A review on_the_use_of_neem_azadirachta

Journal of Biopesticides and Environment Vol. 2 no.1-2, 2015 Page 58 - 65
A REVIEW ON THE USE OF NEEM (Azadirachta indica) AS A BIOPESTICIDE
1Agbo, B. E., 2Nta, A. I. and 1Ajaba, M. O.
1Department of Microbiology, University of Calabar, P. M. B. 1115, Calabar, Nigeria
2 Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, University of Calabar, P. M. B. 1115, Calabar, Nigeria.
Corresponding Author’s e-mail: Email: beagbo@unical.edu.ng, mathiasajaba@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Consequence upon the geometrically rising world population and the increasing pressure on food items, it has become
increasingly necessary to increase food production from the present level. The possibility of achieving this is not only to
increase production but also to protect the crops cultivated. Crop protection can be achieved through several means. One
of such is the use of pesticides. This paper therefore reviews the use of neem extracts as bio-pesticides among other plant
species with inherent pesticidal activities. It is no doubt that the chemical pesticides or insecticides possess inherent toxic
substances that endangers the ecological environment, operators of application equipment and consumers of the
agricultural products. It is therefore important that we encourage the use of biological pesticides as they affect only target
pest, are easily biodegradable, increase farm land fertility, environmentally friendly, cost effective and ease of availability.
It is also important that because of the low cost of production of biopesticides it should be encouraged as an option in
African countries especially Nigeria in agricultural practices.
Keywords: Biopesticides, efficacy, food production, neem, pesticides
1. INTRODUCTION
Pesticides are substances or mixture of
substances used to prevent, destroy, repel,
attract, sterilize, or mitigate pests. Biopesticides
are a type of pesticide derived from natural
materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and
certain minerals (Nelson and William, 2004).
Although chemical pest control agents are
extensively used in all countries of the world but
they are regarded as ecologically unacceptable.
Therefore, there is an increased social pressure
to replace them gradually with biopesticides
which are safe to humans and non-target
organisms (Salma et al., 2011).
The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) is
indigenous to India, it belongs to the family
maliceae. All the parts of the neem tree is
medicinal (Soforowa 1982, Biswas et al., 2002,
Valenzuela, 2009; Orwa et al., 2009, Hashmat et
al., 2012,). It can easily grow to an average
height of 15-20m but rarely to 35-40m. It is
evergreen but under severe drought it may shed
most or nearly all of its leaves. For thousands of
years the beneficial properties of neem have
been recognized in the Indian tradition
(Raizada, et al., 2001). It is known to co-exist
with other vegetation but deleterious to insects.
Both leaves and fruit of neem plant are known to
© copy Right, JBE Publishing. All rights reserved
have bitter taste having fungicidal, insecticidal
and nematicidal properties (Schmutterer, 1995).
Indians have revered the neem tree for a very
long time. To millions of Indians, neem has
miraculous powers. Indian farmers have kept
away insects with different neem extracts. The
tree is considered so invaluable that it is found
in every part of the country, every roadside,
every field and almost every house. India has
shared its “free tree” and knowledge of its
utilisation with the world community. It is
because of its tremendous therapeutic, domestic,
agricultural and ethno medical significance, and
its proximity with human culture and
civilization, that it has been called ‘’the wonder
tree’’ and ‘’nature’s drug store’’ (Soforowa 1986,
Paul et al., 2011). The oil and purified product of
every part of the tree, particularly the leaves,
bark, seed are widely used for treatment of
cancer, bacterial and fungi infections (Paul et al.,
2011). Over 60 different types of biochemical
products including, Nimbolide, Margolone,
Mahoodin, Margolonone have been purified
from neem (Krishnaiah et al., 2007, Olabinri et
al., 2013). This review outlines the current state
ISSN: 2449-1284 (Online); 2449-1292 (Print)

of knowledge on the potential use of bio
pesticides in global control of pests.
2. Bio-pesticides use in pest control
The harmful environmental implications of the
synthetic chemicals have compelled researchers
to search for some alternative naturally
occurring pest control agents-biopesticides. Bio
pesticides include a broad array of microbial
pesticides, biochemically derived from micro-
organisms, plant extracts and processes
involving the genetic modification of plants to
express genes encoding insecticidal toxins
(Salma et al., 2011).
2.1 Entomopathogenic fungi
The entomopathogenic fungi have potential as
mycoinsecticide against diverse insect pests
attacking agricultural crops as they moderate the
insect populations. These fungi infect their hosts
by penetrating through the cuticle, gaining
access to the hemolymph and producing toxins.
They grow by utilizing nutrients present in the
haemocoel to circumvent insect immune
responses (Hajeck and St. Leger, 1994). Example
of fungal bio pesticides are Muscodor albus used
in fields, greenhouses, and warehouses (US EPA,
2008) and Aspergillus flavus targeted for Aedes
fluviatilis and Culex quinquefasciatus (Lage
deMorages et al., 2001; Thakore, 2006).
Entomopathogenic fungi may be applied in the
form of conidia or mycelium which sporulates
after application. The use of fungal
entomopathogens as alternative to synthetic
insecticides or applied in combination could be
very useful for insecticide resistant management
(Hoy and Myths 1999). The commercial
mycoinsecticide ‘Boverin’ based on Beauveria
bassiana with reduced doses of trichlorophon
have been used to suppress the second-
generation outbreaks of Cydia pomonella
(Ferron). Anderson et al., (1989) detected higher
insect mortality when B. bassiana and sublethal
concentrations of insecticides were applied to
control Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa
decemlineata), attributing higher mortality rates
to between the two agents synergism. The
combined application of the entomopathogenic
fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin
and neem was experimented against sweet
potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius)
(Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), on eggplant (Islam et
al., 2010). The combination of B. bassiana and
neem yielded the highest mortality level of B.
tabaci egg and nymph mortalities at alowest
LT50 value. Therefore, neem was used along
with B. bassiana suspension as an integrated
pest management method against B. tabaci.
Other insects that have been successfully control
by the use of fungicides singly or in synergy with
sub lethal doses of synthetic agents include
cassava green mite (Mononychellus tanajoa),
potato red spider mite, Ceratitis capitata,
sweetpotato whitefly
2.2 Viral bio pesticides
Before, World War 2, the first suppression of
pest by viral bio-pesticides, baculovirus,
occurred accidentally. Thereafter, viruses were
used and studied widely as bio-pesticides in
1940s (Steinwand, 2008). According to Salma et
al., (2011), baculoviruses has been used along
with a parasitoid imported to Canada to control
Spruce sawfly, Diprion hercyniae using the
Negative Predictive Value (NPV) for spruce
sawfly. At present, the number of registered viral
bio-pesticides based on baculovirus, though
slowly, increases steadily (Braverman, 2008).
Among the known viruses use are Cydia
pomonella granulovirus that protects against
pest resistant to Spinosad for organic agriculture
(steinwand 2008) and bacteriophage omnilitics
to kill Xanthomonas, a bacterium (Braverman
2008).
2.2 Bacterial bio-pesticides
Most bio-pesticides formulations are bacterial
based, this is because it is cheaper. Msany
bacterial species are insecticidal but members in
the genus Bacillus are most widely used in bio-
pesticide formulations. One of the Bacillus
species, Bacillus thuringiensis, has developed
many molecular mechanisms to produce
pesticidal toxins; most of the toxins are coded
for by several cry genes (Schnepf et al., 1998).
Since its discovery in 1901 to date, over one
hundred Bt based bio insecticides have been

developed from it which are mostly used against
lepidopteran, dipteran and coleopteran larvae.
In addition, the genes that code for the
insecticidal crystal proteins have been
successfully transferred into different crops
plants which have led to significant economic
benefits. Because of their high specificity and
their safety in the environment, Bt and Cry
proteins are efficient, safe and sustainable
alternatives to chemical pesticides for the
control of most insect pests. (Roh et al., 2007
and Kumar et al., 2008). The mode action of the
cry proteins have traditionally been explained.
The protein create trans-membrane pores or ion
channels that results in osmotic cell lysis (Roh et
al., 2007). For Bacillus subtilis and
Pseudomonas flourescens to be effective against
insect pests, they must come into contact with
the target pest (Clemson, 2007). The lethality of
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) endotoxins is highly
dependent upon the alkaline environment of the
insect gut, a feature that assures that these
toxins are not active in vertebrates, especially in
humans. The expression of these toxins confers
protection against crop destruction by insect
(Shelton, et al., 2000). These proteins have been
commercially produced, targeting the major
pests of cotton, tobacco, tomato, potato, corn,
maize and rice, notably allowing greater
coverage by reaching locations in plants which
are inaccessible to foliar sprays (Shelton, et al.,
2000). There are numerous strains of Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt), each with different Cry
proteins, and more than 60 cry proteins have
been identified.
2.4 Plant-incorporated-protectants (PIPs)
The adoption of genetically modified (GM) crops
has increased dramatically in the last 11 years.
Genetically modified (GM) plants possess an
insect or pathogen-resistant gene or genes that
have been transferred from a different species
and so, reduces the destruction of crop by
phytophagous arthropod pests (Salma et al.,
2011). The production of transgenic plants that
express insecticidal δ-endotoxins derived from
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), were first
commercialized in the US in 1995. The
expression of these toxins confers protection
against insect crop destruction (Salma et al.,
2011). Corn and cotton Bacillus thuringiensis,
(Bt) incorporated varieties were introduced in
1995 and a Bt of soy was registered in 2010
(Hirashima, 2008). Bt incorporated plants have
been in use against the following among others;
Corn rootworms, Carterpillars and Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungal, (Baker et al., 1991, Larraur
et al., 1996, Sundararaj et al., 2004). Despite
industry claims that PIPs would lessen
pesticides dependency, insects have exhibited
resistance to the engineered crops (Hirashima,
2008).
2.5 Pheromopesticides
Pheromones are chemical compounds, produced
and secreted by animal(s) that influence the
behavior and development of other members of
the same species. It also has the potent ability to
repel, disrupt mating, or inhibit the growth of
several or specific species of insects.
Pheromones with this ability are therefore refers
to as pheromopesticides. When used in
combination with traps, sex pheromones can
help to determine what insect pests are present
in a crop and what plant protection measures or
further actions might be necessary to ensure
minimal crop damage. If the attractant is
exceptionally effective and the population level
is very low, some control can be achieved with
pheromone traps or with the "attract and kill"
technique.
Generally, however, mating disruption is more
effective. Synthetic pheromone that is identical
to the natural version is released from numerous
sources placed throughout the crop to be
protected (Steinwand, 2008). The southern pine
beetle uses a variety of semi chemicals to
mediate mass attack on host pine trees. Two
aggregation pheromones, frontalin and trans-
verbenol, function in directing other beetles to
join in the mass attack of a host tree that is
necessary for successful colonization. Once the
tree is overcome, no further beetles are needed
and two anti-aggregation pheromones, endo-
brevicomin and verbenone, are released to divert
beetles to other trees (Steinwand, 2008 and
Salma et al., 2011). The first successful
commercial formulation resulted from the

discovering of the pink bollworm sex
pheromone. In Germany and Switzerland
mating disruption has been in use for the control
of grape insect pests. It has also been proven
effective in grapevine moth, codling moth and
European grape moth in the United States
(Baker et al., 1991).
2.6 Plants extract
The pest management in agriculture is facing
challenge in development of suitable agents to
kill insect pests while ensuring the economic and
ecological sustainability as majority of the
pesticide chemicals are known to cause human
and environmental hazards. In the recent past, a
variety of new insect control agents have been
developed, or are being developed, which may
satisfy a variety of insect pest management
needs (Hirashima, 2008).
The growing demand for natural products has
intensified in the past decades as they are
extensively used as biologically active
compounds and, are being considered an
important alternative strategy for the
sustainable insect pest management in
agriculture, as they are biodegradable and
potentially suitable for use in integrated
management programs Several compounds are
present in different plant parts including seeds,
fruits, flowers, wood and leaves that acts as
natural inhibitors. Magnifera indica is highly
rich in polyphenols having antioxidant activity
and also glycoside and flavonoids (Larraur, et
al., 1996). Sundararaj et al., (2004) reported
toxic and repellent properties of sugarcane
bagasse-based lignin against some stored grain
insect pests including Tribolium castaneum.
Kumar et al., (2003) evaluated the long- term
efficacy of the protein enriched flour of pea
(Pisum sativum L. var. Bonneville) in its
toxicity, progeny reduction and organoleptic
properties by combining it with wheat flour and
testing the admixture against the red flour
beetle, T. castaneum.
3. Neem plant
The use of botanicals is now emerging as one of
the most viable means of protecting crop
produce and the environment from pollution
from chemical pesticides. The most widely used
of these botanicals is the neem plant, which is
the top on the list of about 2400 plant pesticides
in the world (Subbalakshmi, et al.,2012). Neem
products are effective against more than 350
species of arthropods, 12 species of nematodes,
15 species of fungi, three viruses, and two species
of snails and one crustacean species (Nigam, et
al., 1994). Research has shown that neem extract
is effective against nearly 200 species of insects.
It is significant that some of these pests are
resistant to pesticides, or are inherently difficult
to control with conventional pesticides. Among
such insects are floral thrips, diamondback moth
and several leaf miners. Most neem products
belong to the category of medium-to broad-
spectrum pesticides, i.e., they are effective over a
wide range of pests (Vijayalakshmi, et al., 1998).
According to Subbalakshmi, et al., (2012), neem
tree extracts has been used against household
pests, storage pests and crop pests of field. Neem
has been produced as fumigant used as a
pesticide and disinfectant in many countries on
a commercial basis by farmers and
agriculturists. This 100% natural product is
nontoxic and environmentally friendly. It
assumes more importance in developing
countries where millions of deaths are reported
every year due to the accidental intake of
synthetic pest fumigants.
3.1 Neem seed and kernel extract
The active ingredients of the neem plant are
located in their maximum amounts in the seed
and kernel. The seeds that are used for the
preparation of neem kernel extract should be
between three and eight months old. When the
quantity of Azadirachtin in the seeds is quite
high and adequate for efficient pest control
(Vijayalakshmi, et al., 1998). Among insects, the
Shoot-borer are key forest pests in tropical
areas, it belongs to genus Hypsipyla. H. robusta
is present in old world tropic while in neotropic
region H. grandelle is widely distributed
(Schabel et al., 1999). The two species cause high
production of lateral branches as a result of
boring into the terminal shoots of young plants
(Mordue, et al., 2005, Schmutterer et al., 1995).
Nim 80 and azatin (neem products) have been
shown to produce the insecticidal activity or
arrest the development of the pests at certain
stages. At low concentration of azatin, the
growth rate of both insects was reduced.

Increment in concentration led to high mortality
rates. Larvae were unable to feed when they
were exposed to azatin. It has been shown that
azatin acts as direct toxicant instead of
inhibiting its growth. On the other hand Nim 80
has showed effectiveness against larval
development (Mancebo, et al., 2002). To be
effective the kernel extract should be milky white
in colour and not brownish. The kernel extract is
not effective against sucking insects like aphids,
white flies and stem borers. In these cases, neem
oil spray solution is a better option
(Vijayalakshmi, et al., 1998).
Neem products, Parker oilTM and neemas have
been tested for their effectiveness against brown
plant hopper. Their mortality rate, food
consumption rate and net survival clearly of the
insect showed that neem-based products are
very effective (Nathah, et al., 2009). Greenhouse
evaluation of Azatrol (1.2% Azadiractin A and
B), Triple Action Neem Oil (70% neem oil) and
Pure Neem Oil at the recommended
concentrations aphid colonization reduced by
50-75% after one week of their application as
foliar spray. Almost total elimination of aphids
was observed following a second application of
these formulations seven days after the first
application. Results indicate that the neem-
based formulations tested were highly effective
in suppressing aphid population, but did not act
as an efficient repellent at standard application
rates. Feeding was suppressed but did not
achieve complete inhibition of food intake
(Shannag et al., 2014).
3.2 Neem leaf extract
The advantage of using neem leaf extract is that
it is available throughout the year. There is no
need to boil the extract since boiling reduces the
azadirachtin content. Hence the cold extract is
more effective. Some farmers prefer to soak the
leaves for about one week, but this creates a foul
smell (Vijayalakshmi, et al., 1998). Neem leaves
are also used in storage of grains. Neem (leaf
and seed) extracts have been found to have
insecticidal properties, it is used as foliar spray.
(Subbalakshmi, et al., 2012).
3.3 Mode and specificity of action of neem
as bio-pesticide product
3.3.1 Oviposition deterrence
Oviposition deterrence is another way in which
neem controls pests. Application of neem
formulations have prevented the females from
depositing eggs (Vijayalakshmi, et al., 1998).
The effect of neem-based pesticides on the
reproductive potential of aphids has been
attributed to blocking the neurosecretory cells by
the active ingredient, azadirachtin, which
disrupts adult maturation and egg production
(Vimala et al., 2010). Nisbet et al., (1994)
observed that the reproductive potential of
Myzus persicae that fed on diet containing
azadirachtin was less than half the Myzus
persicae that fed on control diet within the first
26 h, whereas nymph production virtually
ceased after 50 h.
3.3.2 Repellant
The extracts prepared from neem plants have a
variety of properties including repellency to
pests (Prakash and Rao, 1997). According to
Shannag et al., (2014), the repellent action of
Azatrol, Triple Action Neem Oil and Pure Neem
Oil is wholly dependent on the concentration
that is used. He showed that the three products
at higher concentrations were able to repel
aphids feeding on sweet pepper plants.
Abubakar et al., (2000) also reported repellent
and antifeedant properties of Cyperus
articulatus against T. castaneum.
3.3.3 Antifeedant
The antifeedant and growth inhibitory activities
of various crude extracts and purified fractions
of the plant were evaluated against economically
important polyphagous pest Spodoptera litura
(Jeyasankar et al., 2010). When crops were
treated to neem products, anti-peristaltic wave
were observed in the alimentary canal which
produced an action similar to a vomiting
sensation in the insect during feeding. This was
attributed to the presence of azadirachtin,
salanin and melandriol. Because of this
sensation, the insect does not feed on the neem-
treated surface. Its ability to swallow was also
blocked (Vijayalakshmi, et al., 1998).

3.3.4 Growth regulation
Regulation of the insects’ growth is a very
interesting property of neem products which is
unique in nature. This is because the products
work on juvenile hormones. The insect larva
feeds and as it grows, it sheds its old skin
(ecdysis or moulting). This process is governed
by an enzyme, ecdysone (Vijayalakshmi et al.,
1998). The degree of abnormality in growth
varies with both the growth stage of the insect,
and the host plant on which it feeds (Shannag et
al., 2014). When the neem components,
especially azadirachtin, gains access to the body
of the larva, the activity of ecdysone is
suppressed and the larva fails to moult, remains
in the larval stage and ultimately dies. If the
concentration of azadirachtin is not high
enough, the larva will die only after it has
reached the pupal stage. If the concentration is
lower still, the adult emerging from the pupa will
be 100% malformed with the formation of chitin
(exoskeleton) inhibited and absolutely sterile
(Vijayalakshmi et al., 1998).
4. CONCLUSION
The need for steady and safe food supply to the
world rising population has led to the
exploration of neem tree as a bio-pesticide. With
the growing knowledge on the use of bio-
pesticides it will gradually replace the
conventional chemical pesticides presently in
use. One of the problems with the use of
chemical pesticides has been their impact on
“non-target” species. Often they have been
proven to be harmful to various beneficial
species in the ecosystem. However, neem
extracts are devoid of these effects.
The practice of farmers making their own neem-
based products for pest control would reduce
their dependence on external inputs for
agriculture. It would also reduce their cost of
pest control to almost zero, leaving only labour
as a potential expenditure item. Pests can also be
controlled without the use of toxic chemical
pesticides, which will reduce the harm posed to
humans and the environment alike. There is
wide scope for innovation in developing neem as
an efficient bio-pesticide. There is enough
information to encourage the use of different
neem extracts.
With the increasing trend of using bio fertilizers,
insecticides and pesticides, neem should be
increasingly cultivated and grown all over the
world to get active ingredient-azadirachtin,
responsible for stopping the growth cycle of
pests. Neem is also assuming a lot of importance
in crop management. Considering the fact that
neem is not only a cheaper, naturally occurring
product and an effective method to control pests
and insects, but also has no side effects on plants
or other living beings.
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