This document introduces the key terms that students must learn for an A-Level English Language course. It stresses the importance of learning all 200 terms as early as possible and practicing applying them to texts. The bulk of the document defines various parts of speech and language concepts like nouns, verbs, pronouns, and sentence structures.

1. Welcome
to
the
most
important
booklet
that
you’ll
get
all
year!!!
The
words
contained
in
this
glossary
only
provide
the
basis
for
quality
analysis.
Do
not
make
the
mistake
of
assuming
that
one
need
only
learn
a
proportion
in
order
to
grade
well
in
all
assessments
on
an
A-­‐level
English
Language
course.
All
terms
MUST
be
learnt
as
early
as
possible;
it
is
evidently
better
to
be
as
familiar
as
you
can
with
the
terms.
Read
this
over
and
over,
get
your
family
or
friends
to
test
you,
practise
attributing
these
terms
to
texts
you
read...
whatever
it
takes,
just
make
sure
you
learn
these
terms
(of
which
there
are
approximately
200…YAY!).

2. Common
noun
–
a
naming
word
for
a
thing
that
is
tangible,
e.g.
chair,
penguin,
man,
arsonist,
murderer,
ghost,
crumpet,
trumpet.
Abstract
noun
–
a
naming
word
for
an
idea,
concept,
state
of
being
or
belief,
e.g.
tidiness,
sadness,
antidisestablishmentarianism,
love,
politics,
Marxism.
Proper
noun
–
a
naming
word
for
a
specific
example
of
a
common
noun
(often
are
names
of
places
or
specific
people),
e.g.
Bob,
Eiffel
Tower,
Burnley,
Wayne
Rooney.
Verb
–
a
word
that
represents
an
action
or
process:
in
simple
terms
a
‘doing’
word.
Active
verb
–
a
word
that
represents
a
physical
action,
e.g.
jump,
run,
kill,
slap,
kiss,
make-­‐love,
wallop,
sleep.
Stative
verb
–
a
word
that
represents
a
process
that
is
often
only
mental,
e.g.
think,
love,
ponder,
believe,
(to)
fear.
Auxiliary
verb
–
a
verb
that
has
to
be
used
with
another
verb
in
order
to
create
present
participles
or
the
future
tense,
e.g.
“DID
you
go?”;
“I
AM
going”;
you
WILL
go”.
Modal
verb
–
an
auxiliary
verb
that
express
a
degree
of
either
possibility
or
necessity,
e.g.
might,
could,
must,
should,
may.
Adjective
–
a
describing
word
that
modifies
a
noun.
Adverb
–
a
describing
word
that
modifies
all
types
of
word,
excluding
nouns.
Superlative
–
an
adjective
that
displays
the
most
extreme
value
of
its
quality,
e.g.
most,
biggest,
smallest,
worst,
furthest,
farthest,
quietest,
zaniest.
Most
of
the
time
superlatives
end
with
‘-­‐est’.
Comparative
–
an
adjective
that
relates
one
thing
in
some
way
to
another
and
usually
ends
in
‘er’:
bigger,
smaller,
further,
farther,
quieter,
zanier.
Definite
article
–
the.
Indefinite
article
–
a
or
an.
Pronoun
–
a
word
that
takes
the
place
of
a
noun
in
a
sentence,
e.g.
him,
her,
it,
he,
she,
I,
you,
me
(self-­‐reflexive
pronoun),
they.
First
person
pronoun
–
I,
and
the
first
person
plural:
we,
our,
us.
Second
person
pronoun
–
you.

3. Third
person
pronoun
–
him,
her,
he,
she,
it,
and
the
third
person
plural:
them,
those.
Possessive
pronoun
(1st,
2nd
or
3rd
person
depending)
–
my,
mine,
our,
your,
his,
hers,
theirs.
Demonstrative
pronoun
–
this,
that,
those.
Monosyllabic
lexis
–
words
of
one
syllable.
Polysyllabic
lexis
–
words
of
two
or
more
syllable.
Imperative
sentence
mood
–
when
a
sentence
is
issuing
a
command.
Declarative
sentence
mood
–
when
a
sentence
is
making
a
statement.
Interrogative
sentence
mood
–
when
a
sentence
is
asking
a
question.
Exclamatory
sentence
mood
–
when
a
sentence
conveys
a
strong
sense
of
emotion,
sense
of
alarm
or
overly
strong
emphasis.
Register
–
the
level
of
formality
of
a
text.
Tenor
–
the
tone,
or
the
relationship
between
author
and
reader
and
how
it
is
created.
Attitudes
–
The
opinions
expressed
in
the
text.
Content
–
What
the
text
is
about.
Context
–
Things
outside
the
text
which
may
shape
its
meaning,
e.g.
when
it
was
written,
who
wrote
it.
Form
–
the
structure
and
shape
of
a
text.
Themes
–
the
recurring
ideas
and
images
in
a
text.
Colloquialism
–
Informal
language
usage,
e.g.
bloke,
fella,
lass,
bog
(toilet),
arse,
bum,
grub,
scram,
Exclamation
–
a
one
word
sentence
(always
a
minor
sentence)
with
an
exclamation
mark
at
the
end.
Ellipsis
–
when
parts
of
a
written
structure
are
missing.
In
texts,
sometimes
they
are
indicated
by
three
full
stops
in
a
row,
denoting
perhaps
a
significant
pause...
Do
you
see?

4. Syntax
–
the
way
words
form
sentences
(the
ordering
of
them
to
create
meaning).
Parenthesis
–
an
aside
within
a
text
created
by
sectioning
off
extra
information
between
brackets,
dashes
or
between
two
commas.
Parenthetic
commas,
dashes
or
brackets
–
see
above.
Rhetorical
question
–
a
question
designed
not
to
be
answered,
perhaps
to
pique
interest
or
make
a
point;
a
stylistic
choice.
Hypophora
–
when
a
rhetorical
question
is
immediately
followed
by
an
answer
in
a
text,
e.g.
“Is
this
the
best
film
ever?
You
bet
it
is!”
Hyperbole
–
deliberate
over-­‐exaggeration
of
things
for
effect.
Litotes
–
deliberate
downplaying
of
things
for
effect.
Parallelism/patterning
–
the
creation
of
patterns
in
a
text,
through
repetition
of
words
or
phrases
(phonological
parallelism)
or
by
balancing
meanings
(semantic
parallelism)
for
deliberate
effect.
Repetition
–
the
repetition
of
words
or
phrases
(see
parallelism)
Tricolon/tripling
–
grouping
in
threes,
either
through
repetition
or
through
structures
(either
within
a
sentence
or
paragraph).
This
can
be
for
emphasis
or
to
add
a
sense
of
gathering
momentum
to
a
point
being
made.
Imagery
–
a
descriptive
or
metaphorical
use
of
language
to
create
a
vivid
picture.
Pre-­‐modification
–
a
descriptive
technique
where
the
descriptive
words
come
before
the
thing
they
are
describing,
e.g.
the
big,
fat
wad
of
cash
spewed
from
his
inadequate
pocket.
Post-­‐modification
-­‐
a
descriptive
technique
where
the
descriptive
words
come
after
the
thing
they
are
describing,
e.g.
the
wad
of
cash,
big
and
fat,
spewed
from
his
pocket.
Metaphor
–
a
comparison
that
states
that
something
is
actually
something
else.
“Take
a
leaf
out
of
her
book”
or
“I’m
a
demon
driver”.
Simile
–
a
comparison
that
states
that
something
is
‘like’
or
‘as’
something
else.
“I
drive
like
a
demon”
or
“he’s
as
big
as
a
house”.
Synecdoche
–
a
metaphor
that
states
that
something
is
only
a
small
constituent
part
of
itself,
even
though
we
commonly
understand
otherwise,
e.g.
“a
new
set
of
wheels”
(car)
or
“he’s
behind
bars”
(prison)

5. Analogy
–
explaining
something
in
terms
of
something
else.
Allusion
–
to
refer
to
something
indirectly
or
metaphorically.
Pathetic
Fallacy
–
when
the
environment
or
weather
mirrors
emotions.
Personification
–
a
device
in
which
the
non-­‐human
is
given
personal
and
human
qualities,
e.g.
the
trees
danced
in
the
wind.
Extended
metaphor
–
when
a
metaphor
continues
throughout
a
text
with
recurring
references
to
the
compared
item.
Homeric/epic
simile
–
see
extended
metaphor
and
apply
to
simile.
The
‘Homeric’
part
refers
to
Homer’s
Odyssey
to
connote
length
and
recurrence.
Symbolism
–
using
figurative
and
metaphoric
language,
items
or
incident
in
a
way
that
means
that
certain
things
represent
other
things,
e.g.
a
colour
could
represent
the
sadness
of
a
character
or
a
volcano
erupting
could
symbolise
the
political
infighting
of
the
townspeople
beneath
the
volcano.
Lexis
–
another
word
for
the
word
‘word’!!!
Field
specific
lexis
–
the
language
of
a
certain
area
(be
it
vocation,
activity
or
subject
etc),
e.g.
field
specific
lexis
for
computing
would
include
mouse,
monitor,
RAM,
gigabyte
etc;
field
specific
lexis
for
English
Language
would
include
everything
in
this
glossary.
Lexical
set
–
the
selection
of
relative
lexemes
from
a
text.
One
can
take
a
lexical
set
of
field
specific
lexis,
modifiers,
proper
nouns…
or
whatever
would
support
a
statement
an
English
student
would
like
to
make
about
a
text.
Lexical
bundle
–
a
recurrent
sequence
of
words
or
a
collection
of
words
that,
through
repetition
of
use,
just
naturally
go
together,
e.g.
“I
don’t
think…”,
“would
you
mind…”,
“I
don’t
want
to.”
Semantics
–
the
meaning
of
words.
Acronym
–
words
created
by
the
initials
of
other
grouped
words,
e.g.
the
UN,
NATO,
RSPCA.
Synonym
–
an
alternative
word
choice
that
has
the
same
or
a
very
similar
meaning,
e.g.
a
synonym
of
horror
is
fright.
Homophone
–
different
words
that
sound
exactly
the
same
when
said
out
loud
(be
very
careful
of
these
with
regards
to
your
spelling),
e.g.
they’re,
their,
there;
new,
knew,
no,
know;
need,
knead,
kneed;
led,
lead.

6. Homonym
–
when
one
word
has
multiple
meanings,
e.g.
great
can
mean
both
size
and
positivity;
cool
can
mean
both
coldness
and
a
‘cool
dude’;
heavy
can
mean
physical
weight
or
the
seriousness
of
a
situation.
Archaism
–
a
word
that,
over
time,
has
fallen
out
of
common
usage.
Older
ones
include
zounds,
thus,
betwixt
etc,
however
slang
can
become
archaic
as
new
generations
opt
to
choose
new
terms
for
things:
dig
it,
bodacious
and
radical
are
perhaps
examples
of
this.
Juxtaposition
–
the
placing
together
of
elements
(whether
text,
image
etc)
for
some
conscious
effect,
whether
that
be
complimentary
or
contrasting.
Antithesis
–
when
ideas
contrast
or
oppose
one
another;
a
semantic
contrast
in
a
text.
Often
used
in
reasoned
arguments
or
to
create
emphasised
contrast.
Binary
opposites
–
elements
of
a
text
that
hold
opposite
ends
of
a
notional
scale
e.g.
hot/cold,
big/small,
loud/quiet.
Oxymoron
–
The
use
of
apparently
contradictory
words
in
a
phrase,
e.g.
peaceful
war,
hot
ice.
Collocations
–
words
that,
through
usage
just
naturally
go
together.
We
collectively
understand
they
are
inextricably
linked,
e.g.
Laurel
and
Hardy,
fish
and
chips,
salt
and
vinegar,
John,
Paul,
George
and
Ringo,
fire
and
ice,
broad
grin,
broad
backed.
Asyndetic
Listing
–
the
listing
of
elements
that
excludes
any
form
of
co-­‐ordinating
conjunction.
The
prefix
‘a’
basically
means
‘absence
of’.
Syndetic
listing
–
the
listing
of
elements
that
features
a
co-­‐ordinating
conjunction.
Phonological
features
–
any
devices
used
that
relate
to
sound,
e.g.
alliteration,
repetition.
Onomatopoeia
–
when
a
word
is
spelled
exactly
as
the
same
as
the
sound
it
describes…
kaboom,
drip,
plop,
quack,
miaow.
Consonance
–
the
repetition
of
double
consonants
in
the
middle
of
words,
e.g.
I’d
better
buy
more
butter
before
I
go
out
and
post
these
letters.
Assonance
–
the
repetition
of
vowel
sounds,
e.g.
you
should
wear
a
hood
while
you
chop
the
wood
good.
Assonance
can
create
rhyme.
Alliteration
(guttural,
lateral,
sibilant,
bilabial/plosive,
dental,
aspirant,
fricative)
–
the
repetition
of
consonant
sounds
in
a
text,
often
at
the
beginning
of
words.
You
must
always
correctly
label
the
exact
type
of
alliteration
as
listed
above.

7. Plot
–
the
structured
cause
and
effect
of
incidents
experienced
by
a
protagonist
that
makes
a
story
interesting:
the
exposition,
the
complication
and
the
resolution.
Exposition
–
the
parts
of
a
story
(usually
early
on)
where
the
writer
gets
across
all
the
information
about
the
situation
of
a
character,
who
they
are,
where
they
are
and
what
the
‘status
quo’
is
before
the
plot
begins
in
earnest.
It
should
always
be
as
subtle
as
possible,
which
usually
means
avoiding
expressing
exposition
through
dialogue.
Narrator
–
the
‘voice’
that
tells
a
fictional
story.
Can
be
a
first,
second
or
third
person
narrator
(see
personal
pronouns
to
find
out
more).
Protagonist
–
the
character
the
reader
is
meant
to
identify
with
the
most
and
follow
through
the
story.
The
hero
(or
anti-­‐hero).
Anti-­‐hero
–
a
protagonist
who
isn’t
always
morally
virtuous
but
has
enough
qualities
to
endear
themselves
to
a
reader.
Antagonist
–
the
character
who
opposes
the
goals
of
the
protagonist.
Dialogue
–
the
presentation
of
character’s
speech.
Monologue
-­‐
a
type
of
poem
or
a
prolonged
piece
of
drama
where
one
‘character’
delivers
a
speech
that
reveals
their
innermost
feelings.
Dramatic
monologues
can
infer
an
addressee
or
audience
who
the
speaking
character
is
relating
to.
Soliloquy
–
see
monologue.
Dramatic
irony
–
When
the
audience
is
aware
of
more
than
one
of
the
characters
in
either
a
play
or
a
piece
of
fiction
to
create
a
dramatic
effect.
Ambiguity
–
when
there
can
be
more
than
one
possible
meanings
or
outcomes
in
a
story,
creating
a
sense
of
intrigue.
Anthropomorphism
–
when
an
animal
takes
on
the
characteristics
of
a
human
being,
e.g.
wearing
clothes,
buying
cakes
and
talking.
Suspension
of
disbelief
–
the
reader’s
ability
to
take
for
granted
fantastical
aspects
of
fiction
in
order
to
enjoy
the
story.
Genre
–
category
of
fiction
or
type
of
text,
e.g.
romance,
horror,
thriller,
magazines,
etc.
Audience
–
who
the
text
is
aimed
at.
Purpose
–
the
reason
the
text
has
been
produced,
e.g.
to
entertain,
inform
etc.

8. Foreshadowing
–
the
hinting
at
things
to
come
through
early
elements
of
a
story.
Mimesis
–
mimicry.
A
story,
for
example,
may
mimic
the
gasping
breath
of
a
pursued
protagonist
by
using
short,
sharp,
sentences
and
lots
of
aspirant
alliteration.
Pastiche
–
a
piece
of
art
or
writing
that
imitates
a
form
or
genre
to
generate
humour.
Satire
–
a
piece
of
writing
or
art
that
pokes
fun
at
the
societal
establishment.
Neologism
–
a
newly
invented
word.
Portmanteau
–
a
newly
invented
word,
created
by
merging
two
words
together,
for
example
snozcumber
(from
schnoz
and
cucumber)
or
chillax
(from
‘chill
out’
and
‘relax’).
Compound
words
–
a
word
created
by
utilising
two
existing
words
separated
by
a
hyphen,
e.g.
global-­‐village,
bone-­‐headed,
to
go-­‐straight.
There
are
compound
versions
of
nouns,
adjective,
adverbs,
verbs.
Clipping
–
colloquial
omission
of
parts
of
words
to
create
a
more
casual
alternative,
e.g.
‘cause,
bra,
pram.
Rhetoric
–
an
example
of
persuasive
language,
arguably
including
advertising.
Stereotype
–
a
label
for
a
social
group,
utilising
certain
characteristics
of
group
members
and
applying
it
to
everyone
within
the
grouping.
Taboo
language
–
words
that
are
considered
socially
unacceptable
to
say
in
polite,
civilised
society,
e.g.
swear
words
or
words
that
are
politically
incorrect.
Connotation
–
the
associations
that
can
be
gleaned
from
words.
Denotation
–
the
literal
meaning
of
the
words.
Irony
–
language
that
conveys
a
meaning
other
to
than
that
literally
expressed
by
the
words,
usually
for
humorous
effect.
Sarcasm
–
the
use
of
language
in
an
ironic
way
with
the
express
purpose
of
offending
or
wounding
the
recipient
in
some
way.
Euphemism
–
the
polite
way
to
say
something
not
normally
considered
socially
appropriate,
usually
to
refer
to
going
to
the
toilet,
death
etc.
I
need
a
tinkle,
I
need
the
little
boys’
room,
he’s
pushing
up
daisies,
she’s
gone
to
meet
her
maker.
Dysphemism
–
an
unnecessarily
extreme
way
of
saying
something,
not
normally
socially
appropriate.
It
could
incorporate
taboo
language
or
contain
too
much

9. information
than
necessary.
You’re
husband
had
his
head
blown
off
and
there
was
blood
everywhere.
Headline
–
the
large
text/title
of
a
newspaper
article.
Often
these
can
incorporate
word
play
and
alliteration.
Tagline
–
beneath
the
headline,
there
may
be
a
slightly
smaller
sentence,
designed
to
clarify
the
gist
of
the
story.
Subheading
–
usually
a
one
or
two
word,
emboldened
phrase
that
breaks
up
the
main
article,
often
foreshadowing
what
is
to
come
later
in
the
story.
Caption
–
part
of
a
multi-­‐modal
text,
these
will
be
juxtaposed
with
an
image.
Often
they
are
used
to
say
something
witty
or
humorous,
maybe
punning
or
taking
out
of
context
the
image
in
question.
Grab
quote
–
an
enlarged
example
taken
from
the
text,
usually
a
sensationalised
piece.
It
attempts
to
draw
the
reader’s
eye,
engender
curiosity,
and
thus
make
the
reader
read
the
story.
Slogan
–
a
catchy
line,
often
a
minor
sentence,
that
sums
up
an
advert,
sticks
in
the
mind,
and
makes
the
product,
ultimately,
seem
more
appealing.
Pun
–
a
play
on
words:
“SupercallygoballisticCelticareatrocious”
Caledonian
Thistle
beat
Celtic
5-­‐0;
“Celebrity
Big
Blubber”
Wally
the
Whale
dies
in
the
Thames,
right
by
the
Celebrity
Big
Brother
house.
Journalese
–
the
sensationalised
language
that
is
particular
to
tabloid
newspapers,
e.g.
slam,
probe,
spat
(as
in
fight),
shocker.
Multiple
modifiers
–
doubling
and
trebling
up
of
adjectives
is
used
frequently
in
tabloid
newspapers
and
also
other
genres
of
text.
Cliché
–
when
language
is
used
over
and
over
until
it
becomes
so
well
known
that
it
loses
its
original
potency,
e.g.
at
the
end
of
the
day,
I’m
over
the
moon,
he
was
as
quiet
as
a
mouse.
Idiom
–
a
saying,
often
a
cliché
where
the
words
that
make
up
the
saying
do
not
have
the
same
meaning
as
the
overall
semantic
effect,
e.g.
I’m
over
the
moon;
you’re
taking
the
Mickey;
he’s
pushing
up
daisies;
you’re
having
a
laugh.
Malapropism
–
when
a
speaker
accidentally
uses
the
wrong
word
that
sounds
the
same,
or
like
it
should
belong
in
their
sentence/utterance:
The
world’s
my
lobster;
I
will
illiterate
you
from
my
memory.
Text
speak
–
the
phonetic
spelling
of
text
too
long
to
type
out
in
full
on
a
mobile
phone.

10.
Orthography
–
the
method
of
spelling/correct
spelling
–
we
would
refer
to
the
‘non-­‐
standard
orthography’
of
words
from
the
past
in
comparison
to
how
we
write
them
today.
Etymology
–
the
origin
of
a
word
or
the
history
of
how
it
came
to
be.
Ampersand
–
the
symbol
“&”,
arguably
more
prominent
in
the
past.
Non
standard
capitalisation
–
you
may
see
in
very
old
texts,
capital
letters
being
allocated
mid-­‐sentence
to
words
other
than
proper
nouns,
perhaps
for
emphasis,
or
perhaps
arbitrarily.
Look
at
the
specific
text
in
question
and
put
forward
your
own
reasoning
for
it.
Archaism/archaic
language
–
a
word
that
has
fallen
out
of
common
usage
or
is
old
fashioned.
These
can
also
include
slang
words
that
have
fallen
out
of
the
youth
lexicon.
Anachronistic
language
–
language
that
seems
‘out
of
time’.
For
example,
something
may
be
written
in
a
very
old
fashioned
way
for
stylistic
reasons,
say
a
fantasy
style
novel,
yet
it
may
contain
dialogue
that
would
appeal
to
a
modern
young
audience,
using
slang
etc.
It’s
like
when
you
spot
an
extra
wearing
a
digital
watch
in
a
historical
movie.
Semantic
shift
–
the
shift
in
a
word’s
meaning
over
time,
e.g.
‘sick’
evolves
to
become
something
other
than
illness
but
a
slang
reference
to
something
positive..
Inverted
syntax
–
when
the
ordering
of
words
is
rearranged
to
create
an
alternative
weighting
to
a
sentence.
Think
of
Yoda
on
Star
Wars
–
“Good
with
the
force,
he
is.”
Slang
–
colloquial
language,
often
coined
by
the
younger
generations
to
imprint
their
own
social
identity
on
the
language
and
differentiate
themselves
from
the
perceived
establishment.
Globalised
vocabulary
–
in
the
20th
Century,
in
the
advent
of
mass-­‐media,
social
mobilization
and
international
travel,
there
have
been
an
influx
of
new
words
and
phrases
that
we
now
take
for
granted,
e.g.
kebab,
cab,
sushi,
karaoke,
knish,
talk
to
the
hand,
zombie,
savoir-­‐faire.

11.
Discourse
–
the
study
of
spoken
language.
Mode
–
the
mode
of
the
text
is
how
it
is
presented.
Is
it
in
the
written
or
spoken
mode?
Whichever
mode
it
is,
it
will
be
governed
by
differing
rules
and
structures.
Vocabulary
–
the
amount
of
words
available
to
an
individual.
Paralinguistic
features
–
literally
‘beyond
language’.
The
things
that
aid
communication
but
don’t
literally
constitute
language,
e.g.
body
language,
facial
expressions,
laughter,
sighs,
whispering.
Prosodic
features
–
the
‘sound
effects’
of
spoken
language.
Things
like
stress,
intonation
and
pitch.
Stress
–
the
emphasis
placed
on
certain
words,
through
volume,
significant
pauses
beforehand,
or
inflexion.
Intonation
–
the
rise
and
fall
of
an
individual’s
natural
speaking
voice
or
the
variation
or
‘tune’
to
keep
listeners
interested.
These
naturally
differ
from
nation
to
nation
as
different
languages
have
different
intonation
qualities.
Pitch
–
the
rise
or
fall
of
the
voice.
High
pitch
is
squeaky
and
low
pitch
is
deep.
Turn
taking
–
co-­‐ordinated
and
rule
governed
co-­‐operation
between
two
or
more
participants
of
a
conversation.
Adjacency
pair
–
a
moment
in
turn
taking
where
one
utterance
constrains
the
response
in
some
way,
e.g.
a
question
leads
to
an
answer;
a
suggestion
leads
to
an
acceptance
or
declination.
Back
channelling
–
the
process
of
giving
feedback
through
encouraging
noises
and
positive
comments
when
a
speaker
is
talking
to
encourage
them.
Running
repair
–
the
process
of
socially
organising
a
conversation
if
two
people
find
that
they
have
been
talking
simultaneously.
Topic
marker
–
an
utterance
that
establishes
the
topic
of
a
conversation.
Topic
shifter
–
an
utterance
that
moves
a
conversation
on
to
another
topic,
e.g.
“Anyway...
“
Interrupted
construction
–
the
breakdown
of
an
utterance
where
half
way
through
the
speaker
will
completely
change
tact,
focus
or
even
topic
and
move
onto
something
else,
sometimes
abandoning
the
original
utterance
mid
word.
Explain
in
detail
how
these
have
occurred.

12.
False
starts
–
The
speaker
realises
the
beginning
of
an
utterance
isn’t
working
and
so
effectively
re-­‐starts
by
rephrasing.
Hesitation
indicators
–
moments
in
discourse
that
indicate
that
the
speaker
is
in
some
way
playing
for
time.
This
can
be
seen
in
certain
forms
of
stuttering
and
in
fillers
such
as
um,
err
and
ahh
when
the
speaker
is
thinking
of
the
next
thing
to
say.
Fillers
–
the
insertion
of
words,
phrases
or
noises
into
a
speaker’s
discourse,
e.g.
like,
y’know,
sort
of,
right.
These
can
be
due
to
the
individual’s
own
idiolect
or
convey
some
subliminal
conversational
purpose,
depending
on
the
context.
Latch-­‐ons
–
when
a
speaker
takes
their
turn
immediately
after
the
preceding
speaker
has
finished
speaking
leaving
no,
or
little,
pause.
This
can
be
due
to
an
attempt
for
conversational
dominance
or
a
degree
of
familiarity
between
the
speakers,
among
other
reasons.
Overlaps
–
when
one
speaker
speaks
over
another.
Glottal
stops
–
the
omission
of
(usually)
dental
sounds
in
the
middle
of
words
like
butter,
letter,
better
etc,
in
pronunciation.
Occasionally
these
can
occur
at
the
ends
of
words
like
‘what’.
Non-­‐fluency
features
–
any
feature
which
would
indicate
that
the
speaker
is
not
speaking
with
fluency
for
whatever
reason,
e.g.
someone
might
stammer
if
they
are
under
severe
pressure,
or
a
foreign
speaker
may
invert
syntax
or
elide
certain
words
from
their
utterances.
Tag
question
–
a
question
tagged
onto
the
end
of
an
statement,
e.g
‘It’s
cold,
isn’t
it?’
Vocative
–
a
direct
reference
to
another
speaker
in
discourse,
e.g.
“Bob,
can
you...”
Elision
–
the
omission
of
a
vowel
or
syllable
in
the
pronunciation
of
a
word…
OR
the
omission
of
a
vowel
at
the
end
of
a
word
when
the
subsequent
word
begins
with
a
vowel
(as
apparent
in
northern
pronunciation),
e.g.
“it’s
either
one
or
t’other.”
Code
switching
–
the
ability
of
a
speaker
to
alter
the
register
or
clarity
of
their
speech
to
suit
a
different
social
situation.
Received
Pronunciation
–
the
typical
pronunciation
associated
with
the
social
elite
of
Britain.
The
Queen’s
English
etc.
Accent
–
The
manner
of
pronunciation
particular
to
a
certain
geographical
region.
Regional
Dialect
–
the
actual
words
used
and
the
spoken
grammar
which
is
particular
to
a
certain
geographical
region.

13.
Sociolect
–
the
vocabulary
and
spoken
grammar
which
is
particular
to
a
certain
social
group.
Idiolect
–
the
speech
patterns
of
an
individual.
Alternate
rhyme
Lines
of
poetry
where
the
rhyme
is
on
every
other
line
(abab)
Caesura
A
mid-­‐line
pause
Couplet
A
two
line
verse
(often
rhyming)
End-­‐focus
A
change
in
the
structure
of
the
sentence
to
place
emphasis
on
a
closing
sentence
element.
Enjambment
Run-­‐on
lines
Eye
rhyme
Where
the
rhyme
looks
like
it
should
rhyme
but
the
sound
is
not
exactly
the
same.
foregrounding
A
change
in
the
structure
of
the
sentence
to
place
emphasis
on
an
opening
sentence
element
Form
The
structure
and
shape
of
the
text
Iambic
A
unit
of
poetic
meter
containing
one
unstressed
syllable
followed
by
one
stressed
syllable
-­‐/
Internal
rhyme
Where
the
rhyming
sound
occurs
within
a
line
of
verse
Octet
An
eight
line
verse
Pentameter
A
unit
of
poetic
meter
containing
five
feet
(10
syllables
in
total)
Petrarchan
or
Italian
A
poem
of
14
lines,
divided
into
an
octet
and
a
sestet,
sonnet
written
in
iambic
pentameter,
rhyming
abbaabbba
cdecde
(sestet
may
vary)
Quatrain
A
four-­‐line
verse
Rhythm
The
pattern
of
syllables
and
stresses
within
poetry
Sestet
A
six-­‐line
verse
Shakespearean
or
A
poem
of
14
lines,
divided
into
three
quatrains
and
a
English
sonnet
couplet,
written
in
iambic
pentameter,
rhyming
abab
cdcd
efef
gg
Stanza
The
division
of
lines
in
a
poem,
also
called
a
verse
Verse
Type
The
type
of
poem
e.g.
sonnet,
lyric,
ballad,
ode,
narrative
poem
etc.
Volta
The
turning
point
in
a
sonnet

14. When analysing a text, the worst thing you could possibly do is dive
straight in and start analysing. There are things you need to consider
before you start writing in order for you to successfully structure
your work and analyse in sufficient depth to succeed on this course
to the required level.
First, you must GASP at the text, whatever it may be. You’ve probably
guessed that GASP is one of those horrible acronyms, but it should help you
remember the process of initial consideration.
G – Genre – what type of text is it? Is it a leaflet, advertisement, piece of
rhetoric, transcript of somebody singing in the bath, shopping list, or maybe a
piece of high literature… what is it? Once, you’ve answered this question, you
should begin thinking about the general linguistic conventions of such a text.
A – Audience – who is it written for (specifically)? So, it’s an advert for
chocolate, for example, but who is the target audience? Is the text trying to
appeal to men and women, old or young, rich or poor?
S – Subject – what is the text about? If it is an article, what is the subject
and will that have an effect on the language used?
P– Purpose – what is it trying to do overall?
So imagine if you were confronted with, say, an introduction to a Jamie Oliver
cook book - you may be able to make the following statement:
(G) The text is the introduction to a cookbook by Jamie Oliver where he
directly addresses the reader and welcomes them in a friendly tone. (A) It
is written for people with a direct interest in cooking and, because of his
informal and approachable manner on television, it could be assumed that
a lot of people would read this who might be initially intimidated by the
notion of cooking. (S) The text details the contents of the book and what
the reader can expect from the overall publication. (P) Overall it is
attempting to entice perhaps browsers in bookshops to make a purchase,
or for people who have bought the book to take a chance on some of the
more difficult recipes within.

15. After thinking about the GASP you need to write your analytical essay. To
do this you will need to apply the CLIPO framework. CLIPO is not a hard
and fast rule that must be applied; however you must include all its
elements in some form within your analytical work.
C – CONTEXT – you need to begin your essay with a rundown of the
contextual factors that will shape the thrust of your discussion. Who has
written the text, when was it written etc? In essence, you can make this
opening to the essay something resembling the GASP paragraph.
L – LEXIS – or the ‘language’ used. Make analytical comments on
grammar, syntax, imagery, lexical choices etc.
I – INTERACTIONAL FEATURES - how does the text interact with the
audience. Look at the graphology. Are there any typographical features.
Does it address the audience directly using first person pronouns? Does it
utilise images? Are modal elements juxtaposed for effect?
P – PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES – are there any sound effects utilised by
the text? Is there alliteration, assonance, consonance, onomatopoeia,
phonetic spelling etc?
O – OVERVIEW – sum up your findings and perhaps evaluate the
effectiveness of all the features that you have analysed in relation to the
points you made in the CONTEXT section, referring once again to GASP.
In theory, now you have the makings of a decent essay.
However, there is one last framework that you have to now
apply to this ‘skeleton’ in order to flesh it out and proclaim
‘I’m a top notch essay!’

16. At school, you will probably have been told to use POINT, EVIDENCE &
EVALUATION when analysing texts.
We’re going to be a little bit more grown up here at College (well, a bit
anyway) so from now on we’ll use CQA. Once, you’ve GASP(ed) and
planned your analytical essay with CLIPO, every single point you make
must follow thusly:
C – COMMENT – okay, so you’ve spotted a feature of language so now
you need to mention it. Go on – write a declarative sentence. That’s all you
need to do. Just come out and say it!
Q – QUOTE – oh? Does the text really utilise synecdoche to create a
parallel image to the central notion that the concept of robots symbolise a
whole totalitarian society of emotionless drudgery. What an excellent
comment. Although an examiner will always want proof that you know
what you’re talking about and that you aren’t trying to merely create a
good impression with waffled terms. Prove it! Follow up your comment with
a direct quote from the text to support your astute claims.
A – ANALYSIS – Going good so far. You’ve commented well and proved it
with a quote. Now analyse the quote in depth. Discuss the effect of the
notion you’ve outlaid in the comment and relate it to GASP. For example,
why is it using metaphor? How does the metaphor work? Why will the
intended audience appreciate this particular metaphor? Is it a cliché? If it is
a rather commonly understood metaphor, used in wider circles, then what
effect does this have on the audience? Is it usual for this type of text to
utilise imagery like this?
This is how you write a good essay. This is how you
get the top grades. This booklet is just about the
best thing ever …remember …love it, hug it …and it’ll
just hug you right back.