable, that led to another year of six
emperors, and it was not until more than four decades
later Emperor Diocletian, and then Constantine, stabilized
the Roman Empire, splitting it up into a more defensible
Eastern Empire and Western Empire, that enabled the
Byzantine Empire to survive for another millennium, while
the Western Roman Empire succumbed to chaos.

Death of
Emperor
Commodus,
by Fernand
Pelez, 1879

Roman Ruins, with Arch of Constantine, Trajan’s Column,
the Colosseum, and the Statue of Marcus Aurelius, 1751
REIGN
Commodus, perhaps worse than Nero 177-192 AD
Year of Five Emperors 193 AD
Year of Six Emperors, Crisis of Third Century 238 AD
Emperor Diocletian resolves this crisis, 284-305 AD
Separates Empire into east and west,
Officially persecutes Christians
Constantine, First Christian Emperor 306-337 AD

Many historians complain about the lack of ancient biographers and historians the
caliber of Plutarch who can offer commentary on the life of these later Roman
Emperors. But that does not mean a total lack of sources, we know the history of
the Five Good Emperors in amazing detail. The modern historian Frank McLynn’s
biography of Marcus Aurelius is over five hundred pages, about half of the pages are
background information, including deep analysis of the emperors preceding him.
Anthony Birley also has an excellent, though slimmer, biography of Marcus Aurelius.
Although it is dated, written in 1944, Will Durant’s history, Caesar and Christ, also is
a rich source of history and background, plus he is very quotable, an excellent
writer.
We have a more thorough discussion of our sources in our video on the Biography
of Marcus Aurelius.

To find the source of any direct
quotes in this blog, please type in
the phrase to the search box in
my blog to see the referenced
footnote.
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Roman Emperors Before Marcus Aurelius

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Roman Emperors Before Marcus Aurelius